000000000001005449

Electric- and Magnetic-field Guideline
Evaluation
Technical Report
Electric and Magnetic Field

Guideline Evaluation
1005449
Interim Report, November 2001
EPRI Project Manager

R. Kavet
EPRI 3412 Hillview Avenue, Palo Alto, California 94304 PO Box 10412, Palo Alto, California 94303 USA
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iii
REPORT SUMMARY
This work is part of an ongoing EPRI effort to assess the technical basis for electric- and
magnetic-field (EMF) exposure guidelines and their possible implications on utility operations.
Previous activities in this project have included technical evaluations of the major EMF exposure
guidelines, identification of scenarios within the utility industry where exposure may approach
guideline levels, numerical modeling of electrical parameters in anatomically correct human
models exposed to EMF.
Background
Since the 1980s, several organizations have promulgated guidelines for occupational exposure to
EMF. All guidelines to date seek to prevent stimulation of electrically sensitive tissues. The
recently issued IEEE Draft Standard in the frequency range of 0 to 3000 hertz (Hz) is founded on
a careful examination of the current understanding of electrostimulation. This standard considers
several established adverse effects and selects the most restrictive as the basis for exposure limits
as a function of frequency for environmental electric-fields, magnetic-fields, and contactcurrents. Magnetic-field exposure limits are extrapolated from permissible in situ electric-field
doses using dosimetric modeling. Electric-field and contact-current limits are derived directly
from data on sensory responses to external fields and currents. When a basic restriction on
internal dose is present, it serves as the final arbiter as to whether an exposure complies with the
guideline. However, practical guidance on how to evaluate exposures for compliance is limited.
Objectives
To summarize and evaluate the proposed IEEE Draft Standard for electric- and magnetic-field
exposures in the 0- to-3000-Hz range and to develop strategies for evaluating compliance with
electric- and magnetic-field exposure guidelines.
Approach
The project team summarized the basis of the IEEE Draft Standard. The proposed limits were
compared with those of the International Commission on Non-Ionizing Radiation Protection
(ICNIRP) Guideline and American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists (ACGIH)
Threshold Limit Values (TLVs). The team investigated the limits implications for utility
industry compliance, and strategies for assessing compliance with existing and proposed
guidelines were developed. These entail examining whether an exposure exceeds reference levels
and, if so, whether basic restrictions also are exceeded. If the latter occurs, then the exposure is
not in compliance with the guideline, and strategies to reduce exposure may be required.
Results
Documentation of the assumptions and rationale for the basic restrictions and reference levels for
exposure to electric and magnetic fields is more complete in the IEEE Draft Standard than in
previous guidelines. The occupational and general-public exposure limits proposed in the IEEE
Draft Standard are higher than those found in the ICNIRP guideline. Compared to TLVs set by
the ACGIH, the IEEE occupational-exposure limits for electric fields are about the same but
higher for magnetic fields. Consequently, implementing and complying with the IEEE Draft
Standard would have less impact on utility operations than would complying with either the
ACGIH or the ICNIRP guidelines. Determining whether a high-field exposure complies with a
guideline entails several steps. First, the type, location, magnitude, and other information about
the exposure must be determined through an exposure assessment. An assessments purpose is to
determine whether an exposure limit or reference level is exceeded. If the reference level is
exceeded, then an evaluation of whether a basic restriction is exceeded may be required to
demonstrate compliance. Practical steps to complete both the exposure assessment and basicrestriction evaluation were developed, with an emphasis on the 60-Hz exposures common to
utility environments. Strategies for ensuring compliance with guidelines are described. These
rely on increasing worker distance from the source, reducing the field through shielding, or
reducing fields from the source through physical changes or operational restrictions.
EPRI Perspective
EPRIs EMF Health Assessment Target has been involved for over five years in scientific issues
relevant to EMF exposure guidelines. During that time, the guidelines project has evaluated (1)
the scientific basis for existing guidelines; (2) conducted exposure surveys to identify highexposure scenarios within the electric utility industry; (3) conducted a full-scale exposure
assessment of network vault workers; (4) used dosimetric modeling to quantify the relationship
between EMF and contact current exposures and the current densities and electric fields these
exposures produce within the body; and, (5) modeled interference that environmental EMF and
contact currents may produce in implanted cardiac pacemakers. Numerous peer-reviewed
publications and EPRI reports have resulted from this research. In June 2000, the EMF Health
Assessment Target, together with the National Grid, Electricit de France, and the Health
Physics Society sponsored a two-day workshop to explore cutting-edge issues in guideline
science. The proceedings of that workshop will appear shortly as a special issue of Health
Physics. This report continues the mission of the project in addressing key guideline issues as
they arise: in this case, by summarizing the IEEE Draft Standard and by examining procedures
for assuring compliance with exposure guidelines. The EMF Health Assessment Target will
continue to research guideline issues most relevant to its members.
Keywords
Exposure guidelines
Magnetic fields
Occupational health and safety
vi
Electric fields
Exposure assessment
CONTENTS
1 INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................................. 1-1

Abbreviations ..................................................................................................................... 1-2
Units .............................................................................................................................. 1-2
Organizations ................................................................................................................ 1-2
Acronyms....................................................................................................................... 1-2
References......................................................................................................................... 1-3
2 SUMMARY OF THE INSTITUTE OF ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONIC ENGINEERS
(IEEE) DRAFT STANDARD FOR SAFETY LEVELS WITH RESPECT TO HUMAN
EXPOSURE TO ELECTRIC AND MAGNETIC FIELDS, 0 TO 3 KILOHERTZ (KHZ) ............. 2-1
2.1 Introduction.................................................................................................................. 2-1
2.1.1 Purpose and Process........................................................................................... 2-1
2.1.2 Overview.............................................................................................................. 2-2
2.2 Reference Levels in the Draft Standard ....................................................................... 2-3
2.3 Basis of Draft Standard ............................................................................................... 2-8
2.3.1 Adverse Effects and Mechanisms ........................................................................ 2-8
2.3.2 Basic Restrictions ................................................................................................ 2-9
2.3.3 Threshold Multipliers............................................................................................ 2-9
2.3.4 Magnetic-Field Exposure .....................................................................................2-12
2.3.5 Electric-Field Exposure........................................................................................2-13
2.3.6 Contact Currents .................................................................................................2-14
2.4
Comparison With Existing Standards .......................................................................2-16
2.4.1 Basic Restrictions ................................................................................................2-19

2.4.2 Non-Uniform Fields..............................................................................................2-19
2.4.3 Multiple Frequency and Non-Sinusoidal Exposures.............................................2-20
2.4.4 Medical Devices and Implants .............................................................................2-20
2.5
Implications for Electric Utilities ................................................................................2-21
2.5.1 Occupational Exposure .......................................................................................2-21
vii
2.5.2 General Public Exposure .....................................................................................2-22

2.6
Summary .................................................................................................................2-22
2.7
References...............................................................................................................2-23
3 EVALUATION OF EXPOSURES FOR COMPLIANCE........................................................ 3-1

3.1 Guideline Structure...................................................................................................... 3-1
3.2 Compliance Verification ............................................................................................... 3-5
3.3 Exposure Assessment for Reference Levels ............................................................... 3-6
3.3.1 Type of Exposure ................................................................................................. 3-6
3.3.2 Extent of Exposures............................................................................................. 3-6
3.3.3 Body Location ...................................................................................................... 3-7
3.3.4 Source ................................................................................................................. 3-7
3.3.5 Field Uniformity.................................................................................................... 3-8
3.3.6 Field Measurements ............................................................................................ 3-8
Instruments ............................................................................................................... 3-9
Survey Measurements .............................................................................................3-10
Spatial Averaging .....................................................................................................3-10
PE Measurements....................................................................................................3-12
3.3.7 Sampling Issues..................................................................................................3-12
3.3.8 Field Orientation..................................................................................................3-13
3.3.9 Frequency Content .............................................................................................3-13
3.3.10 Field Computations ...........................................................................................3-14
3.3.11 Special Circumstances......................................................................................3-15
3.3.12 Summary ..........................................................................................................3-15
3.4 Evaluation of Basic Restrictions..................................................................................3-17
3.4.2 Field Orientation..................................................................................................3-18
3.4.3 Multiple-Frequency Exposures............................................................................3-19
3.5 Exposure reduction strategies ....................................................................................3-21
3.5.1 Control access ....................................................................................................3-21
3.5.2 Control field.........................................................................................................3-22
3.6 References .................................................................................................................3-22
viii
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 2-1 Magnetic-Field Whole-Body Reference Levels and TLVs for Occupational
Exposures. ...................................................................................................................... 2-6
Figure 2-2 Magnetic-Field Whole-Body Reference Levels for General-Public Exposures........ 2-7
Figure 2-3 Electric-Field Whole-Body Reference Levels and TLVs for Occupational
Exposures. ...................................................................................................................... 2-7
Figure 2-4: Electric-Field Whole-Body Reference Levels for General-Public Exposures. ........ 2-8
ix
LIST OF TABLES
Table 2-1 Summary of Exposure Guidelines ........................................................................... 2-4
Table 2-2 Uniform Magnetic-Field Reference Levels in units of millitesla (mT) for the
IEEE Draft Standard Guidelines [1]. Frequency is denoted by f. ................................... 2-5
Table 2-3 Uniform Electric-Field Reference Levels in units of kilovolts-per-meter (kV/m)
for the IEEE Draft Standard Guidelines [1]. Frequency is denoted by f. ........................ 2-5
Table 2-4: Contact and Induced Current Reference Levels in units of milliamperes (mA)
for IEEE Draft Standard [1]. Frequency is denoted by f. ................................................ 2-6
Table 2-5 Derivation of Basic Restrictions for Magnetic-Field Exposure from Median
Nerve-stimulation Thresholds. Adapted from IEEE Draft Standard [1: 28]. .....................2-11
Table 2-6 Derivation of Reference Levels for Electric-Field and Contact Current
Exposures. Reference Levels apply for time-varying fields in frequency range 1 to
3000 Hz..........................................................................................................................2-15
Table 2-7 ACGIH TLVs for Magnetic-Field in units of millitesla (mT) [3]. All values are
ceiling values unless otherwise noted. Frequency is denoted by f................................2-17
Table 2-8 Uniform Magnetic-Field Reference Levels in millitesla (mT) for the ICNIRP
Guidelines [4]. All values are ceiling values unless otherwise noted. Frequency
denoted by f. ................................................................................................................2-18
Table 2-9 ACGIH TLVs for Electric-Field in kilovolts-per-meter (kV/m) [3]. All values are
ceiling values unless otherwise noted. Frequency is denoted by f................................2-18
Table 2-10 Uniform Electric-Field Reference Levels in units of kilovolts-per-meter (kV/m)
for the ICNIRP (1998) Guidelines [4]. All values are ceiling values unless otherwise
noted. Frequency is denoted by f. ................................................................................2-18
Table 2-11 Contact and Induced Current Reference Levels in milliamperes (mA) for
ICNIRP Guidelines [4]. All values are ceiling values unless otherwise noted.
Frequency is denoted by f. ...........................................................................................2-19
Table 3-1 Magnetic-Field Reference Levels and TLVs in units of millitesla (mT) at 60
Hz, by Guideline. All values are ceiling values................................................................. 3-3
Table 3-2 Electric-Field Reference Levels and TLVs in units of kilovolts-per-meter
(kV/m) at 60-Hz, by Guideline. All values are ceiling values. ........................................... 3-3
Table 3-3 Contact and Induced Current Reference Levels in units of milliamperes (mA)
at 60 Hz, by Guideline. All values are ceiling values. ....................................................... 3-4
Table 3-4 Basic Restrictions for Magnetic-Field Exposures at 60 Hz, by Guideline. ................ 3-4
xi
Table 3-5 Basic Restrictions and Reference Levels for Electric-Field Exposures at 60 Hz,
by Guideline. ................................................................................................................... 3-5
Table 3-6 Elliptical Exposure Models Linking Basic Restrictions to Magnetic-Field
Reference Levels, by Guideline......................................................................................3-11
Table 3-7 Checklist for Planning Reference-Level Exposure Assessment..............................3-16
xii
1
INTRODUCTION
Since the 1980s, several organizations in North America and Europe have promulgated
guidelines for occupational exposure to electric and magnetic fields (EMF) [1]. The rationale for
all guidelines to date is prevention of stimulation of electrically sensitive tissues. Most recently
in 2001 the Institute of Electrical and Electronic Engineers (IEEE) issued a Draft Standard for
EMF exposures in the frequency range of 0 to 3000 hertz (Hz) [2]. Derivations and explanations
contained in the IEEE Draft Standard and the other guidelines emphasize the basis of the limits
rather than their practical implementation. The Draft Standard, as well as other IEEE standards,
is of particular interest to electric utilities in the United States.
Given the potential impact of the IEEE Draft Standard and expected interest in its practical
implementation, the objectives of the work presented in this report were:
to summarize and evaluate the proposed IEEE Draft Standard for EMF exposures; and
to develop strategies for evaluating compliance with EMF exposure guidelines.
The IEEE Draft Standard is founded upon a careful examination of the current understanding of
biological effects of electrostimulation. The development of external exposure limits from
localized electrical interactions in the body is complex and uncertain. The IEEE Draft Standard
explains the extrapolation from internal to external electrical parameters and characterizes the
uncertainties in this process in detail. The resulting draft standard is a detailed and complex
document with extensive discussions of neurophysiological processes that may be irrelevant to
many professionals who could be called upon to implement these standards. Therefore Chapter 2
provides a concise summary of the IEEE Draft Standard and compares it with other guidelines.
The IEEE Draft Standard includes exposure limits for both controlled (occupational) and
uncontrolled (publicly accessible) environments. The American Conference of Governmental
Industrial Hygienists (ACGIH) Threshold Limit Values (TLVs), which are also of particular
interest in the United States, address only occupational exposures [3]. Both these guidelines
address electric and magnetic fields in the frequency range that includes 60 hertz (Hz), but only
the Draft Standard includes contact currents. Another guideline of interest throughout the world
is that of the International Commission on Non-Ionizing Radiation Protection (ICNIRP), which
is affiliated with the World Health Organization (WHO) [4]. The ICNIRP Guideline addresses
both occupational and public exposures and the same exposure parameters as the Draft Standard.
In Chapter 2 the IEEE Draft Standard is compared with both the ACGH TLVs and the ICNIRP
Guideline. Chapter 3 includes all three guidelines in the discussion of compliance assessment
strategies.
Exposure assessment for electric and magnetic fields in the frequency range of the IEEE Draft
Standard has generally been directed towards occupational or residential field characterization or
1-1
Introduction
carried out in support of epidemiological studies. The fields normally encountered during such
studies are, with a few exceptions, generally well below the exposure limits of guidelines. The
principal source of exposures that approach guideline levels are high-current and high-voltage
electric utility facilities; those who typically experience such fields are utility workers in specific
jobs, such as line workers and cable splicers. Therefore, the assessment of compliance status
emphasizes high-field exposures in electric utility environments. However, these assessment
strategies are also valid for high-field exposures in other industries.
Abbreviations
Units
cm, m
ft.
G
Hz
in.
kV/m
mA, mA/m2
T, mT
centimeter, micrometer
feet
gauss (1 G = 0.1 mT)
hertz
Inch
kilovolts/meter
milliampere, milliampere/meter2
tesla, millitesla (1 mT = 10 G)
Organizations
ACGIH
ICNIRP
IEEE
WHO
American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists

