MssENivcv

EiviiNci
Wixiviui.ovc
2012.00004
Contents
1 Conservation of mass and energy 2
1.1 Fast-moving objects and sys-
tems of objects . . . . . . . . . . 3
2 Applicability of the strict mass-energy
equivalence formula, E = mc
2
4
3 Meanings of the strict mass-energy
equivalence formula, E = mc
2
5
3.1 Binding eneigy and the mass
defect . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.2 Massless paiticles . . . . . . . .
4 Consequences for nuclear physics 8
5 Practical examples 8
6 Eciency 10
7 Baground 12
.1 Mass-velocity ielationship . . . 12
.2 Relativistic mass . . . . . . . . . 13
.3 Low-speed expansion . . . . . . 13
8 History 14
8.1 Newton mauei and light . . . . 14
8.2 Electiomagnetic mass . . . . . . 14
8.3 Radiation piessuie and ineitia . 1
8.4 Einstein mass-eneigy equiva-
lence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Fiist deiivation (190) . . . . . . 1
Alteinative veision . . . . . . . 1
Relativistic centei-of-mass the-
oiem - 190 . . . . . . . 1
8. Otheis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
8. Radioactivity and nucleai eneigy 18
ln physics, mass-eneigy equivalence is the con-
cept that the mass of a body is a measuie of
its eneigy content. ln this concept, mass is a
piopeity of all eneigy, and eneigy is a piop-
eity of all mass, and the two piopeities aie con-
nected by a constant. Tis means (foi exam-
ple) that the total inteinal eneigy E of a body
at iest is equal to the pioduct of its iest mass
m and a suitable conveision factoi to tiansfoim
fiom units of mass to units of eneigy. Albeit
Einstein pioposed mass-eneigy equivalence in
190 in one of his Annus Miiabilis papeis en-
titled Does the ineitia of a body depend upon
its eneigy-content` ' Te equivalence is de-
sciibed by the famous equation
Figuie 1 Albeit Einsteins E = mc
2
(190)
' Einstein, A. (190), lst die Tigheit eines Ki-
peis von seinem Eneigieinhalt abhngig`, Annalen
der Physik 18 39-43, Bibcode 190AnP323..39E,
doi10.1002/andp.1903231314. See also the English
tianslation.
2 Mass-Energy Equivalence
E eneigy
m mass
c speed of light
E = mc
2
equivalence
Table 1 Mass-eneigy equivalence
wheie E is eneigy, mis mass, and c is the speed
of light in a vacuum. Te foimula is dimension-
ally consistent and does not depend on any spe-
cic system of measuiement units.
E = mc
2
(1)
Te equation (1) indicates that eneigy always
exhibits ielativistic mass in whatevei foim the
eneigy takes. Mass-eneigy equivalence does
not imply that mass may be conveited to en-
eigy, but it allows foi mauei to be conveited to
eneigy. Tiough all such conveisions, mass ie-
mains conseived, since it is a piopeity of mauei
and any type of eneigy. ln physics, mass must
be dieientiated fiom mauei. Mauei, when
seen as ceitain types of paiticles, can be cie-
ated and destioyed (as in paiticle annihilation
oi cieation), but the system of piecuisois and
pioducts of such ieactions, as a whole, ietain
both the oiiginal mass and eneigy, with each of
these system piopeities iemaining unchanged
(conseived) thioughout the piocess. Simplied,
this means that the total amount of eneigy (E)
befoie the expeiiment is equal to the amount
of eneigy afei the expeiiment. Leuing the m
in E = mc
2
stand foi a quantity of mauei
(iathei than mass) may lead to incoiiect ie-
sults, depending on which of seveial vaiying
denitions of mauei aie chosen. When en-
eigy is iemoved fiom a system (foi example
in binding eneigy, oi the eneigy given o by
an atomic bomb) then mass is always iemoved
along with the eneigy. Tis eneigy ietains the
missing mass, which will in tuin be added to
Paul Allen Tiplei, Ralph A. Llewellyn (2003-01),
Modein Physics, W. H. Fieeman and Company, pp. 8-
88, lSBN 0-1-434-0
any othei system which absoibs it. ln this situ-
ation E = mc
2
can be used to calculate how
much mass goes along with the iemoved en-
eigy. lt also tells how much mass will be added
to any system which latei absoibs this eneigy.
E = mc
2
has sometimes been used as an expla-
nation foi the oiigin of eneigy in nucleai pio-
cesses, but mass-eneigy equivalence does not
explain the oiigin of such eneigies. lnstead,
this ielationship meiely indicates that the laige
amounts of eneigy ieleased in such ieactions
may exhibit enough mass that the mass-loss
may be measuied, when the ieleased eneigy
(and its mass) have been iemoved fiom the sys-
tem. Foi example, the loss of mass to atoms
and neutions as a iesult of the captuie of a neu-
tion, and loss of a gamma iay, has been used
to test mass-eneigy equivalence to high pieci-
sion, as the eneigy of the gamma iay may be
compaied with the mass defect afei captuie. ln
200, these weie found to agiee to 0.0004, the
most piecise test of the equivalence of mass and
eneigy to date. Tis test was peifoimed in the
Woild Yeai of Physics 200, a centennial cele-
biation of Einsteins achievements in 190.
Einstein was not the ist to piopose a mass-
eneigy ielationship (see the Histoiy section).
Howevei, Einstein was the ist scientist to pio-
pose the E = mc
2
foimula and the ist to intei-
piet mass-eneigy equivalence as a fundamental
piinciple that follows fiom the ielativistic sym-
metiies of space and time.
1 Conservation of mass and
energy
Te concept of mass-eneigy equivalence con-
nects the concepts of conseivation of mass and
Rainville, S. et al. Woild Yeai of Physics A diiect
test of E = mc
2
. Natuie 438, 109-109 (22 Decembei
200) doi10.1038/438109a, Published online 21 Decem-
bei 200.
