Abdel-Hakim Bouzid

Associate Professor
Ecole de Technologie Superieure,
Mechanical Engineering Department,
1100, Rue Notre-Dame Ouest,
Montreal, Quebec, H3C 1K3, Canada
Phone: 514-396-8563
Fax: 514-396-8530
e-mail: hakim.bouzid@etsmtl.ca

Akli Nechache
Graduate Student
Ecole de Technologie Superieure,
Mechanical Engineering Department,
1100, Rue Notre-Dame Ouest,
Montreal, Quebec, H3C 1K3, Canada
e-mail: anechache@mec.etsmtl.ca

Thermally Induced Deflections in

Bolted Flanged Connections
Pressure vessel joints operating at high temperature are often very difficult to seal. The
existing flange design methods do not address thermal effects other than the variation of
flange material mechanical properties with temperature. It is possible to include the
effects of temperature loading in joint analysis, however, presently very few guidelines
exist for this type of analysis. This paper outlines the theoretical analysis used for the
determination of the steady state operating temperature and deflections in bolted flange
joints. It details the theoretical equations necessary to predict the temperature profiles
and thermal expansion difference between the joint components necessary for the evaluation of the load redistribution for the two cases of a flange pair and a flange with a
cover plate. The results from the theoretical models are verified by comparison to finite
element results. DOI: 10.1115/1.2042476

Introduction
Bolted joints are very often the weak link between pressure
vessels as they are very prone to leakage. This is especially true
when these joints are subjected to high temperature. A comprehensive survey 1 conducted in 1985 showed that high operational temperature and thermal transients are one of the major
sources of flanged joint failure. In addition, it was reported that
historically, industry has encountered problems in sealing large
diameter high temperature and high-pressure bolted flange joints
2,3. Heat exchangers are probably among the most troublesome
pressure vessel components to seal due to the nature of the problem in terms of its tridimensional temperature distribution complexity.
Other than broad general guidelines and the variation of the
material properties with temperature, thermal loading is not accounted for in most bolted joint designs including the ASME
Code design of flanges. The PRVC Bolted Flanged Committee has
addressed this problem more than a decade ago 4. Although a
substantial effort has been made in various projects towards dealing with this problem, most of the experimental work was focused
on the short and long term creep-relaxation resistance and the
degradation behaviors of various gaskets 58. Parallel to this
work was the development of an analytical flange model to predict
the relaxation over time of bolted flange joints using these useful
gasket creep data 9,10. Other researchers addressed the relationship of gasket relaxation with respect to joint interaction 11.
However, there has been no serious attempt to address the effect
of thermal expansion difference on the joint mechanical interaction and the resulting load changes in the gasket and the bolts. In
fact, very little was done towards developing analytical tools capable of tackling such a problem. The solution of the heat conduction equation for relatively simple cases exists. This is particularly true for long cylinders, disks, rings, and plates for which the
theories for temperature profiles and thermal stresses are well established 12,13. Therefore, the heat transfer solutions of the individual components of a bolted flange joint taken separately are
well established. However, complex structures such, as bolted
flange joints subjected to heat conduction require more than a
combination of the theories involved. In 14 an attempt was made
to evaluate the bolt load variation due to a temperature change.
The model accounts only for the difference in the radial expansion
between the shell and the ring and assumes that their temperature
Contributed by the Pressure Vessels and Piping Division of ASME for publication
in the JOURNAL OF PRESSURE VESSEL TECHNOLOGY. Manuscript received July 6, 2004;
final manuscript received May 29, 2005. Review conducted by: Sam Zamrik.

394 / Vol. 127, NOVEMBER 2005

is the same. A more elaborate model was developed in 15 in

which the shell, the flange and the gasket are treated as finite
cylinders. However, the heat transfer theory treats the case of
small size flanges and only the effect of the axial expansion between the bolt and the flange is considered.
While there has been little analytical work performed on bolted
joints subjected to thermal loading, there has been considerable
numerical work on these structures using FEA, especially by the
nuclear power industry. Several researches examined different
problematic flange configurations. In 16, a PWR vessel head
was modeled. The thermal transients and the subsequent effects
on the bolt load, flange rotation, and stresses were examined. The
effect of temperature on a manway flange using FEA was a subject of a numerical investigation in 17.
In our previous paper 18, the temperature distribution of a
flange pair was examined in which the flange is treated as a cooling fin dissipating heat to the outer boundary. The two flange rings
were treated as a finite cylinder with heat loss from the upper,
lower, and outer surfaces and a constant temperature at the inner
surface. No thermal dissipation between the flange ring and shell
is considered as this was justified in the case of large diameter
flanges only. This paper extends the analytical theory by examining the steady state temperature distributions and the resulting
radial and axial thermal expansions and the distortion of the individual joint components for the case of dissimilar pair of flanges
as well as the case of cover blind flanges and takes into account
the effect of heat conduction and convection in the hub. The analytical solution of the temperature profile is used to determine the
axial and radial expansion differences and the thermal distortion
in the flange joint which could be useful for evaluating the bolt
and gasket load changes.