International Commission on Non-Ionizing Radiation Protection
Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers
World Health Organization
Acronyms
BEIs
ELF
EMF
f
HVDC
MPE
NESC
PE
rms
TLVs
TWA
1-2
Biological Exposure Indices

Extremely low frequencies
Electric and magnetic fields
Frequency
High-voltage direct-current
Maximum permissible exposures
National Electrical Safety Code
Personal exposure
Root-mean-square
Threshold Limit Values
Time-weighted average
Introduction
References
[1]
W.H. Bailey, S.H. Su, T.D. Bracken, and R. Kavet, Summary and Evaluation of
Guidelines for Occupational Exposure to Power Frequency Electric and Magnetic Fields.
Health Phys. Vol. 73, No. 3, pp. 433-453 (1997).
[2]
IEEE (Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers). IEEE P1555/D5 Draft Standard
for Safety Levels With Respect to Human Exposure to Electric and Magnetic Fields, 0 to 3
kHz. Prepared by Subcommittee 3 of Standards Coordinating Committee 28, IEEE
Standards Department, Piscataway, NJ, 2001.
[3]
ACGIH (American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists). 2001 TLVs and

BEIs: Threshold Limit Values for Chemical Substances and Physical Agents and
Biological Exposure Indices. American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists,
Cincinnati, OH, 2001.
[4]
ICNIRP (International Commission on Non-Ionizing Radiation Protection). Guidelines for

Limiting Exposure to Time-Varying Electric, Magnetic, and Electromagnetic Fields (Up to
300 GHz), Health Phys. Vol. 74, pp. 494-522 (1998).
1-3
2
SUMMARY OF THE INSTITUTE OF ELECTRICAL AND
ELECTRONIC ENGINEERS (IEEE) DRAFT STANDARD
FOR SAFETY LEVELS WITH RESPECT TO HUMAN
EXPOSURE TO ELECTRIC AND MAGNETIC FIELDS, 0
TO 3 KILOHERTZ (KHZ)
2.1 Introduction
2.1.1 Purpose and Process
In March 2001, Subcommittee 3 of the IEEE Standards Coordinating Committee 28 issued IEEE
Draft Standard for Safety Levels with Respect to Human Exposure to Electric and Magnetic
Fields, 0 to 3 kilohertz (kHz) [1]. Subcommittee 4 of the Standards Coordinating Committee 28
has developed and is updating standards for exposures above 3 kHz [2]. The IEEE Draft
Standard is the first, however, to address exposures to fields and currents in the range of 0 to
3000 Hz. With the adoption of this standard, the IEEE will have published exposure guidelines
across the electromagnetic spectrum from static to 300 x 109 Hz (gigahertz or GHz) fields.
Scientific and public controversy over the effects of exposures to extremely low frequency (ELF)
fields, and power-frequency fields in particular, provided some of the impetus for development
of the IEEE Draft Standard.
The IEEE Draft Standard recommends limits on exposures to magnetic fields, electric fields, and
contact currents in the frequency range from 0 to 3000 Hz. Those limits are based on short-term
effects of electric and magnetic fields. The Draft Standard is founded upon a careful examination
of the current understanding of biological effects of electrostimulation. Magnetic field exposure
limits are extrapolated from permissible in situ electric-field doses using dosimetric modeling.
Electric-field and contact-current limits are derived directly from data on sensory responses to
external fields and currents. The resulting draft standard is a detailed and complex document
with extensive discussions of neurophysiological processes.
To broaden understanding of the underpinnings of the Draft Standard and encourage discussion
of its application, this document summarizes the IEEE Draft standard by:
providing a concise summary of the basis for the proposed standard;
comparing the exposure limits in the proposed IEEE Draft Standard with those in the existing
ACGIH TLVs and ICNIRP Guideline documents; and
2-1
Summary of The Institute of Electrical and Electronic Engineers (IEEE) Draft Standard For Safety Levels with
Respect to Human Exposure to Electric and Magnetic Fields, 0 to 3 Kilohertz (kHz)
investigating implications for compliance with these proposed standards, with an emphasis
on 60-Hz exposures.
IEEE Subcommittee 3 is comprised of electric-utility and communications engineers, and

physical, biological, and medical scientists. The standard was developed by the Mechanisms
Working Group of Subcommittee 3. The major contributor to the document was J. Patrick Reilly,
who chaired the Working Group, drafted the standard, and adapted much of his own research on
electrostimulation and neurophysiology into the Draft IEEE Standard. Kent Jaffa of Pacificorp
serves as chairman of the Subcommittee. Sixty-seven individuals are listed in the Draft Standard
as members during its preparation.
2.1.2 Overview
The intent of the IEEE Draft Standard is to protect most exposed individuals from adverse shortterm effects. It accomplishes this with approaches similar to those of previous ELF field
exposure guidelines.
For effects where an internal mechanism of field interaction is known, limits for acceptable
exposures are derived from a basic restriction on an internal dose parameter, where the term
basic restriction refers to the level of an internal physical parameter below which no adverse
effects occur in humans. Given a basic restriction on an internal parameter, physical and
biological models are used to estimate exposure limits for external fields. Exposure limits,
referred to in this draft standard and other guidelines as reference levels, represent the field level
below which the basic restriction will not be exceeded. However, exposures above the reference
level may or may not cause the basic restriction to be exceeded. Thus, the basic restriction is the
ultimate determiner as to whether the exposure standard is exceeded.
When an internal mechanism is not known or quantified for an effect, exposure limits are derived
from external field and current levels known to cause adverse reactions. In such cases, no basic
restriction applies and the reference level is derived directly from empirical effects data.
The IEEE Draft Standard derives reference levels for both occupational and general-public
exposures. In both cases, conservative assumptions are employed to ensure that the limits are
based on excitation thresholds below those of the vast majority (>99%) of healthy adults. In
addition, to account for overly sensitive individuals including children and for uncertainties in
the determination of adverse effect thresholds and the extrapolation from internal parameters,
acceptability factors are introduced that can further reduce reference levels.
The specific approaches taken in the IEEE Draft Standard offer several improvements over
previous guidelines:
2-2
The principal physical parameter defining the direct interaction of fields with the human
body is the in situ electric field, which is the demonstrated determinant of electrostimulation
phenomena. Basic restrictions for magnetic-field exposure are established in terms of this
parameter. Previous guidelines rely on the induced current density as the internal dose
parameter.
The use of internal electric field as the basic interaction parameter recognizes that the
electrostimulation effects occur at specific locations in the body: for example, the brain,
peripheral nerves, or the heart. Previous guidelines use the maximum induced current density
in the body as the basic restriction. ICNIRP places a restriction on current density in the
central nervous system.
The sensory effects of field perception and contact currents and spark discharges to ground
produce aversive responses at lower electric-field levels than do electrostimulation effects
associated with direct electric-field exposures. Consequently, the reference levels for electricfield exposures are based on quantifiable physical sensations rather than basic restrictions on
internal parameters.
The steps from specific interactions at the cellular level to external magnetic-field reference
levels are explicitly described. Similarly, the extrapolation from sensory responses associated
with external electric field and current exposures to the electric-field reference levels are
documented. Thus, it is easy to identify the assumptions made in the IEEE Draft Standard
and to investigate the implications of any changes in those assumptions.
Safety factors, termed acceptability multipliers, are based on empirical data rather than
arbitrary default assumptions.
These improvements add to the complexity of the document and the derived limits. Nevertheless,
the IEEE Draft Standard represents a clear advancement in the development and documentation
of exposure guidelines in the designated frequency range.
2.2 Reference Levels in the Draft Standard

The IEEE Draft Standard establishes reference levels for environmental magnetic fields,
environmental electric fields, and contact currents. The Draft Standard addresses static and timevarying fields (0 to 3000 Hz), uniform and non-uniform fields, pulsed fields, multiple-frequency
exposures, whole-body and extremity exposures, and exposures in controlled and uncontrolled
environments. See Table 2-1 for the extent of coverage of the IEEE Draft Standard and a
comparison with other exposure guidelines.
Tables 2-2, 2-3, and 2-4 give the reference levels in the IEEE Draft Standard for magnetic fields,
electric fields, and contact currents, respectively. The reference levels as a function of frequency
for magnetic fields and electric fields are shown in Figures 2-1 and 2-2 (magnetic fields) and
Figures 2-3 and 2-4 (electric fields), respectively, for the IEEE Draft Standard and other
guidelines.
2-3
Table 2-1
Summary of Exposure Guidelines
Guideline Attribute
IEEE, 2001 [1]
ACGIH TLVs, 2001 [3]
ICNIRP, 1998 [4]
Frequency range
0 3000 Hz
0 30 kHz
< 300 GHz
Time-varying fields
Yes
Yes
Yes
Static fields
Yes
Yes
Yes
Contact currents
Yes
No
Yes
Non-uniform fields
Yes
No
Yes
Multiple-frequency exposures
Yes
No
Yes
Pulsed fields
Yes
No
No
Occupational exposure
Yes
Yes
Yes
General-public exposure
Yes
No
Yes
Whole-body exposures
Yes
Yes
Yes
Extremity exposure
Yes
Yes
No
Medical devices and implants
No
Yes
No
Provision for transmission-line

rights-of-way
Yes
No
No
Biological basis:
Short-term effects
Synaptic, cardiac, and

peripheral nerve
excitation. Aversive
spark discharges and
contact currents.
Nerve stimulation et al.
Nerve stimulation et al.
Biological basis:
Long-term effects
No
No
No
Dose parameter
In situ E-field
Internal current density
Internal current density
Basic restriction (occupational)
Brain: < 18 mV/m (f < 20

Hz); < 0.9f mV/m (f > 20
Hz); Heart: < 943 mV/m
Peripheral nerves &
other tissues: < 2.1 V/m
< 10 mA/m
< 10 mA/m
Type of exposure limit
Ceiling, averaged over

> 1 second
Ceiling (and timeweighted average

(TWA) for static B-field)
Ceiling
2 b
[5]
Designated a controlled environment
The ACGIH TLVs do not have separate basic restrictions and reference levels. The TLVs stand alone as
exposure guidance, and for ELF fields are based in part on this limit on induced current density.
2-4
Table 2-2
Uniform Magnetic-Field Reference Levels in units of millitesla (mT) for the IEEE Draft
Standard Guidelines [1]. Frequency is denoted by f.
Frequency, Hz
Controlled Environments
Head and torso
General Public
Limbs
Head and torso
< 0.153
353
0.153 20
54.3/f
20 759
2.71
0.904
759 3350
2061/f
687/f
Limbs
118
<10.7
353
353
10.7 3350
3790/f
3790/f
Table 2-3
Uniform Electric-Field Reference Levels in units of kilovolts-per-meter (kV/m) for the IEEE
Draft Standard Guidelines [1]. Frequency is denoted by f.
Controlled
Environment
Frequency, Hz
Whole body
<1
20
d
1 272 [368]
General Public
Whole body
5
20
272 [368] 3000
5440/f
1840/f
> 3000
1.813
0.614
For non-uniform fields, limits apply to the average field over the body
On power-line rights-of-way, recommended limit is 10 kV/m
Limits below 1 Hz are not less than those at 1 Hz
272 Hz for controlled environment; 368 Hz for general public
The whole-body reference level for uniform 60-Hz magnetic fields in a controlled (occupational)
environment is 2.71 millitesla (mT) or 27.1 gauss (G). For arms and legs, the occupational
reference level at 60-Hz increases to 63.2 mT (632 G). Reference levels for the general public
are a factor of three lower than those for controlled environments. Exposures above these levels
require evaluation to determine compliance with the basic restriction.
2-5
The reference level for 60-Hz uniform electric-field exposure in a controlled environment is 20
kilovolts/ meter (kV/m). The reference level for the general public is 5 kV/m, except on
transmission-line rights-of-way, where the limit is 10 kV/m.
The IEEE Draft Standard also establishes reference levels for contact currents that occur when an
individual touches a grounded object when standing in an electric field. The reference levels for
60-Hz contact currents in controlled environments are 3 milliamperes (mA) and 1.5 mA for
grasp and touch contacts, respectively. The reference level for the general public is 0.5 mA for a
touch contact. (Grasp contacts do not apply to the general public.)
Table 2-4
Contact and Induced Current Reference Levels in units of milliamperes (mA) for IEEE Draft
Standard [1]. Frequency is denoted by f.
Frequency, Hz
Controlled Environment
General Public
Nature of contact
Both feet
Each foot
Grip
b
contact
Touch
contact
Both feet
Each foot
Touch
contact
0 3000
1.5
2.7
1.35
0.5
Limits apply to body as an induction object
Grip contacts only in controlled environment where personnel are trained to eliminate adverse effect
10000
MAGNETIC FIELD, mT
1000
100
10
0.1
0.01
0.1
IEEE [1]
ACGIH TLVs [3]

ICNIRP [4]
10
60 100
1000
FREQUENCY
Figure 2-1
Magnetic-Field Whole-Body Reference Levels and TLVs for Occupational Exposures.
2-6
1000
MAGNETIC FIELD, mT
100
10
0.1
0.01
IEEE [1]
ICNIRP [4]
0.001
0.1
10
60 100
1000
FREQUENCY
Figure 2-2
Magnetic-Field Whole-Body Reference Levels for General-Public Exposures.
ELECTRIC FIELD, kV/m
100
10
1
IEEE [1]
ACGIH TLVs [3]
ICNIRP [4]
0.1
0.1
10
60 100
1000
FREQUENCY
Figure 2-3
Electric-Field Whole-Body Reference Levels and TLVs for Occupational Exposures.
2-7
ELECTRIC FIELD, kV/m
100
10
0.1
IEEE [1]
ICNIRP [4]
0.01
0.1
10
60 100
1000
FREQUENCY
Figure 2-4
Electric-Field Whole-Body Reference Levels for General-Public Exposures.
2.3 Basis of Draft Standard

2.3.1 Adverse Effects and Mechanisms
The basis for the IEEE Draft Standard that applies to both static and time-varying fields is
succinctly given by the Subcommittee:
The exposure levels in this standard are based on well-documented short-term effects of electric
and magnetic fields. Such effects are understood in terms of recognized [established] interaction
mechanisms. [1: v]
An established mechanism (as opposed to a proposed mechanism) is described as a bioelectric
mechanism with the following characteristics:
it can be defined in humans;
it can be described with an explicit model, using equations and parametric relationships;
it has been verified in humans, or animal data can be confidently extrapolated to humans;
it is supported by strong evidence; and
it is widely accepted among experts in the scientific community. [1: 3]
The exposure limits in the IEEE Draft Standard are intended to eliminate the following adverse
short-term effects:
2-8
aversive or painful stimulation of sensory or motor neurons;
muscle excitation that may lead to injury while performing hazardous activities;
excitation of neurons or direct alteration of synaptic activity within the brain;
cardiac excitation; and
adverse effects associated with induced potentials or forces on rapidly moving ions with the
body, such as blood flow. [1: 8]
No potential long-term exposure effects are considered, for two reasons:
there is not sufficient reliable evidence that community or occupational exposures cause
adverse effects, and
there is no confirmed mechanism that would provide a basis for predicting long-term effects.
[1: 1]
2.3.2 Basic Restrictions