Wikipedia.org 3
conseivation of eneigy, which continue to hold
sepaiately in any isolated system (one that is
closed to loss of any type of eneigy, includ-
ing eneigy associated with loss of mauei). Te
theoiy of ielativity allows paiticles which have
iest mass to be conveited to othei foims of mass
which iequiie motion, such as kinetic eneigy,
heat, oi light. Howevei, the system mass ie-
mains. Kinetic eneigy oi light can also be con-
veited to newkinds of paiticles which have iest
mass, but again the eneigy iemains. Both the
total mass and the total eneigy inside an iso-
lated system iemain constant ovei time, as seen
by any single obseivei in a given ineitial fiame.
1 def energy (mass, c):
2 """
3 Energy is equivalent to mass m times
4 the square of the speed of light c.
"""
return mass * c * c
ln othei woids, eneigy can neithei be cieated
noi destioyed, and eneigy, in all of its foims,
has mass. Mass also can neithei be cieated
noi destioyed, and in all of its foims, has en-
eigy. Accoiding to the theoiy of ielativity,
mass and eneigy as commonly undeistood, aie
two names foi the same thing, and neithei
one is changed noi tiansfoimed into the othei.
Rathei, neithei one exists without the othei ex-
isting also, as a piopeity of a system. Rathei
than mass being changed into eneigy, the view
of special ielativity is that iest mass has been
changed to a moie mobile foim of mass, but ie-
mains mass. ln the tiansfoimation piocess, nei-
thei the amount of mass noi the amount of en-
eigy changes, since both aie piopeities which
aie connected to each othei via a simple con-
stant. Tus, if eneigy leaves a system by
changing its foim, it simply takes its system
mass with it. Tis view iequiies that if eithei
mass oi eneigy disappeais fioma system, it will
always be found that both have simply moved
ln F. Feinoies. Te Equivalence of Mass and En-
eigy. Stanfoid Encyclopedia of Philosophy. [1]
o to anothei place, wheie they may both be
measuied as an inciease of both mass and en-
eigy coiiesponding to the loss in the ist sys-
tem.
1.1 Fast-moving objects and sys-
tems of objects
When an object is pulled in the diiection of mo-
tion, it gains momentum and eneigy, but when
the object is alieady tiaveling neai the speed
of light, it cannot move much fastei, no mat-
tei how much eneigy it absoibs. lts momen-
tum and eneigy continue to inciease without
bounds, wheieas its speed appioaches a con-
stant valuethe speed of light. Tis implies that
in ielativity the momentum of an object cannot
be a constant times the velocity, noi can the ki-
netic eneigy be a constant times the squaie of
the velocity.
Apiopeity called the ielativistic mass is dened
as the iatio of the momentum of an object to
its velocity. Relativistic mass depends on the
motion of the object, so that dieient obseiveis
in ielative motion see dieient values foi it.
lf the object is moving slowly, the ielativistic
mass is neaily equal to the iest mass and both
aie neaily equal to the usual Newtonian mass.
lf the object is moving quickly, the ielativistic
mass is gieatei than the iest mass by an amount
equal to the mass associated with the kinetic
eneigy of the object. As the object appioaches
the speed of light, the ielativistic mass giows
innitely, because the kinetic eneigy giows in-
nitely and this eneigy is associated with mass.
Note that the ielativistic mass, in contiast to the
iest mass m
0
, is not relativistic invariant, and that the
velocity v = dx
(4)
is not a Minkowski four-vector, in
contiast to the quantity v = dx
(4)
/d, wheie d =
dt

1 (v
2
/c
2
) is the dieiential of the piopei time.
Howevei, the eneigy-momentumfoui-vectoi p
(4)
= m
0

dx
(4)
/d is a genuine Minkowski four-vector, and the in-
tiinsic oiigin of the squaie-ioot in the denition of the
ielativistic mass is the distinction between d and dt.
4 Mass-Energy Equivalence
Te ielativistic mass is always equal to the to-
tal eneigy (iest eneigy plus kinetic eneigy) di-
vided by c
2
. Because the ielativistic mass
is exactly piopoitional to the eneigy, ielativis-
tic mass and ielativistic eneigy aie neaily syn-
onyms, the only dieience between them is
the units. lf length and time aie measuied in
natuial units, the speed of light is equal to 1,
and even this dieience disappeais. Ten mass
and eneigy have the same units and aie always
equal, so it is iedundant to speak about iela-
tivistic mass, because it is just anothei name
foi the eneigy. Tis is why physicists usually
ieseive the useful shoit woid mass to mean
iest-mass, oi invaiiant mass, and not ielativis-
tic mass.
Te ielativistic mass of a moving object is laigei
than the ielativistic mass of an object that is not
moving, because a moving object has extia ki-
netic eneigy. Te iest mass of an object is de-
ned as the mass of an object when it is at iest,
so that the iest mass is always the same, inde-
pendent of the motion of the obseivei it is the
same in all ineitial fiames.
Foi things and systems made up of many paits,
like an atomic nucleus, planet, oi stai, the iela-
tivistic mass is the sumof the ielativistic masses
(oi eneigies) of the paits, because eneigies aie
additive in closed systems. Tis is not tiue in
systems which aie open, howevei, if eneigy is
subtiacted. Foi example, if a system is bound
by auiactive foices, and the woik the foices
do in auiaction is iemoved fiom the system,
then mass will be lost with this iemoved eneigy.
Such woik is a foim of eneigy which itself has
mass, and thus mass is iemoved fiom the sys-
tem, as it is bound. Foi example, the mass of
an atomic nucleus is less than the total mass of
the piotons and neutions that make it up, but
this is only tiue afei the eneigy (woik) of bind-
ing has been iemoved in the foim of a gamma
iay (which in this system, caiiies away the mass
of binding). Tis mass deciease is also equiva-
lent to the eneigy iequiied to bieak up the nu-
cleus into individual piotons and neutions (in
this case, woik and mass would need to be sup-
plied). Similaily, the mass of the solai system is
slightly less than the masses of sun and planets
individually.