Theoretical Analyses
In order to determine the steady state temperature distribution
in the individual joint components due to an internal hot fluid, the
joint is broken into separate components namely the shell, the
hub, the flange ring, the bolt, the gasket and the cover plate when
applicable. As shown in Fig. 1, the shell is treated as a thick
cylinder connected to the flange through the hub. Heat flow
through the hollow section of the hub is assumed to take place
from the shell to the flange ring because the latter has a smaller
thermal resistance and acts as a cooling fin. The upper and lower
flanges are replaced by an equivalent ring, which is separated into
two sections. The inner section is treated as a thick cylinder with
a thickness equal to that of the hub with heat dissipation to the
outer boundary. The outer section, which is considered as a cool-

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Thermal Resistance Models. The shell is assumed to be an

infinite length thick walled, hollow cylinder with a thermal resistance given by
Rs =

1
ri + ts
ln
2 k s s
ri

The shell-hub thermal resistance of the internal hot fluid is given

by
Rshi =

1
2rihis + h

The shell thermal resistance of the outer boundary is given by

Rso =

1
2ri + tshas

The thermal resistance of the hub is given by

Rh =

2r2o ri2ks

The hub thermal resistance of the outer boundary is given by

Rho =

1
2ri + tehah

The thermal resistance of the flange inner section is given by

R fi =

Fig. 1 Analytical model of a flange pair

1
ri + th
ln
2k f te
ri

The thermal resistance of the flange outer section considered as a

finite cylinder is given in 18:
ing fin, is treated as a finite cylinder with heat loss from all outer
faces to the outer boundary. The temperature of the gasket and the
bolt is considered to be that of the ring at their radial location.
In the case of a blind cover, the plate is separated into three
sections as shown in Fig. 2. The inner section is a plate with a
radius equal to that of the flange ring inner radius and the heat
flow is assumed to take place in the plate axial direction. The
middle and outer sections are considered to be a thick cylinder
and a finite cylinder, respectively, with radial dimensions equal to
that of the adjacent inner and outer sections of the mating flange.
The temperature at the inside radius of the inner section of the
cover plate is considered to be at the same temperature as the one
of the inner section of the flange ring at the inside radius. A
parabolic radial distribution of the temperature is assumed in the
cover plate inner section with a constant linear gradient across the
width.

R fo =

te
2ri + th

where is given by

= 2k f

ho cosnte ho n cosnterh,n
2n + h2ote + 2horh,n

n=1

n cos n

te
te
+ ho sin n
2
2

with

r,n = IornnK1ron hoKoron + KornnI1ron

hoIoron

and

rh,n =

rh,n
r

10

I0, I1, K0, and K1 are modified Bessel functions of the first and
second kinds of the order 0 and 1 respectively, and n are the
nonzero, positive roots of the following equation:
tannte =

2 nh o

2n h2o

11

te is the thickness of the equivalent ring and is proportional to the

upper and lower flange thickness and the gap, between them such
that
For a nonidentical flange pair te = t f + tf d
For a flange with a cover plate te = t f + t p d

Fig. 2 Analytical model of a flange with a cover plate

Journal of Pressure Vessel Technology

12

This modification is made in order to account for the effect on the

thermal dissipation of the proximity of the two flanges. The more
the gap is smaller, the less dissipation from the mating surfaces of
NOVEMBER 2005, Vol. 127 / 395

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the flanges there is.