In establishing basic restrictions for magnetic- and electric- field exposures, the IEEE Draft
Standard assumes that the in situ electric field is the fundamental electric parameter responsible
for electrostimulation effects. This assumption is based on a contemporary understanding of
neurophysiological effects and allows for a more accurate derivation of reference levels than
does the previously relied-upon assumption of internal current density as the relevant
parameter [1].
The IEEE Draft Standard links the in situ electric field to specific excitable tissue effects in the
brain, heart, and peripheral nerves. The basic restriction does not apply one value to the whole
body; rather, it depends on location of exposure in the body, frequency and the potential
sensitivity of exposed individuals (controlled environment vs. general public). Effects
characterized by basic restrictions and effects characterized by external parameters both must be
considered in determining reference levels. The effect with lowest threshold in terms of external
exposure field determines the reference level for a given frequency and body position.
Ideally, all guidelines would be expressed only in terms of basic restrictions on biologically
effective internal parameters. Unfortunately, the physical parameters directly responsible for
effects are not easily determined; and for those that are, measurement of the parameter or
derivation of its level for a specific exposure are not easily accomplished. Therefore, the
reference levels for external fields or currents are generally relied on to evaluate exposures.
However, the IEEE Draft Standard and other guidelines ultimately do revert to a basic
restriction, if present, for determination of compliance with guidelines.
2.3.3 Threshold Multipliers
The stimulation responses that are the biological bases for establishing basic restrictions may not
be given in terms of the adverse effect addressed by the guidelines. For example, empirically
determined thresholds for synapse alteration in the brain or excitation of a 20-micromillimeter
(m) neuron are expressed as estimated median values. In these cases, the median value is
multiplied by a factor to yield the lower threshold level applicable to the most sensitive one2-9
percent of the population. This lower threshold is a measure of the adverse effect that is
appropriate for a basic restriction.
The IEEE Draft Standard identifies the following three types of threshold multipliers:
an adversity multiplier to account for the increased threshold for pain above that for
perception;
a probability multiplier to adjust from the median threshold to that for less than 1% of the
population; and
an acceptability multiplier to account for uncertainties in the threshold levels due to various
conditions and the exposed population.
These multipliers can be applied to empirical data to achieve basic restrictions or reference levels
appropriate to the adverse effect and population of concern. Examples of each follow.
The adverse effect associated with stimulation of 20-m neurons is pain. However, threshold
data for nerve stimulation are given in terms of perception. Consistent with empirical results,
the median threshold for perception is increased by an adversity multiplier of 1.45 to provide the
median threshold for pain.
The intent of the IEEE Draft Standard is to protect most exposed individuals. This is achieved by
basing the basic restriction on the estimated reaction threshold for 1% of healthy adults. In this
case, the probability multiplier serves to extrapolate empirical median thresholds to those for the
most sensitive one-percent of the population. A lognormal probability distribution for nerve
electrical reaction thresholds is commonly observed across populations, including humans. The
Draft Standard conservatively assumes that the ratio of the median to the one-percentile value in
the lognormal distributions of threshold responses is three. This results in a probability multiplier
of 0.333: that is, the threshold for the most sensitive one-percent of the affected population is
one-third the median threshold.
An acceptability factor of 0.333 is introduced in the derivation of most of the basic restrictions
for the general public (see Table 2-5). This factor reduces the operative threshold for the basic
restrictions by a factor of three. It is intended to account for the following: protection of
exceptionally sensitive individuals; uncertainties in thresholds due to pathological conditions or
drug treatments; uncertainties in the reaction thresholds; and uncertainty in the induction models
used to extrapolate from basic restrictions to reference levels. The acceptability factor is
generally not applied in the case of controlled environments, under the assumptions that some
discomfort is acceptable in such environments and that an affected individual can readily leave
such environments. Acceptability factors are not applied for contact current limits, because the
threshold levels are better understood for this effect.
2-10
Summary of The Institute of Electrical and Electronic Engineers (IEEE) Draft Standard For Safety Levels with Respect to Human Exposure to Electric and
Magnetic Fields, 0 to 3 Kilohertz (kHz)
Table 2-5
Derivation of Basic Restrictions for Magnetic-Field Exposure from Median Nerve-stimulation Thresholds. Adapted from IEEE
Draft Standard [1: 28].
Reaction
Locus
Median
Threshold,
V/m-root
mean square
(rms)
Adversity
multiplier,
perception
to pain
Probability
multiplier,
median to
1-percentile
Acceptability multiplier
Basic restriction, V/m-rms
Controlled
environment
Controlled
environment
General
public
General
public
Determines
magneticfield limit in
frequency
range, Hz
Synapse
alteration
Brain
0.053
(f < 20 Hz)
0.0027f
(f> 20 Hz)
1.0
0.333
0.333
0.018
(f < 20 Hz)
0.0009f
(f > 20 Hz)
0.0059
(f < 20 Hz)
0.0003f
(f > 20 Hz)
0.153
759
10-m
neuron
excitation
Brain
8.70
1.0
0.333
0.333
2.90
0.97
20-m
neuron
pain
Body
4.35 (perception)
1.45 (pain)
0.333
0.333
2.1
0.7
759 3000
20-m
neuron
pain
Extremities
4.35 (perception)
1.45 (pain)
0.333
2.1
2.1
10.7 - 3000
Cardiac
excitation
Heart
apex
8.49
1.0
0.333
0.333
0.333
0.94
0.94
Magnetodynamic
effects
Body/
head
1.06 T-rms
0.333
0.333
353 mT
118 mT
< 0.153
body,
< 10.7
extremities
Exposure limits for magnetodynamic effects are reference levels based on response to external magnetic field.
2-11
2.3.4 Magnetic-Field Exposure

For magnetic-field exposure, the specific short-term stimulation responses that are evaluated
over the frequency range of the standard are as follows:
alteration of synapses in the brain,
excitation of 10-m nerves in brain,
excitation of 20-m nerves in body and extremities,
cardiac excitation, and
the effects of motion of charged particles in magnetic fields (magnetodynamic effects).
The median thresholds, threshold multipliers, basic restrictions, and applicable frequency ranges
for these adverse effects are given in Table 2-5 (adapted from the IEEE Draft Standard [1: 28]).
With the exception of 20-m neuron pain, all of the effects are based upon empirical data
directly related to the adverse effect targeted by the basic restriction and are given adversity
multipliers of 1.0. Magnetodynamic effects are related directly to the magnetic field expressed in
tesla (T). They are important only at very low frequencies and do not have an associated basic
restriction.
The magnetic-field reference levels are derived from the basic restrictions in Table 2-5, using
elliptical induction models for the whole or partial body. The cross-sectional area of the
appropriate part of the body is modeled as an ellipse. The induced electric field from a uniform
magnetic field normally incident on the ellipse is then computed at the periphery or other
location of interest in the cross-section. For example, the in situ electric field as related to the 10m neuron excitation and synapse effects in the brain is estimated at the periphery of an ellipse
with semi-minor and semi-major axes of 9 and 10.5 centimeters (cm) (3.5 by 4.1 inches [in.]),
respectively. These dimensions are consistent with the outer perimeter of the brain [1: 40].
Ellipses that model the torso or body have larger semi-minor and semi-major axes: 20 by 40 cm
(7.9 by 15.7 in.) for the torso (front view) and 17 by 90 cm (6.7 by 35.4 in.) for the whole body
(side view).
The IEEE recommended magnetic-field reference levels in Table 2-2 are determined by the basic
restriction that is lowest for the given conditions of frequency and body location. For example,
60-Hz head and torso reference levels are determined by the basic restriction derived from
alteration to synapses in the brain; 60-Hz reference levels for limbs are determined by the basic
restriction for peripheral nerve (20-m neuron) pain. Above 759 Hz, the reference levels for the
head and torso are determined by the basic restriction for peripheral nerve stimulation. The
magnetodynamic effects determine reference levels only at very low frequencies (< 0.153 Hz for
head and torso; < 10.7 Hz for extremities).
2-12
2.3.5 Electric-Field Exposure

The short-term effects that electric field limits seek to avoid are as follows:
annoying field perception,
painful spark discharges, and
aversive or painful contact currents.
Field perception is enhanced when a person is grounded when standing in a field. The currents
and spark discharges can occur when an ungrounded person standing in an electric field touches
a conductive path to ground.
The same short-term electrostimulation effects described above for magnetic fields can occur
during electric-field exposures. However, for electric-field exposure, the thresholds for sensing
contact currents and spark discharges and perceiving the field occur at much lower electric fields
than do the thresholds for direct electrostimulation.. Thus, the reference levels for electric-field
exposures are determined by sensory responses to external conditions rather than an internal
response to induced electric fields. The effects thresholds and multipliers used to derive electricfield and contact-current reference levels from empirical data for sensory effects are summarized
in Table 2-6.
Empirical data are available for the external conditions under which aversive spark discharge and
contact currents and annoying field perception take place [6, 7, 8, 9, 10]. Therefore, the Draft
Standard does not identify an internal mechanistic parameter as a basic restriction in the case of
electric-field exposure. Instead, the reference levels for electric-field exposure at lower
frequencies are derived directly from the external fields below which field perception is not
annoying in controlled environments (< 282 Hz), and below which spark discharges are not
aversive for the general public (< 368 Hz). These reference levels are given in Table 2-3: 20
kV/m in controlled environments, 5 kV/m in general-public environments, and 10 kV/m on
transmission-line rights-of-way. For higher frequencies, the determining adverse effect is contact
current, and the reference levels are based on the external currents where contact currents
become aversive as given in Table 2-4.
In controlled environments, spark discharges can be mitigated by workers through the use of
appropriate clothing, grounding measures, and other work practices, allowing the reference level
to be increased to 20 kV/m. However, at 20 kV/m, 50% of standing adults perceive the field, and
about 5% consider the sensations on the body caused by hair vibration in the field annoying. This
annoyance level leads directly to the reference levels for electric-field exposures [11]. However,
the 20-kV/m limit can be exceeded in controlled environments if no ground is within reach. The
absolute limit is determined by need to avoid corona on body surfaces. It is unlikely that
exposures in excess of 30 kV/m would be acceptable on any exposed body part.
Empirical data on responses to spark discharges are also used to derive the reference for the
general pubic. Spark discharges at the 5-kV/m limit for the general public are estimated to be
painful to 7% of adults. Transmission-line rights-of-way are considered intermediate between
uncontrolled and controlled environments, with a reference level of 10 kV/m for the general
2-13
public. In a 10-kV/m field, painful discharges would be experienced by about 50% of adults (1.8
m tall or 5.9 feet), if they are perfectly insulated from ground. The percentage of persons
adversely affected decreases at all field levels for more realistic grounding conditions.
The reference levels for contact currents in an electric field are 1.5 and 3 mA, for touch and grip
contacts, respectively, in controlled environments, and 0.5 mA for touch contacts in generalpublic environments. It is presumed that the grip-contact reference level does not apply to the
general public, because their grip contacts would be inadvertent and would most likely entail
pain. On the other hand, training to avoid adverse responses from grip contacts would be
available to those with access to controlled environments.
As noted above, the contact-current reference levels are the basis setting reference levels for
electric fields above 282 Hz for controlled environments, and above 368 Hz for general-public
environments. The derivation of the contact-current reference levels is described in the next
section.
The extrapolation from the contact current reference level to a reference level for external field
exposure is based on observations of the total induced current to a person standing in a vertical
electric field. The total current is dependent on the magnitude and frequency of the field and on
the square of the persons height. For non-uniform vertical fields, the magnitude is given by the
average field over the area in which body is placed. The inverse relationship between the
reference level and frequency in Table 2-3 reflects the proportionality between induced current
and frequency: at higher frequencies, the electric field must be reduced in order to keep the
induced current below a fixed current limit.
2.3.6 Contact Currents
The contact current reference levels are intended to reduce the probability that inadvertent
contact with energized objects could lead to 1) localized burns, 2) painful sensations, and 3)
startle reactions, which could lead to an accident.
Both touch and grip contact currents are considered, because the response depends on the surface
area of the contact. Grip contacts have a larger contact area and, hence, higher thresholds for
aversive responses. The limits for contact and induced currents apply only to time-varying
currents in the range of 1 to 3000 Hz.
The reference levels for contact currents are derived from empirical data at 10 kHz on pain level
from touch contacts and perception level from grip contacts for adults and children. These
responses are characterized by the externally applied current in milliamperes (mA). Therefore
there is no basic restriction for contact currents that corresponds to an internal dose parameter.
The threshold for human response to injected current is assumed to be proportional to frequency,
down to at least 3 kHz. Consequently, response data for 10-kHz current exposures were
multiplied by a factor of 0.3 (3 kHz/10 kHz) to estimate the 3-kHz thresholds. The multipliers
used to convert empirical threshold data to reference levels for contact currents in the IEEE Draft
Standard are given in Table 2-6 for both touch and grip contacts.
2-14
Summary of The Institute of Electrical and Electronic Engineers (IEEE) Draft Standard For Safety Levels with Respect to Human Exposure to Electric and
Magnetic Fields, 0 to 3 Kilohertz (kHz)
Table 2-6
Derivation of Reference Levels for Electric-Field and Contact Current Exposures. Reference Levels apply for time-varying fields
in frequency range 1 to 3000 Hz.
Adverse
effect
Type of
contact
Environme
nt
Empirical threshold for

a
effect
Adversity multiplier
Probability multipliers
Acceptability
multiplier
Description
Value
Description
Value
Description
Value
Value
Reference
level
Determines
electric-field
limit in
frequency
range, Hz
Field
b
perception
Controlled
Annoyance
for 5% of
b
adults
20 kV/m
20 kV/m
1 272
Spark
discharge
Touch
General
public
Pain for 7%
of adults
5 kV/m
5 kV/m, 10
c
kV/m
1 368
Contact
current
Touch
Controlled
Mean touch
pain: adults
2.4 mA
Pain to
discomfort
0.7
Mean to
median
0.89
1.5 mA
General
public
Mean touch
pain: adults,
children
2.4 mA,
1.8 mA
Pain to
discomfort
0.7
Mean to
median;
Median to
1-%ile
0.89;
0.333
0.5 mA
Grip
Controlled
Mean grip
perception:
adults
3.9 mA
Perception
to pain
2.4
Mean to
median;
Median to
1.6-%ile
0.89;
0.36
3 mA
Each
foot
Controlled
Not given
3 mA
General
public
Not given
1.35 mA
Controlled
Not given
6 mA
General
public
Not given
2.7 mA
Induced
current
Both
feet
272 3000
368 3000
e
e
Thresholds at 3 kHz derived from 10 kHz empirical values by multiplying by 0.3