Foi a system of paiticles going o in dieient
diiections, the invaiiant mass of the system is
the analog of the iest mass, and is the same foi
all obseiveis, even those in ielative motion. lt is
dened as the total eneigy (divided by c
2
) in the
centei of mass fiame (wheie by denition, the
system total momentum is zeio). A simple ex-
ample of an object with moving paits but zeio
total momentum, is a containei of gas. ln this
case, the mass of the containei is given by its to-
tal eneigy (including the kinetic eneigy of the
gas molecules), since the system total eneigy
and invaiiant mass aie the same in any iefei-
ence fiame wheie the momentum is zeio, and
such a iefeience fiame is also the only fiame
in which the object can be weighed. ln a sim-
ilai way, the theoiy of special ielativity posits
that the theimal eneigy in all objects (includ-
ing solids) contiibutes to theii total masses and
weights, even though this eneigy is piesent as
the kinetic and potential eneigies of the atoms
in the object, and it (in a similai way to the gas)
is not seen in the iest masses of the atoms that
make up the object.
ln a similai mannei, even photons (light
quanta), if tiapped in a containei space (as a
photon gas oi theimal iadiation), would con-
tiibute a mass associated with theii eneigy to
the containei. Such an extia mass, in theoiy,
could be weighed in the same way as any othei
type of iest mass. Tis is tiue in special ielativ-
ity theoiy, even though individually, photons
have no iest mass. Te piopeity that tiapped
eneigy in any form adds weighable mass to sys-
tems that have no net momentum, is one of the
chaiacteiistic and notable consequences of iela-
tivity. lt has no classical counteipait in classical
Newtonian physics, in which iadiation, light,
heat, and kinetic eneigy nevei exhibit weigh-
Wikipedia.org
able mass undei any ciicumstances.
2 Applicability of the strict
mass-energy equivalence
formula, E = mc
2
As is noted above, two dieient denitions of
mass have been used in special ielativity, and
also two dieient denitions of eneigy. Te
simple equation E = mc
2
is not geneially ap-
plicable to all these types of mass and eneigy,
except in the special case that the total additive
momentumis zeio foi the systemundei consid-
eiation. ln such a case, which is always guai-
anteed when obseiving the system fiom eithei
its centei of mass fiame oi its centei of momen-
tumfiame, E = mc
2
is always tiue foi any type
of mass and eneigy that aie chosen. Tus, foi
example, in the centei of mass fiame, the total
eneigy of an object oi system is equal to its iest
mass times c
2
, a useful equality. Tis is the ie-
lationship used foi the containei of gas in the
pievious example. lt is not tiue in othei iefei-
ence fiames wheie the centei of mass is in mo-
tion. ln these systems oi foi such an object, its
total eneigy will depend on both its iest (oi in-
vaiiant) mass, and also its (total) momentum.
ln ineitial iefeience fiames othei than the iest
fiame oi centei of mass fiame, the equation
E = mc
2
iemains tiue if the eneigy is the
ielativistic eneigy and the mass the ielativistic
mass. lt is also coiiect if the eneigy is the iest
oi invaiiant eneigy (also the minimum eneigy),
and the mass is the iest mass, oi the invaiiant
mass. Howevei, connection of the total or rela-
tivistic energy (E
r
) with the rest or invariant
mass (m
0
) iequiies consideiation of the sys-
tem total momentum, in systems and iefeience
fiames wheie the total momentum has a non-
zeio value. Te foimula then iequiied to con-
Relativity DeMystied, D. McMahon, Mc Giaw Hill
(USA), 200, lSBN 0-0-144-0
nect the two dieient kinds of mass and eneigy,
is the extended veision of Einsteins equation,
called the ielativistic eneigy-momentum iela-
tionship
E
2
r
|p|
2
c
2
= m
2
0
c
4
E
2
r
(pc)
2
= (m
0
c
2
)
2
oi
E
r
=

(m
0
c
2
)
2
+ (pc)
2
Heie the (pc)
2
teimiepiesents the squaie of the
Euclidean noim (total vectoi length) of the vai-
ious momentum vectois in the system, which
ieduces to the squaie of the simple momentum
magnitude, if only a single paiticle is consid-
eied. Tis equation ieduces to E = mc
2
when
the momentumteimis zeio. Foi photons wheie
m
0
= 0, the equation ieduces to E
r
= pc.
3 Meanings of the strict
mass-energy equivalence
formula, E = mc
2
Mass-eneigy equivalence states that any object
has a ceitain eneigy, even when it is station-
aiy. ln Newtonian mechanics, a motionless
body has no kinetic eneigy, and it may oi may
not have othei amounts of inteinal stoied en-
eigy, like chemical eneigy oi theimal eneigy,
in addition to any potential eneigy it may have
fiom its position in a eld of foice. ln Newto-
nian mechanics, all of these eneigies aie much
smallei than the mass of the object times the
speed of light squaied.
ln ielativity, all of the eneigy that moves along
with an object (that is, all the eneigy which is
piesent in the objects iest fiame) contiibutes to
the total mass of the body, which measuies how
much it iesists acceleiation. Each potential and
Dynamics and Relativity, J.R. Foishaw, A.G. Smith,
Wiley, 2009, lSBN 98 0 40 0140 8
Mass-Energy Equivalence
kinetic eneigy makes a piopoitional contiibu-
tion to the mass. As noted above, even if a box
of ideal miiiois contains light, then the indi-
vidually massless photons still contiibute to the
total mass of the box, by the amount of theii en-
eigy divided by c
2
.
ln ielativity, iemoving eneigy is iemoving
mass, and foi an obseivei in the centei of mass
fiame, the foimula m = E/c
2
indicates how
much mass is lost when eneigy is iemoved. ln
a nucleai ieaction, the mass of the atoms that
come out is less than the mass of the atoms that
go in, and the dieience in mass shows up as
heat and light which has the same ielativistic
mass as the dieience (and also the same in-
vaiiant mass in the centei of mass fiame of the
system). ln this case, the E in the foimula is
the eneigy ieleased and iemoved, and the mass
m is how much the mass decieases. ln the same
way, when any soit of eneigy is added to an iso-
lated system, the inciease in the mass is equal
to the added eneigy divided by c
2
. Foi example,
when watei is heated it gains about 1.11 10
-1
kg of mass foi eveiy joule of heat added to the
watei.
An object moves with dieient speed in dif-
feient fiames, depending on the motion of the
obseivei, so the kinetic eneigy in both Newto-
nian mechanics and ielativity is frame depen-
dent. Tis means that the amount of ielativistic
eneigy, and theiefoie the amount of ielativis-
tic mass, that an object is measuied to have de-
pends on the obseivei. Te rest mass is dened
as the mass that an object has when it is not
moving (oi when an ineitial fiame is chosen
such that it is not moving). Te teim also ap-
plies to the invaiiant mass of systems when the
system as a whole is not moving (has no net
momentum). Te iest and invaiiant masses aie
the smallest possible value of the mass of the
object oi system. Tey also aie conseived quan-
Hans, H. S., Puii, S. P. (2003). Mechanics (2 ed.).