The thermal resistance of the flange internal hot fluid is given
by
1
R fh =
2 r ih it e

13

R po =

1
r ih it e

14

In order to determine the temperature of the cover plate at the

center, it is reasonable to assume that it is an infinite plate with
axial heat dissipation to the outer boundary. This is particularly
true for large-diameter flanges for which the temperature at the
center is not affected by radial heat dissipation and therefore a
constant thermal gradient through the thickness is assumed. The
thermal resistance of the cover plate treated as an infinite plate is
tp
ri2k p

Rp =

15

The thermal resistance of the cover plate internal hot fluid and the
outer boundary are given by
R pi =

A=

B=

16

ri2hi

R pf =

tf
ri + th2 ri th2k p

18

R pfo =

1
ri + th ri th2hos

19

Nonidentical Pair of Flanges. Using the electrical circuit analogy and applying it to the model of Fig. 1, gives the following
heat balance equations:
Q1 = Q3 + Q6
Q2 + Q6 + Q6 = Q4 + Q5 + Q4

To
To
Ti
To
+
+
+
R fh R fi + R fo Rho Rho

T12 = T2 T1 = R12Q12

T = A1B

25

Flange with a Cover Plate. For the case of a cover plate, the
electrical circuit analogy applied to the model of Fig. 2, gives the
following heat balance equations
Q1 + Q2 = Q3 + Q4 + Q5 + Q7
Q2 + Q6 = Q4 + Q5 + Q7

26

A system of equations similar to the one formed by Eqs.

2224, is obtained in which

= R pf + R pfo
Rh = and Rho

27

Temperature Profiles. The temperature of the hub at the junction with the outer ring is given by
396 / Vol. 127, NOVEMBER 2005

where T =

Tsi

T fi

22

where

23

T fi ToR fo
R fi + R fo

28

The thermal profile through the thickness of the shell is given by

ri + ts
r
Tsr = Tso + Tshi Tso
ri + ts
ln
ri
ln

Identical Pair of Flanges. For the case of a pair of identical

flanges, Eq. 22 still applies to the following substitutions made
to Eqs. 23 and 24,

= Rho
Rh = Rh and Rho

21

Introducing the individual resistances into Eq. 1 will lead to the

solution for the temperatures Tsi and T fi such that

T fh = To +
24

20

The temperature difference through an element of the joint of

resistance R12 is given by the heat conduction equation

1
1
1
1
+
+

Rshi Rs + Rso Rh
Rh
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1

+
+
+
+
+
Rh Rh
R fh R fi + R fo Rh Rho Rh Rho

To
Ti
+
Rshi Rs + Rso

17

The thermal resistances of the plate ring portion between ri + th

and ri th and its corresponding outer boundary, are given by

For a flange with a cover plate,

R fh =

1
ri2ha

29

The thermal profile through the thickness of the inner section of

the ring ri r rh is given by

ri + th
r
T f r = T fh + T fi T fh
ri + th
ln
ri
ln

30

The radial thermal profile of the outer section of the ring rh r

ro is given by
Tsr = To 2T fh To

n=1

ho cosnte ho n cosnter,n
2n + h2ote + 2horh,n

n cos n

te
te
+ ho sin n
2
2

31

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The inside wall temperature at the center of the cover plate is

given by
T pi = Ti Ti To

R pi
R pi + R p + R po

32

Knowing the temperature at the center and the radius ri of the

cover plate, the temperature at any location can be evaluated assuming a constant temperature gradient through the thickness and
a quadratic function in the radial direction:

T pr = T fi + T pi T fi 1

ri2
x
2 + T pi T po
r
tp

33

Displacements and Rotations. The radial displacement of the

equivalent ring is given by
u f r =

f
1 +
r
+

Fig. 3 Bolted joint FE models; a symmetrical flange; b

flange with cover plate

T f rrdr

ri

1 r2 + 1 + ri2
r2o ri2

ro

T f rrdr

ri

34

The temperature distribution in the hub is assumed to vary linearly

across its equivalent thickness and length such that
Thr,x = Tso

r ri
x
Tso T fh 1
Th
h
tp

35

where Th is the average temperature gradient of the hub and is

given by:
1

Th = 2 Tso Tsi + T fh T fi

36

The radial displacement and the rotation of the hub due to temperature are given as a function of the axial distance starting from
the hub to flange junction,
uhx =

1 + f f Th
22hth

+ rh T fh +

hx =

ehxcos hx sin hx

x
Tso T fh
s

37

1 + f Th x
f rh
e h cos hx +
Tso T fh
ht h
h

38

Similar equations are used for the radial displacement us and free
rotation s of the shell and are given as a function of the axial
distance x starting from the shell to flange junction.
usx =