Adverse effect threshold for reference level is not explicitly stated in Draft Standard [11]
c
10 kV/m reference level applies to transmission line rights-of-way where 50% of standing, insulated adults would experience painful spark
discharges
d
Derivation of reference level for touch contact in controlled environment is not explicitly stated in the Draft Standard. The median adult pain
threshold is assumed here to coincide with the stated value
e
Insufficient information provided in Draft Standard to derive reference level
b
2-15
The reference level for touch contact current for the general public is established as the level
below which only 1% of adults will experience discomfort from a touch contact. The empirical
basis for establishing the reference level is the mean pain level for touch contacts at 10 kHz,
given as 8 mA for adults and 6 mA for children. These thresholds are multiplied by 0.3 to yield
values at 3-kHz of 2.4and 1.8 mA for adults and children, respectively. An adversity multiplier
of 0.7 is used to represent the discomfort-to-pain ratio. Two probability multipliers are involved:
1) a multiplier of 0.89 to convert from mean to median pain or discomfort levels, and 2) a
multiplier of 0.333 to convert from the median to one-percentile level of response. No
acceptability factors are included in the contact current reference levels, because the reaction
thresholds for contact current are better understood than other reactions to field exposures.
The resulting reference level is a touch contact of 0.5 mA for the general public. At this contact
current level, 1% of adults and 5% of children experience discomfort, while one-tenth of 1% of
adults and 1% of children experience pain. At the touch contact current of 1.5 mA,
corresponding to the reference level in controlled areas, 50% of adults would experience
discomfort and 23% would experience pain.
The reference level for grip contact currents is derived in a fashion similar to that for touch
contacts, except that the empirical basis in this case is the mean perception level for a grip
contact at 10 kHz. Applying the appropriate multipliers (Table 2-6) yields reference levels on
grip contact currents for controlled environments of 3 mA. At this level, 8% of adults would
experience discomfort and 1.6% would experience pain.
The contact current limits, and hence the electric-field reference levels, apply only to an
ungrounded person touching a grounded conductor, and may not protect a grounded person when
touching large conductive objects that are insulated from ground. Limits on contact currents from
large objects in electric fields under transmission lines are established in the National Electrical
Safety Code (NESC) [12]. The NESC 5-mA limit on induced current is based on a less stringent
criterion than that for the IEEE Draft Standard contact current reference levels. The NESC limit
is based on not exceeding the estimated let-go current level for all but a few percent of sensitive
children, while the IEEE Draft Standard general-public current limit is below the estimated pain
level for all but 1% of children. Thus, the 5-mA level will not preclude the occurrence of
aversive or painful contact currents or spark discharges.
The IEEE Draft Standard also introduces reference levels for induced currents through one or
both feet as shown in Table 2-3. However, the basis for these levels is not derived and they do
not enter into the reference levels for electric fields. Where the reference levels for electric fields
are determined by induced currents, touch contact current is the limiting effect.
2.4
Comparison With Existing Standards
Two other guidelines are cited widely with respect to electric- and magnetic-field exposures
related to the utility industry. These are the ACGIH TLVs and the ICNIRP) Guidelines for
Limiting Exposure to Time-varying Electric, Magnetic, and Electromagnetic Fields (up to 300
GHz) [3, 4]. The ACGIH TLVs apply only to occupational exposures, while the ICNIRP
guidelines provide reference levels for both occupational and general-public exposures.
2-16
In contrast to the IEEE Draft Standard and the ICNIRP Guidelines, the ACGIH TLVs do not
have separate basic restrictions and reference levels. The TLV for magnetic fields of frequency
f is 60/f mT; it stands alone as the ACGIH exposure guidance. In the discussion that follows,
mention of reference level or basic restriction with respect to ACGIH guidance means the
TLVs.
Table 2-1 summarizes the scope and basis for the current IEEE, ACGIH and ICNIRP guidelines.
Tables 2-2 and 2-3 present the IEEE Draft Standard reference levels for magnetic and electric
fields, respectively; Tables 2-7 and 2-8 present ACGIH TLVs and ICNIRP reference levels for
magnetic fields; Tables 2-9 and 2-10 present their respective limits for electric fields. Wholebody reference levels as a function of frequency for magnetic and electric fields for the three
guidelines are shown in Figures 2-1 and 2-2, and 2-3 and 2-4, respectively.
Examination of these figures indicates that, generally, the ICNIRP guidelines are more
conservative (lower) than the others. Reference levels for whole-body occupational exposure to a
uniform 60-Hz magnetic field are 2.71 mT (27.1 G) for the IEEE Draft Standard and 0.42 mT
(4.2 G) for the ICNIRP Guidelines. The ACGIH TLV for magnetic fields at 60 Hz is 1.0 mT
(10 G). For uniform 60-Hz electric fields, the reference levels for occupational exposure are 20
kV/m for the IEEE Draft Standard and 8.33 kV/m for the ICNIRP Guidelines. The ACGIH TLV
for 60-Hz electric fields is 25 kV/m.
Table 2-7
ACGIH TLVs for Magnetic-Field in units of millitesla (mT) [3]. All values are ceiling values
unless otherwise noted. Frequency is denoted by f.
Frequency, Hz
Occupational
Whole body
c
Limbs
c
2000 [60]
5000 [600]
1 300
60/f
600/f , 300/f
300 3000
0.2
0.2
a
b
c
Hands and feet

Arms and legs
8-hr TWA for static magnetic field
2-17
Table 2-8
Uniform Magnetic-Field Reference Levels in millitesla (mT) for the ICNIRP Guidelines [4].
All values are ceiling values unless otherwise noted. Frequency denoted by f.
Frequency, Hz
Occupational
General Public
Whole body
a
<1
2000, [200]
18
200/f
b
8 820 [800]
b
820 [800] 3000

a
b
Limbs
Whole body
a
5000
40
40/f
25/f
5/f
0.0307
0.00625
Continuous exposure
820 Hz for occupational exposure, 800 Hz for general-public exposure
Table 2-9
ACGIH TLVs for Electric-Field in kilovolts-per-meter (kV/m) [3]. All values are ceiling
values unless otherwise noted. Frequency is denoted by f.
Frequency, Hz
Occupational
Whole body
Limbs
0 100
25
25
100 4000
2500/f
2500/f
Caution should be exercised in fields above 5 7 kV/m, and protective devices used in fields above 15
kV/m
Table 2-10
Uniform Electric-Field Reference Levels in units of kilovolts-per-meter (kV/m) for the
ICNIRP (1998) Guidelines [4]. All values are ceiling values unless otherwise noted.
Frequency is denoted by f.
Frequency, Hz
1 25
25 820 [3000]
820 >3000
a
Occupational
General-Public
Whole body
Whole body
20
10
500/f
250/f
0.61
820 Hz for occupational exposure, 3000 Hz for general-public exposure
2-18
The principal contributor to the lower values in the ICNIRP Guidelines is uncertainty as to how
the basic restriction on internal current density of 10 mA/m2 relates to nerve excitation and
adverse responses: 10 mA/m2 is a general estimate and may be an overly conservative estimate
of the dose at which effects are manifest in relevant locations in the body. The IEEE Draft
Standard, on the other hand, relies on extensive data on a variety of nerve-excitation phenomena,
and then carefully considers the factors that provide a margin of safety beyond known excitation
levels at various locations in the body.
The contact current reference levels provided by the IEEE Draft Standard and the ICNIRP
Guidelines are given in Tables 2-4 and 2-11, respectively. The IEEE Draft Standard reference
levels for currents apply only to currents flowing from an individual who is assumed to be
freestanding in an electric field and insulated while touching a conductive path to ground. Thus,
these limits would not apply to induction currents from large objects, such as vehicles. The
ICNIRP Guidelines do not make such a distinction.
Table 2-11
Contact and Induced Current Reference Levels in milliamperes (mA) for ICNIRP Guidelines
[4]. All values are ceiling values unless otherwise noted. Frequency is denoted by f.
Frequency, Hz
Occupational
General Public
1 2500
0.5
2500 >3000
0.4/f
0.2/f
2.4.1 Basic Restrictions

The IEEE Draft Standard and ICNIRP Guidelines use the common definition of a basic
restriction as the level of an internal physical parameters below which no adverse effects occur in
humans. However, the current ICNIRP Guidelines , as well as the previous IEEE standard for
higher frequencies, rely on the internal current density as the basic electrical parameter, with a
commonly cited basic restriction of 10 mA/m2 [ 4, 2]. The ACGIH also considers an induced
current density limit of 10 mA/m2 as one factor in developing magnetic-field TLVs. However,
in their case the limit is not considered a basic restriction. The IEEE Draft Standard, by
comparison, uses in situ electric field as the parameter for basic restrictions for magnetic-field
exposures. Furthermore, the basic restriction on in situ electric field takes on different values
depending on the adverse effect and location in the body.
2.4.2 Non-Uniform Fields
The IEEE Draft Standard reference levels are given in terms of uniform single-phase fields over
the body or a portion thereof. However, most realistic magnetic-field exposures at fields near
guideline levels are not uniform. Applying reference levels for uniform fields to the highest
measured (as opposed to average) field over the body may be overly conservative: that is,
exposure in measured fields that exceed guideline limits may not necessarily exceed the basic
restriction. The IEEE Draft Standard provides for evaluation of non-uniform sinusoidal
magnetic-field exposures to determine whether the basic restriction on in situ electric field is
exceeded. A method for performing this evaluation is to average the non-uniform field over cross
2-19
sections in the ellipsoids used to model the human body. The ICNIRP reference levels are also
intended to apply to spatially averaged values over the entire body, with the proviso that the
basic restriction not be exceeded locally.
By comparison, the ACGIH TLVs are ceiling values that are not to be exceeded in the specified
part of the body: head and torso, or extremities. There is no option to evaluate exposures that
exceed the ACGIH TLVs. The ACGIH TLVs are intended to serve as guides in the control of
exposure, not as a demarcation between safe and dangerous levels.
The IEEE Draft Standard and ICNIRP reference levels would apply directly to electric-field
exposures under transmission lines, where the fields are uniform. However, the field could be
non-uniform on or near grounded structures in high electric fields. Then spatial averaging would
be required to determine whether the reference level is exceeded.
2.4.3 Multiple Frequency and Non-Sinusoidal Exposures
The IEEE Draft Standard and ICNIRP Guidelines specify the same approach to multiplefrequency exposures to magnetic fields, electric fields, or contact currents. To satisfy the
reference level for any of these, the sum over all frequencies of the ratios of the Fourier
component of the field to its respective reference level must be less than or equal to one. This
same approach also applies to the internal dosimetric quantities of in situ electric field (IEEE)
and induced current density (ICNIRP). A limit computed in this manner conservatively assumes
that all frequency components are in phase. In the event that there is some cancellation by
different components, the ICNIRP Guidelines permit the limit to be increased accordingly, for a
particular multi-frequency exposure. The ACGIH provides no guidance on multiple frequencies.
The IEEE Draft Standard also provides a method for applying the reference levels in Tables 2-2
to 2-4 to non-sinusoidal and pulsed waveforms. For these waveforms, the rms limits in Tables 22 to 2-4 are converted to peak values by multiplying by 2. The frequency of interest in this case
is determined by the reciprocal of twice the phase duration of the pulse in seconds.
2.4.4 Medical Devices and Implants
All three guideline documents discuss the potential for and possible impact from electric- and
magnetic-field interference with medical electronic devices, such as cardiac pacemakers, by
external fields in the frequency range of 0 to 3000 Hz. However, only the ACGIH TLVs
suggest quantitative limits for exposures of medical electronic-device wearers: static magnetic
fields # 0.5 mT (5 G); 60-Hz magnetic fields # 0.1 mT (1 G); and 60-Hz electric fields, # 1
kV/m.
2-20
2.5
Implications for Electric Utilities
2.5.1 Occupational Exposure