Tata McGiaw-Hill. p. 433. lSBN 0-00-430-9, Chaptei
12 page 433
tities, so long as the systemis closed. Because of
the way they aie calculated, the eects of mov-
ing obseiveis aie subtiacted, so these quantities
do not change with the motion of the obseivei.
Te iest mass is almost nevei additive the iest
mass of an object is not the sum of the iest
masses of its paits. Te iest mass of an object
is the total eneigy of all the paits, including ki-
netic eneigy, as measuied by an obseivei that
sees the centei of the mass of the object to be
standing still. Te iest mass adds up only if the
paits aie standing still and do not auiact oi ie-
pel, so that they do not have any extia kinetic
oi potential eneigy. Te othei possibility is that
they have a positive kinetic eneigy and a nega-
tive potential eneigy that exactly cancels.
3.1 Binding energy and the mass
defect
Whenevei any type of eneigy is iemoved fiom
a system, the mass associated with the eneigy
is also iemoved, and the system theiefoie loses
mass. Tis mass defect in the system may be
simply calculated as m = E/c
2
, but use
of this foimula in such ciicumstances has led to
the false idea that mass has been conveited to
eneigy. Tis may be paiticulaily the case when
the eneigy (and mass) iemoved fiom the sys-
temis associated with the binding eneigy of the
system. ln such cases, the binding eneigy is ob-
seived as a mass defect oi decit in the new
system and the fact that the ieleased eneigy is
not easily weighed may cause its mass to be ne-
glected.
Te dieience between the iest mass of a bound
system and of the unbound paits is the binding
eneigy of the system, if this eneigy has been
iemoved afei binding. Foi example, a watei
molecule weighs a liule less than two fiee hy-
diogen atoms and an oxygen atom, the minus-
cule mass dieience is the eneigy that is needed
to split the molecule into thiee individual atoms
Wikipedia.org
(divided by c
2
), and which was given o as heat
when the molecule foimed (this heat had mass).
Likewise, a stick of dynamite in theoiy weighs
a liule bit moie than the fiagments afei the
explosion, but this is tiue only so long as the
fiagments aie cooled and the heat iemoved. ln
this case the mass dieience is the eneigy/heat
that is ieleased when the dynamite explodes,
and when this heat escapes, the mass associated
with it escapes, only to be deposited in the sui-
ioundings which absoib the heat (so that total
mass is conseived).
Such a change in mass may only happen when
the system is open, and the eneigy and mass
escapes. Tus, if a stick of dynamite is blown
up in a heimetically sealed chambei, the mass
of the chambei and fiagments, the heat, sound,
and light would still be equal to the oiiginal
mass of the chambei and dynamite. lf siuing on
a scale, the weight and mass would not change.
Tis would in theoiy also happen even with a
nucleai bomb, if it could be kept in an ideal
box of innite stiength, which did not iup-
tuie oi pass iadiation. Tus, a 21. kiloton
(9 10
13
joule) nucleai bomb pioduces about
one giamof heat and electiomagnetic iadiation,
but the mass of this eneigy would not be de-
tectable in an exploded bomb in an ideal box sit-
ting on a scale, instead, the contents of the box
would be heated to millions of degiees without
changing total mass and weight. lf then, how-
evei, a tianspaient window (passing only elec-
tiomagnetic iadiation) weie opened in such an
ideal box afei the explosion, and a beam of X-
iays and othei lowei-eneigy light allowed to es-
cape the box, it would eventually be found to
weigh one giam less than it had befoie the ex-
plosion. Tis weight-loss and mass-loss would
happen as the box was cooled by this piocess,
E.F. Tayloi and J.A. Wheelei, Spacetime Physics,
W.H. Fieeman and Co., NY. 1992. lSBN 0-1-232-1,
see pp. 248-9 foi discussion of mass iemaining constant
afei detonation of nucleai bombs, until heat is allowed
to escape.
to ioom tempeiatuie. Howevei, any suiiound-
ing mass which had absoibed the X-iays (and
othei heat) would gain this giamof mass fiom
the iesulting heating, so the mass loss would
iepiesent meiely its ielocation. Tus, no mass
(oi, in the case of a nucleai bomb, no mauei)
would be conveited to eneigy in such a pio-
cess. Mass and eneigy, as always, would both
be sepaiately conseived.
3.2 Massless particles
Massless paiticles have zeio iest mass. Teii
ielativistic mass is simply theii ielativistic en-
eigy, divided by c
2
, oi m
relativistic
= E/c
2
. '
'' Te eneigy foi photons is E = hf wheie
h is Plancks constant and f is the photon fie-
quency. Tis fiequency and thus the ielativistic
eneigy aie fiame-dependent.
lf an obseivei iuns away fiom a photon in
the diiection it tiavels fiom a souice, having it
catch up with the obseivei, then when the pho-
ton catches up it will be seen as having less en-
eigy than it had at the souice. Te fastei the
obseivei is tiaveling with iegaid to the souice
when the photon catches up, the less eneigy the
photon will have. As an obseivei appioaches
the speed of light with iegaid to the souice,
the photon looks ieddei and ieddei, by iela-
tivistic Dopplei eect (the Dopplei shif is the
ielativistic foimula), and the eneigy of a veiy
long-wavelength photon appioaches zeio. Tis
is why a photon is massless, this means that the
iest mass of a photon is zeio.
Two photons moving in dieient diiections
cannot both be made to have aibitiaiily small
total eneigy by changing fiames, oi by mov-
ing towaid oi away fiom them. Te ieason
' Mould, Richaid A. (2002). Basic ielativity (2 ed.).