1 + ssTs
22hth

+ srs Tso +

sx =

sx

cos sx sin sx

x
T Tso
s so

39

1 + ssTs x
sr s
e s cos sx +
T Tso
st s
s so

where

h =

31 2f
r2ht2h

and s =

31 s2
rs2ts2

40

41

The axial displacement of the cover plate subjected to a constant

thermal gradient is

p =

pT pi T po 2 2
r p r
2t p

Journal of Pressure Vessel Technology

42

Numerical Analysis
To validate the results obtained from the proposed analytical
thermal model, numerical FE analysis models as those shown in
Fig. 3 have been developed. The general-purpose finite element
program ANSYS 19 was used to compare the distribution of the
temperatures and the axial and radial displacements of different
bolted joints.
Of particular importance is the study of the geometric discontinuity between the shell, hub, and flange ring. The FE model was
developed using 2D isoparametric 6 nodes axisymmetric elements
of the type plane 35 for temperature and plane 2 for structural
analysis. Each node has one degree of freedom for the temperature and two degrees of freedom representing the axial and radial
displacements.
In order to verify the analytical method, four models have been
developed. These are WN NPS 3 class 150, WN NPS 10 and 16
class 300, and 24, 36, and 52 HE flanges used with and without
cover plates. The models were analyzed with steady state thermal
loading of 250 C or 400 C temperature difference between the
inner and outer fluids. The program was run with two different
inner surface film heat transfer coefficients, hi of 150 and
1500 W / m2 C; the first value is representative of gases while the
second value is representative of liquids. The external metal to air
surface film coefficient ha is 30 W / m2 C. In all cases, the flange
material properties used are those of ASTM A-105; k f = ks
= 47 W / m / C, f = s = 1.25 105 / C, E f = Es = 190,000 MPa.

Discussion
In bolted flange joints, thermal loading can significantly vary
the bolt load and consequently the gasket load. This is due to
thermal expansion difference in the radial and axial directions and
the thermal distortion of the different elements of the bolted joint.
Figures 47 show the temperature profiles of the NPS 3 class
150, NPS 16 class 300, 24 and 52 HE flanges for the two different internal fluid film heat transfer coefficients hi. The temperature distributions are in the axial direction and are given for the
inner flange surface. In general, the results obtained with the analytical model are in good agreement with the ones obtained with
FEA. A better comparison is achieved in the case of a higher
internal fluid film coefficient. However, a difference of no more
than 5% is observed in the case of small diameter flanges having
a comparatively larger exposed flange and hub surfaces and consequently a relatively bigger heat extraction. It is to be noted that
while the model assumes no temperature gradient through the
thickness of the flange ring, the finite element results show a small
variation.
The effect of temperature on the radial displacement of the
flange hub and shell is shown in Figs. 811. The analytical and the
NOVEMBER 2005, Vol. 127 / 397

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Fig. 4 Temperature profile in NPS 3 class 150 flange with T

= 250 C

Fig. 7 Temperature profile in 52 in. HE flange with T

= 400 C

FE radial displacement results corresponding to the previously

mentioned thermal profiles are shown for the case of the flange,
the hub and the shell attached and nonattached to each other. The
thermal expansion difference between the shell, the hub and the
flange and the induced discontinuity effect produced at their junction are much appreciated. The results are consistent and compare
relatively well for the cases treated. The analytical model predicts
slightly higher displacements in most cases although the temperature profiles are slightly smaller. Nevertheless in the worst case
the difference is less than 5% and seems to occur at the junctions.

The length considered in the analysis was taken as twice the critical cylinder length / used as a limit between short and long
cylinder theories may not be adequate for the thermal analysis.
The radial thermal expansion difference between the flange and
hub is of prime importance because it can cause a drop in the bolt
load. The results shown between the analytical mode and FEA fit
in relatively well. This radial displacement difference together
with the hub distortion due the temperature gradients creates discontinuity edge loads that cause additional flange rotation. The
compatibility of displacement and rotation at the junctions between the shell and the hub and the flange and the hub could be
conducted to evaluate the edge loads and consequently the increase in flange rotation.