The 60-Hz magnetic fields in utility environments can exceed the reference levels and TLVs
cited in all three guidelines [14, 15, 16]. However, the generally non-uniform nature of these
magnetic fields makes the likelihood of non-compliance remote [16]. In fields that exceed
reference levels, the guidelines allow for a determination of compliance by an evaluation as to
whether the basic restriction is exceeded. The in situ electric field or induced current density may
be shown to fall below the basic restriction by averaging a non-uniform magnetic-field exposure
over the entire body. For example, the field at the surface of a single conductor carrying 500 A at
60 Hz exceeds the 2.71 mT (27.1 G) IEEE Draft Standard reference level. However, the average
of the non-uniform field over an area corresponding to the brain is much less than the maximum
value at the surface and results in in situ fields that do not exceed the basic restriction. Similarly,
for a conductor carrying 2000 A, the surface of the head would have to be within 0.07 m (0.23
feet [ft.]), where the field is 5.7 mT (57 G), to exceed the basic restriction.
The non-uniform fields associated with realistic exposures also make unlikely the exceedance of
2
the more stringent basic restriction of 10 mA/m found in the ACGIH and ICNIRP guidelines in
utility environments. For example, the surface of the body would have to be about 0.3 m (1 ft.) or
less from a single vertical conductor carrying 1000 A in order for the non-uniform fields to
induce a current density in the torso exceeding the basic restriction; for a 500-A conductor, the
distance would have to be less than 0.08 m (0.26 ft.). For horizontal conductors, the distances of
approach before exceeding 10 mA/m2 are even smaller.
Exposures to electric fields in the utility industry will generally be below the IEEE Draft
Standard reference level of 20 kV/m and the ACGIH TLV of 25 kV/m. When exposures do
exceed these levels (e.g., when performing bare-hand maintenance on high-voltage transmission
lines), work practices generally require the wearing of hooded conducting suits and gloves as
shielding.
The ICNIRP reference level for 60-Hz electric fields is 8.3 kV/m, which could be exceeded on
the right-of-way of lines with voltages of 500-kV or higher. Working in the towers of such lines
could also result in exposures above the ICNIRP reference level. Consequently, implementation
of the ICNIRP limits for electric fields could entail major changes to work practices. However,
an evaluation of the field levels where the basic restriction on induced current density is actually
exceeded should be performed.
Static magnetic fields near utility facilities will not exceed the reference levels set in guidelines.
An exception might be a superconducting energy storage system, which could produce magnetic
fields similar to those encountered near MRI facilities.
Static electric fields under high-voltage direct-current (HVDC) transmission lines are produced
by both the voltage on the conductors and space charge in the form of corona-generated ions.
The presence of ions varies with wind and weather conditions, as does the electric field at ground
level. Generally, fields are enhanced by ions downwind from the line and can sporadically
exceed 20 kV/m [17, 18]. The IEEE Draft Standard specifies a minimum reference level (based
2-21
on the occurrence of spark discharges) of 20 kV/m for electric fields below 1 Hz. The reference
level can be increased if the leakage resistance to ground of an individual standing in the field
mitigates spark discharges. For leakage resistances below 1000 megohms, the limit can be
increased, beginning at 1 Hz. This provision would allow the high static-electric fields found
under some HVDC transmission lines to comply with the IEEE Draft Standard. Work practices
in the controlled environment near HVDC lines can include appropriate grounding to eliminate
spark discharges. Corona on extended parts of the body, also a potential source of discomfort in
high static fields, can be mitigated by appropriate work practices.
The ACGIH TLV of 25 kV/m for static fields does not include this provision and could be
exceeded when working on certain HVDC transmission lines.
2.5.2 General Public Exposure
The magnetic fields in spaces accessible to the general public do not exceed the 60-Hz reference
level of 0.9 mT (9 G) cited in the IEEE Draft Standard. Static magnetic fields near utility
facilities will not exceed the static field limits established for the general public under this
guideline.
The IEEE Draft Standard explicitly increases the general public reference level for electric fields
from 5 kV/m to 10 kV/m on transmission-line rights-of-way. Exposure of the general public
would not exceed the 10 kV/m limit, except in limited areas under some 765-kV lines. In
general, fields under lines with voltages of 500 kV or less would not exceed the 10-kV/m
reference level.
ICNIRP makes no exception for transmission lines in its reference level of 4.2 kV/m at 60 Hz for
the general public. Thus, exposures under transmission lines with voltages of 345-kV and above
could exceed the ICNIRP reference level in some areas on the right-of-way. Implementation of
the ICNIRP guidelines for exposure of the general public could severely affect transmission-line
designs and right-of-way management.
Public use of HVDC transmission-line rights-of-way could result in exposures to static fields
above 20 kV/m. As discussed above, realistic leakage resistances make it unlikely that such
exposures would exceed a reference level based potential spark discharges.
2.6
Summary
The IEEE Draft Standard provides basic restrictions and reference levels for magnetic- and
electric-field exposures and contact currents in both controlled and general-public environments.
Occupational exposure occurs in controlled environments.
The basic restrictions and reference levels are based on empirical data for established short-term
adverse effects of magnetic- and electric-field exposures in the frequency range of 0 to 3000 Hz.
The data and assumptions that were used to develop the exposure guidelines are welldocumented.
2-22
The fundamental physical parameter assumed responsible for neural stimulation is the in situ
electric field. Current understanding of nerve function links the in situ electric field closely to the
mechanism for stimulation. Basic restrictions for magnetic-field exposures are given in terms of
the in situ electric field at different locations in the body. Previous guidelines have used the
induced current density as the fundamental parameter.
The whole-body occupational reference levels for 60-Hz fields are as follows: 2.71 mT (27.1 G)
for magnetic fields and 20 kV/m for electric fields. Public reference levels are 0.9 mT (9 G) for
magnetic field and 5 kV/m for electric field. The latter is increased to 10 kV/m on transmissionline rights-of-way.
Based on the basic restrictions and reference levels established in the IEEE Draft Standard, it
appears that the following are true:
Magnetic-field exposures above the occupational reference levels occur very rarely in utility
environments. Furthermore, when they do occur, the non-uniformity of the magnetic field
most likely precludes exceeding the basic restriction on in situ electric fields for 60-Hz fields.
Occupational electric-field exposures will rarely exceed the reference levels in the IEEE
Draft Standard. However, electric fields in small areas on the rights-of-way of 765-kV lines
could exceed the IEEE Draft Standard reference level of 10 kV/m.
Implementation of the IEEE Draft Standard would have minimal impact on current electricutility practices. One possible exception is changes in the design of 765-kV lines to meet the 10
kV/m limit for general-public exposure on the right-of-way. On the other hand, implementation
of the ICNIRP guidelines, with their lower reference levels for both occupational and generalpublic exposure, could have a significant impact on transmission-line design, work practices, and
right-of-way management.
The IEEE Draft Standard and other guidelines rely on simple circular or elliptical conducting
models to simulate the human body. Reliable, consistent computer models using accurate, highresolution, anatomically correct, electrical models of the human body can improve on the
estimates of in situ electric field at specific locations in the body. Better in situ field estimates
will provide a stronger, more direct link between internal dose and the reference levels.
The IEEE Draft Standard is presently in a draft stage: it could be improved substantially by
providing additional information on the derivation of electric-field and current reference levels,
by eliminating redundant terms and repetition, by reorganizing the document, and by careful
editing.
2.7
[1]
References
2-23
[2]
IEEE (Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers). IEEE Standard for Safety Levels
with Respect to Human Exposure to Radio Frequency Electromagnetic Fields, 3 kHz to 300
GHz. IEEE Std. C95.1, 1999 Edition, published by Institute of Electrical and Electronic
Engineers, New York, 1999.
[3]

BEIs: Threshold Limit Values for Chemical Substances and Physical Agents and Biological
Exposure Indices. American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists, Cincinnati,
OH, 2001.
[4]

[5]
ICNIRP (International Commission on Non-Ionizing Radiation Protection). Guidelines on

Limits of Exposure to Static Magnetic Fields. Health Phys. Vol. 66, pp. 100-106 (1994).
[6]
J.P. Reilly and W. D. Larkin. Human sensitivity to electric shock induced by power
frequency electric fields. IEEE Trans. Electromagnetic Compatibility. Vol. EMC-29, No.
3, pp. 221-232 (1987).
[7]
J.P. Reilly. Applied Bioelectricity: from Electrical Stimulation to Electropathology.

Springer, New York, 1998.
[8]
I. Chatterjee, D. Wu, and O. P. Gandhi. Human body impedance and threshold currents
for perception and pain for contact hazard analysis in the VLF-MF band. IEEE Trans.
Biomed. Eng. Vol. BME-33, No. 5, pp. 486-494 (1986).
[9]
J.P. Reilly. Electric and magnetic coupling from high voltage AC power transmission
lines classification of short-term effects on people. IEEE Trans. Pwr. Apparat. Sys. Vol.
PAS-97, No. 4, pp. 1373-1381 (1978).
[10] D.W. Deno and L. W. Zaffanella. Field effects of overhead transmission lines and
stations. Chapter 8 in Transmission Line Reference Book. Electric Power Research
Institute, Palo Alto, CA, pp. 329-419 (1982).
[11] William H. Bailey, Principal Scientist, Exponent, Inc. Private communication. The
empirical basis for the determination of the basic restriction for electric-field exposures in
controlled environments is not stated explicitly in the Draft Standard, 2001.
[12] IEEE (Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers). National Electrical Safety Code.
1997 ed. Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, Inc., New York, NY, 1997.
[13] ACGIH (American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists). Documentation of
the threshold limit values for physical agents in the work environment, page PA-62. In:
Documentation of the threshold limit values (TLVs) and biological exposure indices
2-24
(BEIs), Sixth Edition. American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists,

[14] T.D. Bracken, R.S. Senior, R.F. Rankin, W.H. Bailey, and R. Kavet, Magnetic Field
Exposures in the Electric Utility Industry Relevant to Occupational Guideline Levels.
Applied Occupational and Environmental Health. Vol. 12, No. 11, pages 756-768 (1997).
[15] T.D. Bracken, R.F. Rankin, R.S. Senior, R. Kavet, and L.G. Geissinger, Magnetic-field
Exposures of Cable Splicers in Electrical Network Distribution Vaults. Applied
Occupational and Environmental Health. Vol. 16, No. 3, pages 369-379 (2001).
[16] T.D. Bracken, Assessing Compliance with Power-frequency Magnetic Field Guidelines.
Health Phys. To be published (2001).
[17] T.D. Bracken, A.S. Capon, and D.V. Montgomery, Ground Level Electric Fields and Ion
Currents on the Celilo-Sylmar + 400 kV DC Intertie During Fair Weather. IEEE Trans.
Power Apparatus and Systems. Vol. PAS 97, No. 2, pages 370-378 (1978).
[18] G.B. Johnson, Electric Fields and Ion Currents of a " 400 kV HVDC Test Line. IEEE
Trans. Power Apparatus and Systems. Vol. PAS-102, No. 8, pages 2559-2568 (1983).
2-25
3
EVALUATION OF EXPOSURES FOR COMPLIANCE
3.1 Guideline Structure

The purpose of this chapter is to provide practical evaluation strategies for determining whether
time-varying magnetic- and electric-field exposures are in compliance with exposure guidelines.
Emphasis is on exposures to power-frequency (60-Hz) fields in the electric utility industry.
Magnetic- and electric-field exposure guidelines generally use a common approach to protect
against the occurrence of deleterious or adverse effects. They rely on basic restrictions to
determine acceptable exposures, where the term basic restrictions refers to the levels of internal
physical parameters below which no adverse effects occur in humans. The basic restriction is the
final arbiter of whether the exposure guideline is exceeded.
Given a basic restriction on an internal parameter, physical and biological models are used to
estimate reference levels for external fields. Reference levels, also referred to as exposure limits
or maximum permissible exposures (MPE), represent the magnitude of the external field below
which the basic restriction will not be exceeded.
For certain adverse effects, the causative internal or external parameter is not known or not
quantified. In such cases, no basic restriction applies. The reference level is derived from effects
data, is expressed in terms of an external exposure parameter, and is the arbiter of whether the
exposure is in compliance with the guideline.
In the frequency range of 1 to 3000 Hz that includes the 60-Hz power frequency, basic
restrictions, and consequently reference levels, for magnetic-field exposures are based on
reactions of the nervous system and are stated in terms of internal electrical parameters. On the
other hand, reference levels for electric-field exposures are based on external electrical
parameters in this frequency range. Contact-current reference levels are based on empirical data
for external currents.
Exposures below the reference level are considered to be in compliance with the guideline.
However, exposures above the reference level may, or may not, be in compliance with the basic
restriction. Guidelines generally provide for evaluation of exposures above the reference level to
determine whether the exposure is in compliance with the basic restriction.
Exposure guidelines for electric and magnetic fields in the frequency range of 1 to 3000 Hz are
based on short-term adverse effects related to nerve stimulation. These effects are caused by
exposures of very short duration. To avoid the occurrence of such effects, exposure guidelines
express the basic restrictions and reference levels as ceiling values that are not to be exceeded,
3-1
Evaluation of Exposures for Compliance
even momentarily. Thus, at these frequencies, duration of exposure does not enter into
considerations of compliance.
The guidelines of particular interest to utilities in the United States are those promulgated by the
IEEE, the ACGIH through its TLVs, and ICNIRP) [1, 2, 3]. The IEEE and ICNIRP guidelines
provide exposure limits for occupational and general-public exposures, while ACGIH includes
limits for occupational exposures only. The ACGIH TLVs do not contain explicit reference to
basic restrictions. The rationale for the limits is contained in the separate Documentation of the
Physical Agents TLVs [4].
Static-field exposures occur near a limited number of electric utility facilities but are not
discussed here because of the scant opportunities for exceeding exposure limits. However, the
general approaches outlined below can also be applied to evaluation of static field exposures.
Reference levels and TLVs at 60 Hz for magnetic fields, electric fields and contact currents are
given in Tables 3-1 to 3-3, respectively, for the three guidelines of interest. Basic restrictions at
60 Hz are given in Tables 3-4 and 3-5 for magnetic and electric fields, respectively. Basic
restrictions are not used for contact currents. The basic restrictions and reference levels for
frequencies from 0 to 3000 Hz and a detailed description of the IEEE Draft Standard [1] are
presented in Chapter 2 of this document.
In contrast to the IEEE Draft Standard and the ICNIRP Guideline, the ACGIH TLVs do not
have separate basic restrictions and reference levels. The ACGIH TLVs are based, among other
factors, on consideration of an induced current limit of 10 mA/m2, as described in the
Documentation for the TLVs [4]. The TLV of 1 mT (10 G) at 60 Hz stands alone as the
exposure guidance provided by the ACGIH. In the discussion that follows, mention of reference
level or basic restriction with respect to ACGIH guidance means the TLVs.
A further aspect of the TLVs concerns their intended use. As explicitly stated in the TLV
booklet, published by ACGIH, "The Threshold Limit Values (TLVs) and Biological Exposure
Indices (BEIs) are developed as guidelines to assist in the control of health hazards. . . . These
values are not fine lines between safe and dangerous concentrations . . . . "[2: inside cover]. In
other words, the TLVs are intended to guide an overall program in worker health and safety.
Exposures that approximate the TLVs are signals that corrective action should be undertaken to
reduce the exposure levels. The TLVs are not intended to mark a dividing line between safety
and harm. This approach to exposure guidance and intended use makes compliance per se less of
an issue with respect to the TLVs than it may be for other guidelines or standards.
3-2

Table 3-1
Magnetic-Field Reference Levels and TLVs in units of millitesla (mT) at 60 Hz, by
Guideline. All values are ceiling values.
Guideline
Controlled Environments (Occupational

Exposures)
Head and torso
IEEE Draft Standard

[1]
2.71
ACGIH TLVs [2]
ICNIRP Guideline [3]
0.42
a
b
c
Limbs
Head and torso
63.22
10 , 5
Uncontrolled Environments (General

Public)
0.904
Limbs
21.07
0.083
Limit for uniform fields; for non-uniform fields, limits apply to the average field over the body
Hands and feet
Arms and legs
Table 3-2
Electric-Field Reference Levels and TLVs in units of kilovolts-per-meter (kV/m) at 60-Hz,
by Guideline. All values are ceiling values.
Guideline
Controlled Environments
Whole body
Limbs
General Public
Whole body
IEEE Draft Standard

[1]
20
5, 10
ACGIH TLVs [2]
25
25
ICNIRP Guideline [3]
8.33
4.17
a, b
Limit for uniform fields; for non-uniform fields, limits apply to the average field over the body
On power-line rights-of-way, recommended limit is 10 kV/m
c
Caution should be exercised in fields above 5 7 kV/m, and protective devices used in fields above 15
kV/m
b
3-3

Table 3-3
Contact and Induced Current Reference Levels in units of milliamperes (mA) at 60 Hz, by
Guideline. All values are ceiling values.
Guideline
Controlled Environment
Nature of contact
Both feet
Each foot
Grip
contact
IEEE Draft
a
Standard [1]
ICNIRP (1998)
Guidelines [3]
a
b
General Public
Touch
contact
Both feet
Each foot
Touch
contact
1.5
2.7
1.35
0.5
0.5
Limits apply to body as an induction object

Grip contacts only in controlled environment where personnel are trained to eliminate adverse effect
Table 3-4
Basic Restrictions for Magnetic-Field Exposures at 60 Hz, by Guideline.
Guideline
Mechanism
Parameter
Controlled
environment
General
public
IEEE Draft
Standard [1]
Synaptic
nerve
stimulation
In-situ electric
field, head
0.018 V/m
0.0059 V/m
Peripheral
20-m nerve
stimulation
In-situ electric
field, body
2.1 V/m
0.7 V/m
Peripheral
20-m nerve
stimulation
In-situ electric
field, limbs
2.1 V/m
2.1 V/m
ACGIH TLVs [2]
Central
nervous
system
stimulation
Induced
current
density
10 mA/m
ICNIRP Guideline
[3]
Central
nervous
system
stimulation
Induced
current
density over
-4
-2
10 m
10 mA/m
2a
2 mA/m
Consideration for the TLV, but not a basic restriction in the sense of IEEE and ICNIRP.
3-4

Table 3-5
Basic Restrictions and Reference Levels for Electric-Field Exposures at 60 Hz, by
Guideline.
Controlled
environment
Guideline
Mechanism
Parameter
IEEE Draft
Standard [1]
Field
perception
External
electric field
Reference Levels
Spark
discharge
External
electric field
ACGIH TLVs [2]
Central
nervous
system
stimulation
Induced
current
density
10 mA/m
ICNIRP Guideline
[3]
Central
nervous
system
stimulation
Induced
current
density over
-2
-2
10 m
10 mA/m
Basic Restriction
a
b
General
public
20 kV/m
5 kV/m,
a
10 kV/m
2b
2 mA/m
10 kV/m reference level applies to transmission line rights-of-way.