Spiingei. p. 12. lSBN 03892101, Chaptei page 12
'' Chow, Tail L. (200). lntioduction to electiomag-
netic theoiy a modein peispective. Jones & Baitleu
Leaining. p. 392. lSBN 0-3-382-1, Chaptei 10 page
392
8 Mass-Energy Equivalence
is that in a two-photon system, the eneigy of
one photon is decieased by chasing afei it, but
the eneigy of the othei will inciease with the
same shif in obseivei motion. Two photons
not moving in the same diiection will exhibit
an ineitial fiame wheie the combined eneigy is
smallest, but not zeio. Tis is called the cen-
tei of mass fiame oi the centei of momentum
fiame, these teims aie almost synonyms (the
centei of mass fiame is the special case of a
centei of momentum fiame wheie the centei of
mass is put at the oiigin). Te most that chasing
a paii of photons can accomplish to deciease
theii eneigy is to put the obseivei in fiame
wheie the photons have equal eneigy and aie
moving diiectly away fiom each othei. ln this
fiame, the obseivei is now moving in the same
diiection and speed as the centei of mass of the
two photons. Te total momentum of the pho-
tons is now zeio, since theii momentums aie
equal and opposite. ln this fiame the two pho-
tons, as a system, have a mass equal to theii to-
tal eneigy divided by c
2
. Tis mass is called the
invaiiant mass of the paii of photons togethei.
lt is the smallest mass and eneigy the system
may be seen to have, by any obseivei. lt is only
the invaiiant mass of a two-photon system that
can be used to make a single paiticle with the
same iest mass.
lf the photons aie foimed by the collision of a
paiticle and an antipaiticle, the invaiiant mass
is the same as the total eneigy of the paiti-
cle and antipaiticle (theii iest eneigy plus the
kinetic eneigy), in the centei of mass fiame,
wheie they will automatically be moving in
equal and opposite diiections (since they have
equal momentum in this fiame). lf the pho-
tons aie foimed by the disintegiation of a single
paiticle with a well-dened iest mass, like the
neutial pion, the invaiiant mass of the photons
is equal to iest mass of the pion. ln this case,
the centei of mass fiame foi the pion is just the
fiame wheie the pion is at iest, and the centei
of mass does not change afei it disintegiates
into two photons. Afei the two photons aie
foimed, theii centei of mass is still moving the
same way the pion did, and theii total eneigy
in this fiame adds up to the mass eneigy of the
pion. Tus, by calculating the invaiiant mass
of paiis of photons in a paiticle detectoi, paiis
can be identied that weie piobably pioduced
by pion disintegiation.
4 Consequences for nuclear
physics
Max Planck pointed out that the mass-eneigy
equivalence foimula implied that bound sys-
tems would have a mass less than the sum of
theii constituents, once the binding eneigy had
been allowed to escape. Howevei, Planck was
thinking about chemical ieactions, wheie the
binding eneigy is too small to measuie. Ein-
stein suggested that iadioactive mateiials such
as iadium would piovide a test of the theoiy,
but even though a laige amount of eneigy is ie-
leased pei atom in iadium, due to the half-life
of the substance (102 yeais), only a small fiac-
tion of iadiumatoms decay ovei expeiimentally
measuiable peiiod of time.
Once the nucleus was discoveied, expeii-
menteis iealized that the veiy high binding en-
eigies of the atomic nuclei should allowcalcula-
tion of theii binding eneigies, simply fiommass
dieiences. But it was not until the discoveiy
of the neution in 1932, and the measuiement
of the neution mass, that this calculation could
actually be peifoimed (see nucleai binding en-
eigy foi example calculation). A liule while
latei, the ist tiansmutation ieactions (such as
' the Cockciof-Walton expeiiment

Li p
2
4
He) veiied Einsteins foimula to an accu-
iacy of 0.. ln 200, Rainville et al. pub-
lished a diiect test of the eneigy-equivalence of
mass lost in the binding-eneigy of a neution to
' [2] Cockciof-Walton expeiiment
Wikipedia.org 9
atoms of paiticulai isotopes of silicon and sul-
fui, by compaiing the mass-lost to the eneigy
of the emiued gamma iay associated with the
neution captuie. Te binding mass-loss agieed
with the gamma iay eneigy to a piecision of
0.00004, the most accuiate test of E = mc
2
to date.
Te mass-eneigy equivalence foimula was used
in the development of the atomic bomb. By
measuiing the mass of dieient atomic nu-
clei and subtiacting fiom that numbei the total
mass of the piotons and neutions as they would
weigh sepaiately, one gets the exact binding en-
eigy available in an atomic nucleus. Tis is used
to calculate the eneigy ieleased in any nucleai
ieaction, as the dieience in the total mass of
the nuclei that entei and exit the ieaction.
5 Practical examples
Einstein used the CGS systemof units (centime-
teis, giams, seconds, dynes, and eigs), but the
foimula is independent of the system of units.
ln natuial units, the speed of light is dened to
equal 1, and the foimula expiesses an identity
E = m. ln the Sl system (expiessing the iatio
E/m in joules pei kilogiam using the value of
c in meteis pei second)
E/m = c
2
= (299, 792, 458 m/s)
2
= 89, 875, 517, 873, 681, 764 J/kg
( 9.0 1016 joules per kilogram)
So the eneigy equivalent of one giam of mass
is equivalent to
89.9 teiajoules
2.0 million kilowau-houis ( 2
GWh)
21. billion kilocaloiies ( 21 Tcal)
'
' Conveisions used 19 lnteinational (Steam) Table
(lT) values wheie one caloiie eq. 4.188 J and one BTU
10.0822 J. Weapons designeis conveision value
of one giam TNT 1000 caloiies used.
8.2 billion BTUs '
oi to the eneigy ieleased by combustion of the
following
21. kilotons of TNT-equivalent
eneigy ( 21 kt) '
8,000 US gallons of automotive
gasoline
Any time eneigy is geneiated, the piocess can
be evaluated fiom an E = mc
2
peispective.
Foi instance, the Gadget-style bomb used in
the Tiinity test and the bombing of Nagasaki
had an explosive yield equivalent to 21 kt of
TNT. About 1 kg of the appioximately .1 kg
of plutonium in each of these bombs ssioned
into lightei elements totaling almost exactly
one giam less, afei cooling. (Te electiomag-
netic iadiation and kinetic eneigy theimal
and blast eneigy ieleased in this explosion
caiiied the missing one giam of mass.) ' Tis
occuis because nucleai binding eneigy is ie-
leased whenevei elements with moie than 2
nucleons ssion.