Fig. 5 Temperature profile in 16 in. HE flange with T

= 400 C
Fig. 8 Radial expansion in flange NPS 3 with T = 250 C

Fig. 6 Temperature profile in 24 in. HE flange with T

= 400 C

398 / Vol. 127, NOVEMBER 2005

Fig. 9 Radial expansion in 24 in. HE flange with T = 250 C

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Fig. 10 Radial expansion in 36 in. HE flange with T = 400 C

The radial distributions of temperature across the width of the

NPS 16 class 300 and the 52 HE flanges are shown in Figs. 12
and 13. The analytical values obtained using Eqs. 30 and 31
are compared to the FE ones taken at the flange midthickness.
Although the FE results show a small variation across the thickness, it has no significant influence on the final deflection values
of the flange ring.
While the axial thermal expansion of the flange, the gasket and
the bolts are necessary to assess the axial displacement effect in
the case of a flange pair, the case of a flange with a cover plate
requires some knowledge of the plate distortion as a result of the
temperature gradient through its thickness. The cover plate being
hotter at the inside surface tends to bend towards the inside of the
joint. This induces a rotation about the gasket reaction location,
which tends to stretch the bolt and consequently increase the bolt
load. Figures 1417 show the radial temperature profiles and the

Fig. 13 Radial expansion in 52 in. HE flange with T = 400 C

axial displacements due to the axial gradient of four different size

cover plates used in conjunction with the two fluid film coefficients. The results obtained from the analytical model are in good
agreement to those obtained by FEA. The relative axial displacement of the cover plate due to the thermal gradient together with
its axial expansion difference between the bolt circle and the gasket reaction location can be used to evaluate the bolt load change.

Conclusion
The bolt load change due to temperature requires the knowledge of both the radial and axial displacements of the individual
flange components. The thermal profile and the axial and the radial displacement of both a flange pair and a flange with a cover
plate subjected to thermal loading have been modeled analytically.
The method used is based on the thermal analysis of the heat flow

Fig. 14 Temperature distribution and thermal distortion in

NPS 3 class 150 cover plate at T = 250 C
Fig. 11 Radial expansion in 52 in. HE flange with T = 400 C

Fig. 12 Radial expansion in 16 in. HE flange with T = 400 C

Journal of Pressure Vessel Technology

Fig. 15 Temperature distribution and thermal distortion in

16 in. HE cover plate at T = 400 C

NOVEMBER 2005, Vol. 127 / 399

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Fig. 16 Temperature distribution and thermal distortion in

NPS 10 class 300 blind cover plate at T = 250 C

through the bolted flange joint individual components. The temperature profiles of the flange, the hub, and the shell are then used
to evaluate the radial displacements and distortions required for
the determination of the induced flange rotation. Several examples
are presented to illustrate the proposed technique. The accurate
match of the analytical method with the FEA gives confidence on
the reliability of the method used.

Nomenclature
s , f coefficients of thermal expansion for the shell,
flange m/m/C
s , f Poissons ratio of shell and flange
h , s free rotation of the hub and shell due to differential thermal loading rad
n positive roots
d gap between two flanges in the axial direction
m.
Es , E f Youngs modulus of shell and flange material
MPa
h hub length m
s effective thermal length of the shell m
hi , ha heat film transfer coefficient for the inside and
outside surfaces W / m2 / C
ho = ha / k f modified film transfer coefficient for the outside surface of the flange
I0 , I1 modified Bessel functions of the first kind,
order 0 and 1, respectively
ks , k f , k p thermal conductivity of shell and flange and
plate materials W/m/C
K0 , K1 modified Bessel functions of the second kind,
order 0 and 1, respectively
Qn heat flow across RnW

Fig. 17 Temperature distribution and thermal distortion in

52 in. HE cover plate at T = 400 C

400 / Vol. 127, NOVEMBER 2005

re outer radius of the hub at the intersection with

the flange m
ri inner radius of the flange/shell m
ro outer radius of the flange m
R fi , R fo resistance of the flange inner and outer sections C/W
Rh resistance of the hub C/W
Rhc external film resistance of the hub C/W
R fh internal wall film resistance of the flange thickness C/W
Rso external film resistance of the shell C/W
R p resistance of cover plate C/W
R pf resistance of the cover plate portion between ri
+ th and ri th C/W
R pfo external resistance of the cover plate portion
between ri + th and ri th C/W
R pi , R po internal and external film thermal resistance of
cover plate C/W
Rs resistance of shell C/W
Rshi internal film resistance of shell and hub
C/W
Rso external film resistance of shell C/W
te equivalent thickness of upper and lower flange
m
tf thickness of flange m
th equivalent thickness of hub m
ts thickness of shell m
T f , Th flange and hub temperatures C
T fi flange wall inside surface temperature C
T fh flange temperature at hub outer radius C
Ti , To inside fluid and outside fluid temperatures C
T p , Ts cover plate and shell temperatures C
T pi , T po cover plate center location wall inside and outside surface temperatures C
TsiTso shell inside and outside surface temperatures
C
us , u f , uh radial expansion of shell, flange, hub at radius
r m

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