Consideration for the TLV, but not a basic restriction in the sense of ICNIRP.
3.2 Compliance Verification

An exposure scenario that possibly exceeds a guideline level could be identified by a
measurement survey, by field computations, by worker or public concern, or by a regulatory
requirement or action. Once a scenario is identified where a magnetic- or electric-field exposure
may exceed reference levels, steps can be taken to verify or achieve compliance with guidelines.
Initially, an exposure assessment determines general information about the location of the
exposure, the position of the exposed person, the magnitude of the exposure, the frequency
content of the fields, and the nature of the source. If this assessment indicates that reference
levels may be exceeded, then a more detailed evaluation may be needed to determine compliance
with the guideline. This latter step will entail detailed measurements or computations of the
fields and could involve modeling of the interaction of the exposed person with the field. For
magnetic field reference levels, this will entail an evaluation with respect to the basic restriction.
For electric field reference levels that are not derived from a basic restriction the evaluation will
entail comparison of exposures with reference levels. Finally, if the guideline is, in fact,
exceeded, a plan for reducing exposures can be developed.
Each exposure scenario will have unique aspects that may require a separate evaluation. The
discussion that follows is intended to indicate common approaches and considerations that can
be applied on a case-by-case basis. Emphasis is on compliance evaluation of 60-Hz exposures
with examples drawn from electric-utility environments.
3-5
3.3 Exposure Assessment for Reference Levels

The indicator of a possible out-of-compliance exposure will generally be a measured or
calculated field that suggests that the reference level in an occupational or publicly accessible
area is exceeded. Therefore, the objective of an exposure assessment is to determine whether the
reference level is actually exceeded at the location where exposure occurs. This investigation
should entail a visit to the exposure location and, if possible, observation of the exposure in
question. Survey measurements with a field meter capable of determining whether significant
harmonics are present are also recommended. The exposure assessment should conclude with a
very clear, complete understanding of the source, the receptor, their interrelationship, and their
environment. This becomes increasingly important as exposure levels approach the guidance
limits. By posing and then answering questions, the following discussion addresses the
individual topics that should be included in a complete assessment.
3.3.1 Type of Exposure
Does the exposure involve occupational (controlled environment) or public (uncontrolled

environment) exposure?
Is the exposure to magnetic fields, electric fields, or both?
The type of exposure determines which of the reference levels and basic restrictions in Tables 31 to 3-5 apply for 60-Hz exposures. If frequencies other than 60 Hz are involved, then the
frequency-dependent reference levels and basic restrictions discussed in Chapter 1 apply. The
applicable guideline(s) for the exposure should also be identified.
Occupational exposures to electric or magnetic fields approaching reference levels can occur in
electric utility workplaces. Occupational exposures to magnetic fields approaching reference
levels are also possible in other environments near high-current devices such as demagnetizers
and welding cables. Public exposures approaching reference levels are generally limited to
electric fields near high-voltage overhead transmission-line facilities, because of restricted access
to areas with high magnetic fields.
3.3.2 Extent of Exposures
Is there a specific location at a site where the exposure occurs?
Is there a specific task or activity during which the exposure occurs?
If the exposure occurs at a specific location at one site, then the assessment can be limited to that
location. Otherwise, it might be necessary to survey similar locations at several sites throughout
a utility system. For example, suspected high-field exposure near a static VAR compensator
would most likely require assessment at only one location because of the limited number of such
installations. On the other hand, exposures approaching guideline levels during work in
distribution network vaults could involve similar locations at many sites and require a more
extensive assessment.
3-6
Occupational exposures can be very task-specific. Therefore, it is useful to determine whether

the exposure in question occurs for a specific task and, if so, to determine the frequency and
extent of performance of the task. As with the question of location and site, frequent
performance of the task may dictate a larger sample of sites, operating conditions, and workers,
as well as a general approach to reducing exposures.
3.3.3 Body Location
Where is the exposed person located in relation to the source during the exposure?
What part of the body is subject to exposures above the reference level: head, torso, limbs?
Observation of a high-field exposure will indicate the exact location(s) where reference levels
are likely to be approached, the postures likely to result in the highest exposures, and the part(s)
of the body most likely to encounter high fields. Having established where and which part(s) of
the body are likely to have exposures above reference levels, one may design a measurement or
computational approach to determine the field for comparison with the corresponding reference
level.
Guideline limits are established for whole-body and limb exposures for magnetic fields. The
IEEE Draft Standard specifies different basic restrictions for magnetic-field exposures of the
head and torso, the torso alone, and the extremities (hands, wrists, feet and ankles). The basic
restriction for the head and whole body is based on stimulation of the brain, while the basic
restriction for the torso alone is based on peripheral nerve stimulation. The difference in
thresholds for these two phenomena results in 60-Hz reference levels of 2.71 mT (27.1 G) for the
head or head and torso, and of 34.8 mT (384 G) for the torso alone. [1: 30]
The ACGIH TLVs include limits for whole-body and limb exposures to magnetic-field
exposures. The ICNIRP guidelines identify reference levels for whole- and partial-body
magnetic-field exposure.
The reference levels for electric-field exposure generally apply to the whole body. However, the
IEEE Draft Standard provides different limits for induced or contact currents to one foot, both
feet, a touch contact, and a grip contact.
3.3.4 Source
What is the field source for the exposure?
What is the frequency content of fields from the source?
What is the operational range of the source?
Knowing the source responsible for high-field exposures will allow determination of important
aspects of the exposure assessment and compliance evaluation: these aspects include whether a
simple model can be used to estimate fields in the exposure area, what the frequency content of
the field is, and what the maximum fields under all operating conditions are.
3-7
If the source is a simple line source, such as a transmission-line conductor or substation bus, then
the fields in the exposure area may be estimated from a simple computation. More complicated
source geometries can be modeled with sophisticated commercially available software. Reliable
computations can provide estimates of maximum and average fields in the area of interest
without measurements. However, models for complicated sources should be validated with
survey measurements under operating conditions known to be similar.
The frequency content of the field may also be derivable from known source characteristics. For
example, transmission lines have minimal harmonic content, while distribution feeders may have
considerable harmonic content, depending on the load served. In investigating exposures from
the former for compliance, a single frequency could be assumed, while for the latter it might be
necessary to measure the frequency spectrum of the field.
Field magnitude will depend on the operating conditions of the source: operating current will
determine magnetic fields and operating voltage will determine electric fields. It may be
necessary to scale the measured or computed field with the appropriate electrical parameter to
produce estimates of the highest expected exposures for the source.
3.3.5 Field Uniformity
Are the fields where the exposure occurs uniform or non-uniform?
Both the IEEE Draft and ICNIRP guidelines stipulate that non-uniform fields are to be averaged
over the body for comparison with reference levels. Magnetic-field exposures near reference
levels generally occur very near high-current sources and are non-uniform. Occupational
electric-field exposures can occur in uniform field conditions under high-voltage overhead
conductors or in non-uniform fields near a single energized conductor, such as on a transmissionline tower. Exposures in uncontrolled areas are generally in uniform vertical electric fields.
With the prevalence of non-uniform field exposures in occupational settings, spatial averaging of
the field is one of the principal ways by which exposure with maximum fields above the
reference level can be demonstrated to be, in fact, in compliance. Therefore, it is important to
accurately determine the fields over the area of the body, either through measurements or
computations.
3.3.6 Field Measurements
What instruments should be used for characterizing high-field exposures?
What measurement protocols are appropriate for determining compliance with guideline
levels?
Either survey or personal exposure (PE) measurements may be used to assess whether reference
levels are exceeded. However, PE measurements can be used only for magnetic fields and they
may need to be supplemented with survey measurements to demonstrate compliance. Both types
of measurements should be performed where the exposure in question actually occurs. Ideally,
both types of measurements are performed and reconciled with one another for a consistent
exposure assessment.
3-8
The resultant field will be up to 2 times larger than the maximum field in an elliptically
polarized field produced by a multi-phase source. Therefore, it is preferable to measure the field
components by orientation and also to determine the maximum field and its direction by rotating
a single sensor to achieve the maximum reading in an elliptically polarized field. The maximum
field, or the maximum of a field component, is then used to estimate the induced biologically
relevant quantity in a given cross-section of the body. It is not possible to detect the maximum
field in this manner during PE measurements. Therefore, PE measurements, which are generally
expressed as the resultant field, can overestimate the fields relevant to calculating the induced
quantities for comparison with basic restrictions.
Instruments
Meters should comply with the IEEE standard on instrumentation for measuring magnetic flux
density and electric fields from 10 to 3000 Hz [5]. It is desirable to determine the frequency
content of the exposure field, even if only to confirm that it is a single frequency. Therefore, a
broadband meter with the capability to indicate or measure harmonic content is preferred,
especially for magnetic fields where high-field scenarios are more likely to contain harmonics of
60 Hz.
The full-scale range of meters commonly used for magnetic-field survey measurements is often
not adequate for investigating fields approaching reference levels. For example, the standard
EMDEX II (Enertech Consultants, Campbell, CA) has a full-scale range of 0.3 mT (3 G),
whereas basic restrictions will not be exceeded in fields much higher than this. For
measurements in fields comparable to reference levels, it is necessary to use the high-field
version of this instrument, with a full-scale range of 12 mT (120 G). The meter should have the
capability to measure the true maximum field, as well as the vertical and horizontal components.
For localized exposures near especially intense sources, such as demagnetizer coils, the field
may exceed the range of meters with induction-coil sensors. In this case, an instrument with a
wider dynamic range, such as one employing a Hall-effect sensor, may be required.
Since the electric-field reference levels are expressed in terms of the unperturbed electric field, a
free-body electric-field survey meter is required. There are no electric-field PE meters valid for
such measurements. Available electric-field survey meters are likely to have full-scale ranges
exceeding reference levels; it is not necessary to acquire a high-range model. The instruments
used to measure electric fields that approach occupational reference levels should be designed to
avoid corona on the instrument.
The broadband survey meter should have a filter to determine whether harmonic or other higherfrequency fields are present along with the fundamental frequency component. If fields at
frequencies greater than the fundamental are present, it may be necessary to quantitatively
determine the frequency content of the fields. This can be done using a spectrum analyzer or
waveform-capture instrument with a suitable field probe. As with survey meters, care must be
taken to ensure that the instrument has adequate dynamic range to measure fields near and above
reference levels. Characterization of the frequency content of the fields will generally be needed
only for magnetic-field exposures, because electric-field exposures at high levels are associated
with transmission-line voltages that have low harmonic content.
3-9
Survey Measurements
Survey measurements should be performed in two stages. The initial survey measures are to
quickly characterize the magnitude and uniformity of the exposure fields and to determine
whether they are near or above the reference level. Supplemental survey measurements, if
needed, provide a detailed spatial mapping and frequency spectrum.
Survey measurements of magnetic and electric fields near power lines should be performed
following methods described in IEEE Standard 644-1994 [6]. These protocols should also be
followed to the extent practical for survey measurements in high-field areas. Certain
specifications, such as the use of a 1-m measurement height, will have to be adjusted to
characterize non-uniform fields in work areas near sources.
Survey meters often have sensors that are not co-located: that is, the field components may be
measured at different locations by three separate coils. This does not introduce error in a uniform
field. However, in a non-uniform field, a resultant field computed from the components will not
necessarily represent the average over the volume of the sensors. To provide repeatable
measurements in highly non-uniform fields, it is necessary to ensure reliable positioning and
consistent orientation for both three-axis and single-axis meters.
Initial survey measurements with a hand-held meter at the exposure location can provide
preliminary indications of the extent of the exposures, the body location of exposure, the source
of exposure, field uniformity, field magnitude, field orientation, and frequency content. If the
initial measurements (scaled to the highest operating current or voltage) do not exceed the
reference level, then the exposure is in compliance with the guideline.
If the initial measurements are above the reference level, supplemental measurements are
required. If the field is non-uniform, then additional measurements (or computations) are needed
to determine the spatial average field for comparison with the reference level. If multiple
frequencies are present. then it may be necessary to measure the spectral content of the field. On
the other hand, if the exposure field is uniform, single-frequency, and exceeds the reference field,
an evaluation of the basic restriction may be required to demonstrate compliance with the
guideline.
Spatial Averaging
For non-uniform fields, it is necessary to determine the spatial average field for comparison with
the reference level in either the IEEE Draft Standard or the ICNIRP guideline. To compute an
average, the field at several locations in the exposure area of interest is measured, calculated
analytically, or computed with a model. The spatial average is then computed for the relevant
body cross-section and compared with the reference level. If the spatial average does not exceed
the applicable reference level, then the exposure is in compliance with the guideline. If the
spatial average does exceed the reference level, then it is used in the evaluation of compliance
with the basic restriction.
The accuracy with which fields can be determined in the volume of the body will depend on the
degree to which the fields change over the body and the spacing of points in the grid for survey
3-10
measurements or computations. Because fields generally fall off rapidly from a source, averaging
the measured fields over a coarse grid originating at the point on the body closest to the source
will generally overestimate the true average field in the body. The elliptical models used to
represent the human body in the various guidelines indicate the area over which the field should
be averaged. These models are described in Table 3-6.
Table 3-6
Elliptical Exposure Models Linking Basic Restrictions to Magnetic-Field Reference Levels,
by Guideline.
Guideline
IEEE Draft
Standard [1]
Effect
Exposure
Orientation
Elliptical cross-section
Minor axis, m
Major axis, m
Synaptic
nerve
stimulation
Head, from
side
0.09
0.105
Peripheral
20-m nerve
stimulation
Body, from
side
0.17
0.90
Peripheral
20-m nerve
stimulation
Torso, from
front
0.20
0.40
Peripheral
20-m nerve
stimulation
Leg
0.09
0.42
ACGIH TLVs
[2,4]
Limit current
density in
body to
2
< 10 mA/m
Body, from
front
0.20
0.85
ICNIRP Guideline
[3]
Central
nervous
system
stimulation
Simple model
not linked to
body
orientation
Tissue loop with