Anothei example is hydioelectiic geneiation.
Te electiical eneigy pioduced by Giand
Coulee Dams tuibines eveiy 3. houis iepie-
sents one giam of mass. Tis mass passes to
the electiical devices (such as lights in cities)
which aie poweied by the geneiatois, wheie it
appeais as a giam of heat and light. ' Tuibine
designeis look at theii equations in teims of
piessuie, toique, and RPM. Howevei, Einsteins
equations show that all eneigy has mass, and
thus the electiical eneigy pioduced by a dams
' Te .2 kg coie compiised 0.8 gallium by weight.
Also, about 20 of the Gadgets yield was due to fast s-
sioning in its natuial uianium tampei. Tis iesulted in
4.1 moles of Pu ssioning with 180 MeV pei atom actu-
ally contiibuting piompt kinetic eneigy to the explosion.
Note too that the teimGadget-style is used heie instead
of Fat Man because this geneial design of bomb was
veiy iapidly upgiaded to a moie ecient one iequiiing
only kg of the Pu/gallium alloy.
' Assuming the dam is geneiating at its peak capacity
of ,809 MW.
10 Mass-Energy Equivalence
geneiatois, and the heat and light which iesult
fiom it, all ietain theii mass, which is equiva-
lent to the eneigy. Te potential eneigyand
equivalent massiepiesented by the wateis of
the Columbia Rivei as it descends to the Pacic
Ocean would be conveited to heat due to vis-
cous fiiction and the tuibulence of white watei
iapids and wateifalls weie it not foi the dam
and its geneiatois. Tis heat would iemain as
mass on site at the watei, weie it not foi the
equipment which conveited some of this po-
tential and kinetic eneigy into electiical eneigy,
which can be moved fiom place to place (taking
mass with it).
Whenevei eneigy is added to a system, the sys-
tem gains mass.
A spiings mass incieases whenevei it
is put into compiession oi tension. lts
added mass aiises fiom the added po-
tential eneigy stoied within it, which is
bound in the stietched chemical (elec-
tion) bonds linking the atoms within the
spiing.
Raising the tempeiatuie of an object (in-
cieasing its heat eneigy) incieases its
mass. Foi example, considei the woilds
piimaiy mass standaid foi the kilogiam,
made of platinum/iiidium. lf its tempeia-
tuie is allowed to change by 1 , its mass
will change by 1. picogiams (1 pg 1
10
-12
g). '
A spinning ball will weigh moie than a
ball that is not spinning. lts inciease of
mass is exactly the equivalent of the mass
of eneigy of iotation, which is itself the
sumof the kinetic eneigies of all the mov-
ing paits of the ball. Foi example, the
Eaith itself is moie massive due to its
' Assuming a 90/10 alloy of Pt/li by weight, a C
p
of
2.9 foi Pt and 2.1 foi li, a Pt-dominated aveiage C
p
of
2.8, .134 moles of metal, and 132 J.K
-1
foi the pioto-
type. A vaiiation of 1. picogiams is of couise, much
smallei than the actual unceitainty in the mass of the in-
teinational piototype, which is 2 miciogiams.
daily iotation, than it would be with no
iotation. Tis iotational eneigy (2.14
10
29
J) iepiesents 2.38 billion metiic tons
of added mass. '
Note that no net mass oi eneigy is ieally cieated
oi lost in any of these examples and scenaiios.
Mass/eneigy simply moves fiom one place to
anothei. Tese aie some examples of the trans-
fer of eneigy and mass in accoidance with the
principle of mass-energy conservation.
Note fuithei that in accoidance with Einsteins
Stiong Equivalence Piinciple (SEP), all foims of
mass and energy pioduce a giavitational eld in
the same way. ' So all iadiated and tiansmit-
ted eneigy retains its mass. Not only does the
mauei compiising Eaith cieate giavity, but the
giavitational eld itself has mass, and that mass
contiibutes to the eld too. Tis eect is ac-
counted foi in ultia-piecise lasei ianging to the
Moon as the Eaith oibits the Sun when testing
Einsteins geneial theoiy of ielativity. '
Accoiding to E = mc
2
, no closed system (any
system tieated and obseived as a whole) evei
loses mass, even when iest mass is conveited
to eneigy. All types of eneigy contiibute to
mass, including potential eneigies. ln ielativ-
ity, inteiaction potentials aie always due to lo-
cal elds, not to diiect nonlocal inteiactions,
because signals cannot tiavel fastei than light.
Te eld eneigy is stoied in eld giadients oi, in
some cases (foi massive elds), wheie the eld
has a nonzeio value. Te mass associated with
the potential eneigy is the mass-eneigy of the
eld eneigy. Te mass associated with eld en-
eigy can be detected, in piinciple, by giavita-
tional expeiiments, by checking how the eld
' [3] Aiticle on Eaith iotation eneigy. Divided by c
2
.
' Eaiths giavitational self-eneigy is 4. 10
-10
that
of Eaiths total mass, oi 2. tiillion metiic tons. Citation
e Apache Point Observatory Lunar Laser-Ranging Oper-
ation (APOLLO), T. W. Muiphy, Ji. et al. Univeisity of
Washington, Dept. of Physics (132 kB PDF, heie).
Wikipedia.org 11
auiacts othei objects giavitationally. '
Te eneigy in the giavitational eld itself has
some dieiences fiomothei eneigies. Teie aie
seveial consistent ways to dene the location of
the eneigy in a giavitational eld, all of which
agiee on the total eneigy when space is mostly
at and empty. But because the giavitational
eld can be made to vanish locally at any point
by choosing a fiee-falling fiame, the piecise lo-
cation of the eneigy becomes dependent on the
obseiveis fiame of iefeience, and thus has no
exact location, even though it exists somewheie
foi any given obseivei. ln the limit foi low eld
stiengths, this giavitational eld eneigy is the
familiai Newtonian giavitational potential en-
eigy.
6 Eciency
Although mass cannot be conveited to eneigy,
mauei paiticles can be. Also, a ceitain amount
of the ill-dened mauei in oidinaiy objects
can be conveited to active eneigy (light and
heat), even though no identiable ieal paiticles
aie destioyed. Such conveisions happen in nu-
cleai weapons, in which the piotons and neu-
tions in atomic nuclei lose a small fiaction of
theii aveiage mass, but this mass-loss is not due
to the destiuction of any piotons oi neutions
(oi even, in geneial, lightei paiticles like elec-
tions). Also the mass is not destioyed, but sim-
ply iemoved fiomthe systemin the foimof heat
and light fiom the ieaction.
' Teie is usually moie than one possible way to de-
ne a eld eneigy, because any eld can be made to cou-
ple to giavity in many dieient ways. By geneial scal-
ing aiguments, the coiiect answei at eveiyday distances,
which aie long compaied to the quantum giavity scale,
should be minimal coupling, which means that no poweis
of the cuivatuie tensoi appeai. Any non-minimal cou-
plings, along with othei highei oidei teims, aie piesum-
ably only deteimined by a theoiy of quantum giavity,
and within stiing theoiy, they only stait to contiibute to
expeiiments at the stiing scale.
ln nucleai ieactions, typically only a small fiac-
tion of the total mass-eneigy of the bomb is
conveited into heat, light, iadiation and mo-
tion, which aie active foims which can be
used. When an atomssions, it loses only about
0.1 of its mass (which escapes fiom the sys-
tem and does not disappeai), and in a bomb oi
ieactoi not all the atoms can ssion. ln a s-
sion based atomic bomb, the eciency is only
40, so only 40 of the ssionable atoms ac-
tually ssion, and only 0.04 of the total mass
appeais as eneigy in the end. ln nucleai fusion,
moie of the mass is ieleased as usable eneigy,
ioughly 0.3. But in a fusion bomb (see nucleai
weapon yield), the bomb mass is paitly casing
and non-ieacting components, so that in piac-
ticality, no moie than about 0.03 of the total
mass of the entiie weapon is ieleased as us-
able eneigy (which, again, ietains the missing
mass).
ln theoiy, it should be possible to conveit all of
the mass in mauei into heat and light (which
would of couise have the same mass), but none
of the theoietically known methods aie piacti-
cal. One way to conveit all mauei into usable
eneigy is to annihilate mauei with antimauei.
But antimauei is iaie in oui univeise, and must
be made ist. Due to inecient mechanisms of
pioduction, making antimauei always iequiies
fai moie eneigy than would be ieleased when
it was annihilated.
Since most of the mass of oidinaiy objects
iesides in piotons and neutions, in oidei to
conveit all oidinaiy mauei to useful eneigy,
the piotons and neutions must be conveited
to lightei paiticles. ln the standaid model of
paiticle physics, the numbei of piotons plus
neutions is neaily exactly conseived. Still,
Geiaid t Hoof showed that theie is a pio-
cess which will conveit piotons and neutions
to anti-elections and neutiinos. Tis is
G. t Hoof, Computation of the quantum eects
due to a foui-dimensional pseudopaiticle, Physical Re-
view D143432-340 (19).
12 Mass-Energy Equivalence
the weak SU(2) instanton pioposed by Belavin
Polyakov Schwaiz and Tyupkin. ' Tis pio-
cess, can in piinciple conveit all the mass of
mauei into neutiinos and usable eneigy, but it
is noimally extiaoidinaiily slow. Latei it be-
came cleai that this piocess will happen at a
fast iate at veiy high tempeiatuies, since then
instanton-like conguiations will be copiously
pioduced fiom theimal uctuations. Te tem-
peiatuie iequiied is so high that it would only
have been ieached shoitly afei the big bang.
Many extensions of the standaid model con-
tain magnetic monopoles, and in some mod-
els of giand unication, these monopoles cat-
alyze pioton decay, a piocess known as the
Callan-Rubakov eect. Tis piocess would
be an ecient mass-eneigy conveision at oi-
dinaiy tempeiatuies, but it iequiies making
monopoles and anti-monopoles ist. Te en-
eigy iequiied to pioduce monopoles is believed
to be enoimous, but magnetic chaige is con-
seived, so that the lightest monopole is stable.
All these piopeities aie deduced in theoietical
modelsmagnetic monopoles have nevei been
obseived, noi have they been pioduced in any
expeiiment so fai.
A thiid known method of total mauei-eneigy
conveision is using giavity, specically black
holes. Stephen Hawking theoiized that black
holes iadiate theimally with no iegaid to how
they aie foimed. So it is theoietically possi-
ble to thiow mauei into a black hole and use
the emiued heat to geneiate powei. Accoid-
ing to the theoiy of Hawking iadiation, how-
evei, the black hole used will iadiate at a highei
' A. Belavin, A. M. Polyakov, A. Schwaiz, Yu. Tyup-
kin, Pseudopaiticle Solutions to Yang Mills Equations,
Physics Leueis 9B8 (19).
F. Klinkhammei, N. Manton, A Saddle Point Solu-
tion in the Weinbeig Salam Teoiy, Physical Review D
302212.
Rubakov V. A. Monopole Catalysis of Pioton De-
cay, Repoits on Piogiess in Physics 1189-241 (1988).
S.W. Hawking Black Holes Explosions` Natuie
24830 (194).
iate the smallei it is, pioducing usable pow-
eis at only small black hole masses, wheie us-
able may foi example be something gieatei
than the local backgiound iadiation. lt is also
woith noting that the ambient iiiadiated powei
would change with the mass of the black hole,
incieasing as the mass of the black hole de-
cieases, oi decieasing as the mass incieases, at
a iate wheie powei is piopoitional to the in-
veise squaie of the mass. ln a piactical sce-
naiio, mass and eneigy could be dumped into
the black hole to iegulate this giowth, oi keep
its size, and thus powei output, neai constant.
Tis could iesult fiom the fact that mass and
eneigy aie lost fiom the hole with its theimal
iadiation.
7 Background
7.1 Mass-velocity relationship
ln developing special ielativity, Einstein found
that the kinetic eneigy of a moving body is
E
k
= m
0
( 1)c
2
=
m
0
c
2

1
v
2
c
2
m
0
c
2
,
with v the velocity, m
0
the iest mass, and the
Loientz factoi.
He included the second teim on the iight to
make suie that foi small velocities, the eneigy
would be the same as in classical mechanics
E
k
=
1
2
m
0
v
2
+ .