radius 0.1 m
A grid with measurements at 0.1- to 0.3-m intervals should be sufficient to provide an average
field at a body location. A 0.1-m grid will provide an array of approximately 3 x 5 measurement
locations for a cross-section of the body in a horizontal plane, and a larger number of
measurements for a frontal or side-facing cross-section in a vertical plane. For head exposures
where the vertical cross-section is smaller, a 10-cm grid would provide about nine measurements
over the area of concern. Measurements at 0.3-m intervals corresponding to the approximate
horizontal dimensions of the human body should provide a reasonable, but conservative, estimate
of average field. It is essential that the maximum field at the closest point of approach to the
source be included in the average.
3-11
Survey measurements should measure the magnitude and direction at each grid point. The
maximum perpendicular components are then averaged over the appropriate cross-section for
comparison with the reference level.
PE Measurements
PE measurements can be used to assess whether reference levels are exceeded either in staged
tasks or in a large sample of workers performing various tasks at several locations. To have
confidence that the maximum exposures are captured, the PE meter should be positioned on the
body at a point as close as practical to the location where the maximum exposure is likely to
occur. Typically, the chest is a practical position on the torso, as it will be nearest the source for
tasks performed with the hands. The electrical loading on the sources during high-field exposures
should be estimated to characterize conditions under which PE measurements were taken. When
PE measurements are used to survey a population, a contemporaneous time/activity or
time/location log linked to the time of measurements should be kept to identify the task/location
where high exposures occur.
Two compensating factors effect the interpretation of PE measurements vis vis guideline
reference levels: first, the highest exposures may not have been captured because of meter
position, less-than-peak load, or other factors; and second, the spatially averaged field will most
likely be less than the highest measured field because of field non-uniformity. To have
confidence in estimating the highest field exposure for a task from PE measurements, the PE
meter position on the body should be confirmed to produce the maximum exposure readings and
the maximum recorded field exposures should be scaled to the peak load. With confidence in the
distance of closest approach to a source and the maximum field reading, it is possible to
determine (for single conductor sources) whether the reference level or basic restriction is
exceeded [7]. However, even after identifying high-exposure scenarios with PE measurements, it
may still be necessary to perform survey measurements to determine whether reference levels are
exceeded for other body locations, such as the head.
3.3.7 Sampling Issues
How can you ensure that the maximum exposure field is measured or calculated for
comparison with the reference level?
Ceiling-level-type exposure limits make it necessary to compare the maximum exposure field
with the reference level. But fields vary in time with current or voltage on the source and in
space near a source, making it difficult to determine the maximum field. Both when and where
fields are measured are important factors in capturing the maximum level; similarly, the assumed
load on the source and the locations selected for calculations are of importance for computational
models for field exposures.
Strategies to ensure that the maximum field is measured include the following: basing
measurement locations on observations of the actual task or activity, performing measurements
at the point of closest approach to the source, performing measurements on a grid in the area of
the exposure, recording the operating conditions during measurements, scaling measured fields
to the highest current or voltage that is anticipated during exposures, using survey measurements
3-12
to validate and supplement PE measurements, and repeating measurements for the same
exposure.
When fields are calculated to estimate exposure conditions, the locations for field calculations
should be selected based on observations or detailed knowledge of the body position during
exposure. Operating conditions should be based on the maximum current and/or voltage and the
closest approach to the source anticipated during exposure. For example, the conditions for
computing transmission-line electric fields to evaluate induced currents to large objects are
specified as maximum operating voltage and minimum conductor clearance at 50 C. by the
NESC [8]
3.3.8 Field Orientation
What is the orientation of the field relative to the human body?
The derivation of reference levels from basic restrictions generally assumes a worst-case
orientation of the field relative to the body: that is, the body orientation in a uniform field is such
that it produces the maximum induced current density or in situ electric field. The field
orientations assumed in the guidelines for various basic restrictions are given in Table 3-6.
Unless there is some constraint on body movement, posture, or field orientation, it is assumed
that the orientation for maximum induction will be realized during exposure. Any constraints that
would prevent orientations for maximum induction should be noted during the exposure
assessment and considered if an evaluation of compliance with the basic restriction is required.
Circumstances that might prevent the maximum induction conditions from occurring would be
restriction to a standing posture in a vertical magnetic field or a non-vertical electric field with
respect to an upright posture. In such cases, exposure above a reference level might not result in
exceedance of the basic restriction.
3.3.9 Frequency Content
What is the frequency content of the fields in the exposure area?
Induced fields and current densities increase linearly with frequency for the same field
magnitude. Thus, the magnitude of an exposure with high frequency components will have to be
lower than the exposure at the fundamental frequency to meet a fixed basic restriction of, say, 10
mA/m2. In other words, an exposure at 60-Hz could be in compliance with the basic restriction,
while an exposure of the same magnitude that contained harmonics could exceed it. Thus, the
frequency content of an exposure can affect whether a basic restriction or reference level is
exceeded.
The IEEE and ICNIRP guidelines, but not the ACGIH TLVs, provide guidance on the
evaluation of magnetic-field, electric-field, and contact-current exposures when multiple
frequency components are present. The ICNIRP guideline, but not the IEEE Draft Standard,
allow the relative phasing of the components to be taken into account. Both guidelines require
that the sum over all frequencies of the ratios of the Fourier component of the exposure field (or
basic induced quantity) to its respective reference level (or basic restriction) must be less than or
3-13
equal to one. To evaluate whether the sum of the ratios is less than one requires measurements of
each of the frequency components of the exposure.
Many high-field exposures in electric utility environments are associated with the transmission
system, which generally does not contain significant harmonics of the power frequency. In such
cases, measurements of the spectral content of the fields are probably not required and the initial
survey measurements can convincingly demonstrate the lack of harmonics. However, if survey
measurements or the source type indicate that a magnetic- or electric-field exposure near the
reference level contains substantial contributions from fields at frequencies above the
fundamental, then it may be necessary to explicitly measure the frequency content.
The spectral content can be measured with a spectrum analyzer or wave-capture system with a
suitable probe. The protocols and caveats that were discussed for survey measurements also
apply to these measurements. Because the high exposures of interest are typically due to a single
source, measurements are generally needed at only a few locations in the measurement grid to
confirm a constant relative magnitude of harmonics.
3.3.10 Field Computations
When can computed fields be used to characterize exposures?
The exposures most tractable for evaluation by calculations are those near simple sources, such
as single conductors or multiple parallel lines. For simple-source geometries, analytic solutions
and simple computer models provide confidence in the validity of the field calculation and the
model representation of the source. Also, with simple sources, the body position with respect to
the source is easily described, allowing exposures to be estimated with accuracy.
Thus, calculations of electric fields at ground level under high-voltage transmission lines can
determine whether the reference levels or TLVs are exceeded. Similarly, the magnetic fields
near bundled transmission-line conductors can be computed, averaged over the appropriate body
cross-section, and compared with reference levels. Calculations of non-uniform electric fields
near conductors are accurate, but comparing them with reference levels requires additional
exposure modeling.
More sophisticated computer programs are available for modeling non-uniform fields from
complicated three-dimensional sources. Three-dimensional modeling is useful for exposure
scenarios where measurements are difficult, as in characterizing electric-field exposure in
transmission towers. This approach could also be applied to advantage for exposures near
sources with varying operating conditions.
One uncertainty in using complex models is the accuracy with which the model represents the
source geometry. Because of missing information about the source or computational limitations,
the model may not provide sufficient accuracy to allow an adequate estimate of the exposure. For
example, complex environments such as substations and network vaults that have unique source
layouts may require a case-by-case approach that would be more time-consuming than survey
measurements at specific locations at several sites.
3-14
It is recommended that the results of model field calculations be validated by measurements.

This is mandatory for the more complex models, and, even for the simple models, demonstrated
agreement between computed and measured fields establishes confidence in the results.
3.3.11 Special Circumstances
Are there special conditions that affect the reference levels for magnetic-field exposure?
Are there special conditions that affect the reference levels for electric-field exposure?
As indicated, the reference levels for magnetic- and electric-field exposure may be exceeded if it
can be demonstrated that the basic restriction for the exposure in question is not exceeded.
On transmission-line rights-of-way, the IEEE Draft Standard relaxes the reference level for
electric-field exposures of the general public from 5 to 10 kV/m.
Both the IEEE Draft Standard and the ICNIRP guideline allow electric-field exposures above
reference levels in controlled environments when the exposed insulated individual is not within
reach of a grounded object. This exception allows exposures above the 20-kV/m reference level
of the IEEE Draft Standard and above the 8.3-kV/m reference level of the ICNIRP guideline.
At frequencies below 1 Hz, the reference level of 20 kV/m for electric fields can be increased for
leakage resistance from the individual to ground below 1000 megohms. For lower leakage
resistance, exposures above 20 kV/m would be acceptable at higher frequencies.
3.3.12 Summary
A summary of the issues to be considered when determining whether an exposure exceeds a
reference level is presented as a checklist in Table 3-7. If the exposure assessment indicates that
a reference level in Tables 3-1 to 3-3 is exceeded, then compliance with the guideline may
require an evaluation as to whether the basic restriction is exceeded. Completing the checklist
before performing an assessment and evaluation will identify areas where additional information
is required and will facilitate determination of compliance.
3-15

Table 3-7
Checklist for Planning Reference-Level Exposure Assessment
Exposure
Characterization
Guideline:
Source
Characterization
Field
characterization
Exposure
quantification
3-16
Agent:
Magnetic field __
Electric field __
Contact current __
Type:
Controlled environment/
Occupational __
Investigation
prompted by:
Describe: ________________________________________
________________________________________________
Site/Location:
Site: Describe ___________________________Number __

Location: Describe _______________________Number __
Task/activity:
Describe ________________________________________
Duration ____minutes Frequency ______/day
Body location:
Head __
Torso __
Limbs __
Special
conditions:
Transmission-line
right-of-way? __
Nearby grounded
objects? __
Fields < 1 Hz? __
IEEE Draft __
ACGIH __
ICNIRP __
Other _________
Applicable
reference level:
Magnitude _____
Frequency
dependent? __
Spatial averaging
required? __
Description:
Physical ________________________________________
_______________________________________________
1-phase __ 3-phase __ Maximum current ____ voltage____
Frequency:
60-Hz __
Previous
measurements:
Description:_______________________________________
________________________________________________
Expected
magnitude:
Maximum: __________________Location relative to source

and body: _______________________________________
Field uniformity:
Uniform? __
Non-uniform? __
Not known __
Field orientation
relative to body:
Vertical? __
Horizontal? __
Homogeneous or
Not applicable __
Method:
Survey
measurements __
PE measurements
__
Model __
Needed
measurements:
Survey: initial __
supplemental __
PE __
Frequency
content __
Instrument:
Describe: ________________________________________
Dynamic range: ___________________________________
Computational
model:
Simple __
General public __
Harmonics __
Other __
Complex __
three-dimensional models
3.4 Evaluation of Basic Restrictions

If the reference level is exceeded for an exposure, then a follow-up investigation may be
necessary to determine whether the basic restriction is exceeded.
For guidelines where the reference levels for electric-field and contact-current exposures are
empirically based on the external conditions known to cause an adverse effect, the reference
levels correspond to the basic restriction. In these cases, compliance with the guideline is
ascertained by comparing the exposure level directly to the reference level. Examples of
guidelines based on external conditions are: the IEEE Draft Standard and ICNIRP contactcurrent reference levels, the IEEE Draft Standard electric-field reference levels based on field
perception and spark discharge, and the IEEE Draft Standard magnetic-field reference level
based on magnetodynamic effects at very low frequencies.
For those exposures that derive reference levels from basic restrictions, an evaluation can
indicate that exposures above the reference level are, in fact, in compliance with the guideline.
Exposures that are amenable to such an evaluation are as follows: whole- and partial-body
magnetic-field exposures, and electric-field exposures in non-uniform fields. Factors that may
influence whether an exposure above the reference level is in compliance are the linkage
between basic restriction and reference level in the guideline, the orientation of the field relative
to the body, and the presence of multiple-frequency fields. The ACGIH TLVs are not based on
basic restrictions and are therefore not subject to evaluation.
3.4.1 Linkage between Basic Restriction and Reference Level
Compliance with the basic restriction for magnetic fields in the IEEE Draft and ICNIRP
guidelines is determined by comparing the spatially averaged 60-Hz magnetic field over the
relevant body part with the reference level in Table 3-1. For induction models that are based on
realistic body cross-sections, evaluation of compliance with the basic restriction is
straightforward: simply, if the spatial average field exceeds the reference level, then the
associated basic restriction will be exceeded. The IEEE Draft Standard clearly makes the link
between reference level and basic restriction. However, there is ambiguity in the ACGIH and
ICNIRP guidelines, allowing some latitude in evaluating exposures above the reference level.
ICNIRP employs a circular cross-section of uniform conductivity to demonstrate induction in the
body. Using a radius of 0.1 m to model the head and a conductivity of 0.2 S/m results in a
2
maximum induced current of 1.6 mA/m at 60-Hz at the reference level of 0.43 mT (4.3 G). To
reach the basic restriction of 10 mA/m2 with this model would require a uniform magnetic-field
exposure of 2.71 mT (27.1 G), which is considerably above the reference level [9]. Thus, this
demonstration model does not provide a direct link between the ICNIRP basic restriction of
10 mA/m2 and the reference level of 0.43 mT (4.3 G). There appears to be considerable
flexibility to demonstrate that the basic restriction of 10 mA/m2 is not exceeded when magneticfield exposures are above the ICNIRP reference level.
Actually, the ACGIH model calculation for human exposure employs an ellipsoid with realistic
cross-sections for the human body (semi-axes of 0.1, 0.2 and 0.85 m) [4]. This model is more
realistic than the simple loop and can be used to evaluate exposures for compliance with the
3-17
ICNIRP basic restriction. For example, the realistic model of the ACGIH for a horizontally
incident field estimates that uniform field exposures up to 0.7 mT (7 G) do not exceed the
ICNIRP 10-mA/m2 basic restriction. Use of the ellipsoidal models from the IEEE Draft Standard
would similarly indicate that magnetic-field exposures above the ICNIRP reference levels are in
compliance with the ICNIRP basic restriction.
3.4.2 Field Orientation
For the ellipsoidal models used to represent the human body, cross-sections in the vertical planes
can be much larger than the cross-section in the horizontal plane. The magnetic-field reference
levels are derived assuming a worst-case orientation of the field: horizontal field incident on a
vertical cross-section. See Table 3-6. Thus, an exposure that restricted the exposure field to be
incident on a horizontal cross-section of the body could exceed the reference level, while still
complying with the basic restriction.
For 60-Hz magnetic-field exposures, the IEEE Draft Standard basic restriction for whole-body
exposure is based on in situ electric fields in the brain. The worst-case exposure is for a
horizontal magnetic field from the side of the body (sagittal exposure). The draft standard does
not provide the third dimension for the brain ellipsoid that would allow comparison of in situ
electric fields for different field orientations. However, a significant reduction in the induced
field due to field orientation is not anticipated because: 1) rotation and changes in the position of
the head due to normal movements in a horizontal or vertical field would result in the worst-case
sideways orientation; and 2) the ellipitical cross-sections of the brain for different directions are
probably not significantly different. Therefore, compliance with the IEEE Draft Standard basic
restriction for head or head and torso exposures to 60-Hz and nearby frequencies (20 to 759 Hz)
would not be affected by field orientation.
At higher frequencies (> 759 Hz), where peripheral nerve stimulation in the body is the limiting
basic restriction, the disparity between cross-sections for vertical and horizontal field incidence
is greater. Based on the IEEE ellipsoid model, vertical fields incident only on a horizontal crosssection of the body could reach approximately 1.7 times the magnitude of those incident on a
vertical cross-section before the basic restriction was exceeded. For partial body exposures not
involving the brain, the higher reference level dependent on peripheral nerve stimulation would
apply at 60-Hz: 34.4 mT (344 G) for incidence on a vertical cross-section. However, field
orientation would not affect compliance with the basic restriction for this exposure: it is unlikely
that a field could have a vertical orientation with respect to the torso without also involving the
head.
Field orientation would not change the relationship between basic restriction and reference level
for limb exposures in the IEEE Draft Standard. Rotational symmetry of the model ellipsoids for
limbs would produce the same results for any exposure perpendicular to the long axis of the
limb; and exposure incident from the end of a limb (smallest cross-section) would most likely
also be incident on the torso, where the reference level is much lower.
At the ACGIH TLV of 1 mT (10 G), the maximum induced current density for the ACGIH
ellipsoidal model is 14 mA/ m2 for a uniform horizontal field incident from the front, 7 mA/ m2
for a uniform horizontal field incident from the side, and 6 mA/ m2 for a vertically oriented field.
3-18
Although normal body movement in a horizontal field can be expected to reduce the average
maximum induced current density, such movement would also ensure that orientations would
occur where current density of 10 mA/m2 might be exceeded. Exposures to only vertical fields
2
would not cause the a current density above 10 mA/m until the field reached about 1.7 mT (17
G). These same induced current density levels could be used to evaluate the effects of orientation
on the ICNIRP guideline basic restriction.
Electric-field reference levels are generally based on standing in a vertical field, which results in
the maximum induced current. This is the most common exposure because it occurs under
overhead high-voltage air-insulated conductors. In the unusual case of electric fields oriented
from the front or side of the body, lower induced electrical parameters would result than for the
standing posture in a vertical field. Similarly, for a crouching, prone or other non-upright
posture in a vertical field, induced quantities would be lower. With lower induced currents and
voltages, exposures above the reference level could be in compliance with the basic restriction,
whether it is based on field perception [1], spark discharge [1], contact current [1], or induced
current density [3]. However, evaluations of the coupling of these uncommon field exposures to
the human body must be done on a case-by-case basis using measurements or induction
modeling techniques [10: 365-379].
3.4.3 Multiple-Frequency Exposures
There is a linear increase in the magnitude of induced currents and electric fields with frequency.
Therefore, higher-frequency components in an exposure field can contribute significantly to the
total for these internal parameters. Consequently, for basic restrictions that are based on induced
2
quantities and are frequency-independent, such as the ICNIRP 10 mA/m limit, a higher
frequency results in a lower reference level or, equivalently, the basic restriction will be
exceeded at a lower level for a higher-frequency field. Consequently, when evaluating this type
of basic restriction, the higher-frequency field components must be weighted by the frequency to
account for their contribution to the induced current.
On the other hand, basic restrictions that are based on nerve stimulation thresholds, such as
synaptic alteration in the IEEE Draft Standard, increase linearly with frequency above a base
frequency. For this type of basic restriction, the increase in the basic restriction offsets the linear
increase in induced in situ electric field. The resulting reference level is independent of
frequency. When evaluating this type of basic restriction, the frequency components in an
exposure are not weighted, as long as they are within the range of the constant reference level.
For exposure at and somewhat above 60-Hz, the IEEE Draft Standard reference levels for both
magnetic and electric fields are not frequency-dependent. Over the frequency range of 20 to
759 Hz, the magnetic-field reference level for whole body exposure is 2.71 mT (27.1 G) for
controlled environments, based on preventing alteration of synapses in the brain; over the
frequency range of 1 to 272 Hz the electric-field reference level is 20 kV/m for controlled
environments, based on field perception. In these frequency ranges, the field components are not
weighted by frequency when evaluating compliance with the basic restriction; it is valid to
compare the broadband measurement of field with the reference level to evaluate the basic
restriction.
3-19
Because of the nature of basic restrictions for the IEEE Draft Standard at and around 60-Hz,
exposures in electric utility environments may not require the inclusion of frequency content
when evaluating compliance with the basic restriction: that is, the broadband field can be
compared with the 60-Hz reference level. However, when the exposure includes field
components outside the range where the reference value is independent of frequency (> 759 Hz
for magnetic fields, > 272 Hz for electric fields), an evaluation that takes into account frequency
may be required.
If higher-frequency components are present when evaluating the ICNIRP basic restriction, they
will tend to reduce the effective reference level. Thus, a field measurement at or slightly below
the reference level, but containing harmonics, could be out of compliance with the basic
restriction, because of the weighted contributions of higher-frequency fields to induced current
density.
The impact of higher-frequency components on a basic restriction evaluation will depend on
their magnitude and on the frequency dependence of the reference level. For example, a modest
two-percent addition of a 300-Hz component to a 60-Hz field at a level commensurate with the
basic restriction would cause the ICNIRP guideline basic restriction to be exceeded by 10
percent and the IEEE Draft Standard by two percent. For this example, achieving compliance
with the ICNIRP basic restriction would require a much larger percentage of field reduction than
would meeting the IEEE Draft Standard.
3.4.4 Alternative Evaluation Methods
An evaluation as to whether an exposure is in compliance with a specific guideline may be most
credible if it is performed with the models used by the guideline in question. However, there are
other approaches that have been proposed to evaluate magnetic- and electric-field exposures vis-vis basic restrictions.
Magnetic-field exposures at and above reference levels often are produced by sources that can be
modeled as single-phase line sources. The average field across elliptical cross-sections near a
single conductor is a function of the point of closest approach to the conductor. The dependence
of the average field close to the conductor has been combined with the maximum induced
current density in a uniform field to produce a graphic for evaluating whether the 10mA/m2 basic
restriction is exceeded [7]. The graphic is intended for use by industrial hygienists to assess
exposures without a need for dosimetric calculations or extensive measurements.
Numerical computations of the exposure of anatomically correct human models to magnetic
fields, electric fields, and contact currents produce estimates of mean and maximum induced
quantities on a tissue-by-tissue basis. Although it would be difficult to perform such a
computation for every exposure in question, a field-ratio method utilizes the results tissue-bytissue from uniform-field exposures to estimate induced parameters for non-uniform field
exposures [11]. Methods that use the results of numerical computations with anatomically
correct models can evaluate specific tissues or organs, rather than relying on the homogeneous
ellipsoidal model.
The IEEE Draft Standard emphasized the need for consistency in the models and validation of
the results prior to their incorporation into guideline methodology. Recent comparisons between
3-20
independent researchers have demonstrated reliability with rational explanations for differences
[12]. However, the difficulty of validating the models remains an impediment to their inclusion
in the guideline process.
3.5 Exposure reduction strategies

The compliance status of an exposure may be determined either by an evaluation with respect to
the basic restriction or by a comparison of exposure field with reference levels. If exposure is
found to exceed the limits for a guideline, strategies exist to reduce exposure levels and achieve
compliance. The nature of fields (and radiation) leads to two approaches to reducing exposures:
increase the distance from a high-field source or decrease the fields from sources present at
exposure locations. Within these two approaches, ICNIRP identifies three types of protective
measures that can be taken to limit exposure: engineering controls, administrative controls and
personal protection measures. The first two are preferred [3].
Exposure reduction strategies may depend on the following: whether a magnetic or electric field
is involved, whether the source is localized or extends over a large area, whether the exposure is
in a controlled or uncontrolled area, whether one unique location or many similar locations are
involved, whether the conditions for out-of-compliance exposures occur rarely or frequently,
what the sources geometry and operating characteristics are, and how much field reduction
required to be in compliance. (Many of these factors were addressed during the exposure
assessment described in 3.3.) The information gathered then can be used to evaluate strategies
and select the optimum one for the exposure scenario. Strategies for limiting exposures to either
magnetic- or electric- fields are described below with examples drawn from utility environments.
3.5.1 Control access
Increasing distance from a source involves controlling access to high-field areas. Control of
access is already in place for many high-field areas because of safety issues related to contact
with energized conductors. However, there are still unrestricted locations in controlled
(occupational) environments where high magnetic-field exposures can be present. Control of
access to such locations can be accomplished through the use of physical exclusion, warnings, or
work practices. Examples of these strategies include fenced areas around static VAR
compensators in substations, barriers near secondary cables in confined work spaces, designated
paths away from high-field areas in substations and generation facilities, and limiting access of
wearers of pacemakers or other medical implants to generation plants or substations or at least
warning them of the presence of high fields in such facilities. Hot-stick work practices for liveline maintenance ensure that workers remain at a safe distance from conductors and also
preclude them from experiencing high magnetic- or electric-field exposures.
Transmission-line rights-of-way probably represent the only uncontrolled areas where the
general public encounters electric fields at reference levels. Conceivably, signs could be posted
alerting persons with medical implants to the presence of high fields on the right-of-way or their
access to the limited area of high fields could be restricted. Given the mileage of transmission
lines with a potential for exposures above reference levels (especially the ICNIRP 4.3 kV/m
reference level), any such actions would be extensive.
3-21
3.5.2 Control field

Reducing fields at exposure locations can be accomplished by altering the source or by shielding.
Examples of source modification to reduce fields are as follows: bundling cables with dissimilar
phases in network vault cable trays, increasing the height of transmission line conductors, and
limiting currents on transmission or secondary conductors during work.
Generally, electric fields are more amenable to shielding than are magnetic fields. The
conducting hooded suits and gloves worn during bare-hand live-line maintenance on highvoltage transmission lines provide shielding for the wearer from the very high fields at and near
the conductors. Bonding the suit to the high-voltage conductor prevents arcing and spark
discharges. Similarly, overhead shield wires can reduce the electric field beneath overhead
conductors in controlled or uncontrolled environments.
Although shielding for magnetic fields is not as efficient as a Faraday shield is for electric fields,
reduction in field levels sufficient to meet guideline reference levels is certainly possible through
the use of ferromagnetic materials, conducting materials, or composites. A summary of powerfrequency magnetic-field shielding methodologies is provided in EPRIs Electric and Magnetic
Field Management Reference Book [13]. Magnetic shielding is most appropriate for protecting
office or other uncontrolled areas adjacent to large sources such as building vaults.
3.6 References
[1]
[2]

BEIs: Threshold Limit Values for Chemical Substances and Physical Agents and
Biological Exposure Indices. American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists,
[3]

[4]
ACGIH (American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists). Documentation of

the threshold limit values for physical agents in the work environment, page PA-62. In:
Documentation of the threshold limit values (TLVs) and biological exposure indices
(BEIs), Sixth Edition. American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists,
[5]
IEEE: IEEE recommended practice for instrumentation: Specifications for magnetic flux
density and electric field strength meters10 Hz to 3 kHz. (IEEE Std 1308-1994) The
Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, Inc., New York, 1995a.
3-22
[6]
IEEE Power Engineering Society. IEEE standard procedures for measurement of power
frequency electric and magnetic fields from AC power lines. (IEEE Std. 644-1994)
Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, Inc., IEEE, New York, 1995b.
[7]
T.D. Bracken, Assessing Compliance with Power-frequency Magnetic Field Guidelines.

Health Phys. To be published (2001).
[8]
IEEE (Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers). National Electrical Safety Code.
1997 ed. Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, Inc., New York, NY, 1997.
[9]
W.H. Bailey, S.H. Su, T.D. Bracken, and R. Kavet, Summary and Evaluation of
Guidelines for Occupational Exposure to Power Frequency Electric and Magnetic Fields.
Health Phys. Vol. 73, No. 3, pp. 433-453 (1997).
[10] J.J. LaForest (Ed.). Transmission line reference book: 345 kV and above. Second ed.
Electric Power Research Institute, Palo Alto, CA, 1982, pp. 365-379.
[11] R. Kavet, M.A. Stuchly, W.H. Bailey, and T.D. Bracken, Evaluation of Biological
Effects, Dosimetric Models, and Exposure Assessment Related to ELF Electric- and
Magnetic-field Guidelines. Appl. Occ. Environ. Health. In press.
[12] M.A. Stuchly and O.P. Gandhi, Inter-laboratory comparison of numerical dosimetry for
human exposure to 60 Hz electric and magnetic fields. Bioelectromagnetics Vol. 21, pp.
167-174 (2000).
[13] Electric and Magnetic Field Management Reference Book: First Edition, EPRI Palo Alto,
CA: 1999. TR114200.
3-23
Target:
Electric and Magnetic Fields Health Assessment
About EPRI
EPRI creates science and technology solutions for
the global energy and energy services industry. U.S.
electric utilities established the Electric Power
Research Institute in 1973 as a nonprofit research
consortium for the benefit of utility members, their
customers, and society. Now known simply as EPRI,
the company provides a wide range of innovative
products and services to more than 1000 energyrelated organizations in 40 countries. EPRIs
multidisciplinary team of scientists and engineers
draws on a worldwide network of technical and
business expertise to help solve todays toughest
energy and environmental problems.
EPRI. Electrify the World
2001 Electric Power Research Institute (EPRI), Inc. All rights

reserved. Electric Power Research Institute and EPRI are registered
service marks of the Electric Power Research Institute, Inc.
EPRI. ELECTRIFY THE WORLD is a service mark of the Electric
Power Research Institute, Inc.
Printed on recycled paper in the United States of America
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Electric- and Magnetic-field Guideline

Electric and Magnetic Field

Interim Report, November 2001

EPRI Project Manager

DISCLAIMER OF WARRANTIES AND LIMITATION OF LIABILITIES

1 INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................................. 1-1

Comparison With Existing Standards .......................................................................2-16

2.4.1 Basic Restrictions ................................................................................................2-19

Implications for Electric Utilities ................................................................................2-21

2.5.1 Occupational Exposure .......................................................................................2-21

2.5.2 General Public Exposure .....................................................................................2-22

3 EVALUATION OF EXPOSURES FOR COMPLIANCE........................................................ 3-1

to develop strategies for evaluating compliance with EMF exposure guidelines.

American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists

Biological Exposure Indices

ACGIH (American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists). 2001 TLVs and

ICNIRP (International Commission on Non-Ionizing Radiation Protection). Guidelines for

providing a concise summary of the basis for the proposed standard;

IEEE Subcommittee 3 is comprised of electric-utility and communications engineers, and

2.2 Reference Levels in the Draft Standard

IEEE, 2001 [1]

ACGIH TLVs, 2001 [3]

ICNIRP, 1998 [4]

< 300 GHz

Medical devices and implants

Provision for transmission-line

Synaptic, cardiac, and

Nerve stimulation et al.

Nerve stimulation et al.

Internal current density

Internal current density

Basic restriction (occupational)

Brain: < 18 mV/m (f < 20

Type of exposure limit

Ceiling, averaged over

Ceiling (and timeweighted average

Designated a controlled environment

Head and torso

272 [368] 3000

On power-line rights-of-way, recommended limit is 10 kV/m

Limits below 1 Hz are not less than those at 1 Hz

272 Hz for controlled environment; 368 Hz for general public

Limits apply to body as an induction object

ACGIH TLVs [3]

ELECTRIC FIELD, kV/m

ELECTRIC FIELD, kV/m

2.3 Basis of Draft Standard

it can be defined in humans;

it is supported by strong evidence; and

it is widely accepted among experts in the scientific community. [1: 3]

aversive or painful stimulation of sensory or motor neurons;

excitation of neurons or direct alteration of synaptic activity within the brain;

cardiac excitation; and

No potential long-term exposure effects are considered, for two reasons:

2.3.2 Basic Restrictions

Basic restriction, V/m-rms

2.3.4 Magnetic-Field Exposure

alteration of synapses in the brain,

excitation of 10-m nerves in brain,

excitation of 20-m nerves in body and extremities,

cardiac excitation, and

the effects of motion of charged particles in magnetic fields (magnetodynamic effects).

2.3.5 Electric-Field Exposure

annoying field perception,

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