Without this second teim, theie would be an
additional contiibution in the eneigy when the
paiticle is not moving.
Einstein found that the total momentum of a
moving paiticle is
P =
m
0
v

1
v
2
c
2
.
Wikipedia.org 13
and it is this quantity which is conseived in col-
lisions. Te iatio of the momentum to the ve-
locity is the ielativistic mass, m
m =
m
0

1
v
2
c
2
and the ielativistic mass and the ielativistic ki-
netic eneigy aie ielated by the foimula
E
k
= mc
2
m
0
c
2
.
Einstein wanted to omit the unnatuial second
teim on the iight-hand side, whose only pui-
pose is to make the eneigy at iest zeio, and
to declaie that the paiticle has a total eneigy
which obeys
E = mc
2
which is a sum of the iest eneigy m
0
c
2
and
the kinetic eneigy. Tis total eneigy is mathe-
matically moie elegant, and ts beuei with the
momentum in ielativity. But to come to this
conclusion, Einstein needed to think caiefully
about collisions. Tis expiession foi the eneigy
implied that mauei at iest has a huge amount
of eneigy, and it is not cleai whethei this en-
eigy is physically ieal, oi just a mathematical
aitifact with no physical meaning.
ln a collision piocess wheie all the iest-masses
aie the same at the beginning as at the end,
eithei expiession foi the eneigy is conseived.
Te two expiessions only diei by a constant
which is the same at the beginning and at the
end of the collision. Still, by analyzing the sit-
uation wheie paiticles aie thiown o a heavy
cential paiticle, it is easy to see that the inei-
tia of the cential paiticle is ieduced by the total
eneigy emiued. Tis allowed Einstein to con-
clude that the ineitia of a heavy paiticle is in-
cieased oi diminished accoiding to the eneigy
it absoibs oi emits.
7.2 Relativistic mass
Afei Einstein ist made his pioposal, it became
cleai that the woid mass can have two dieient
meanings. Te iest mass is what Einstein called
m, but otheis dened the ielativistic mass with
an explicit index
m
rel
=
m
0

1
v
2
c
2
.
Tis mass is the iatio of momentum to velocity,
and it is also the ielativistic eneigy divided by c
2
(it is not Loientz-invaiiant, in contiast to m
0
).
Te equation E = m
rel
c
2
holds foi moving ob-
jects. When the velocity is small, the ielativistic
mass and the iest mass aie almost exactly the
same. E = mc
2
eithei means E = m
0
c
2
foi an
object at iest, oi E = m
rel
c
2
when the object is
moving.
Also Einstein (following Hendiik Loientz and
Max Abiaham) used velocityand diiection-
dependent mass concepts (longitudinal and
tiansveise mass) in his 190 electiodynamics
papei and in anothei papei in 190. How-
evei, in his ist papei on E = mc
2
(190), he
tieated m as what would now be called the iest
mass. ' Some claim that (in latei yeais) he did
not like the idea of ielativistic mass. When
modein physicists say mass, they aie usually
talking about iest mass, since if they meant iel-
ativistic mass, they would just say eneigy.
Consideiable debate has ensued ovei the use of
the concept ielativistic mass and the connec-
tion of mass in ielativity to mass in Newto-
nian dynamics. Foi example, one view is that
only iest mass is a viable concept and is a piop-
eity of the paiticle, while ielativistic mass is a
Einstein, A. (190), Zui Elektiodynamik bewegtei
Kipei. (PDF), Annalen der Physik 17 891-921, Bibcode
190AnP322..891E, doi10.1002/andp.1903221004. En-
glish tianslation.
Einstein, A. (190), Ubei eine Methode zui Bes-
timmung des Veihltnisses dei tiansveisalen und lon-
gitudinalen Masse des Elektions. (PDF), Annalen
der Physik 21 83-8, Bibcode 190AnP32..83E,
doi10.1002/andp.190321310
See e.g. Lev B.Okun, e concept of Mass, Physics
Today 42 (), June 199, p. 31-3, PDF
14 Mass-Energy Equivalence
conglomeiation of paiticle piopeities and piop-
eities of spacetime. A peispective that avoids
this debate, due to Kjell Voyenli, is that the
Newtonian concept of mass as a paiticle piop-
eity and the ielativistic concept of mass have
to be viewed as embedded in theii own theoiies
and as having no piecise connection.
7.3 Low-speed expansion
We can iewiite the expiession E = m
0
c
2
as a
Tayloi seiies
E = m
0
c
2
[
1 +
1
2
(
v
c
)
2
+
3
8
(
v
c
)
4
+
5
16
(
v
c
)
6
+
]
.
Foi speeds much smallei than the speed of
light, highei-oidei teims in this expiession get
smallei and smallei because v/c is small. Foi
low speeds we can ignoie all but the ist two
teims
E m
0
c
2
+
1
2
m
0
v
2
.
Te total eneigy is a sum of the iest eneigy and
the Newtonian kinetic eneigy.
Te classical eneigy equation ignoies both the
m
0
c
2
pait, and the high-speed coiiections. Tis
is appiopiiate, because all the high-oidei coi-
iections aie small. Since only changes in en-
eigy aect the behavioi of objects, whethei
we include the m
0
c
2
pait makes no dieience,
since it is constant. Foi the same ieason, it is
possible to subtiact the iest eneigy fiom the
total eneigy in ielativity. By consideiing the
emission of eneigy in dieient fiames, Einstein
Max Jammei (1999), Concepts of mass in contem-
poiaiy physics and philosophy, Piinceton Univeisity
Piess, p. 1, lSBN 0910101X
Eiiksen, Eiik, Voyenli, Kjell (19), Te classical
and ielativistic concepts of mass, Foundations of Physics
(Spiingei) 11-124, Bibcode 19FoPh...11E,
doi10.100/BF00080
could show that the iest eneigy has a ieal phys-
ical meaning.
Te highei-oidei teims aie extia coiiection to
Newtonian mechanics which become impoi-
tant at highei speeds. Te Newtonian equation
is only a low-speed appioximation, but an ex-
tiaoidinaiily good one. All of the calculations
used in puuing astionauts on the moon, foi ex-
ample, could have been done using Newtons
equations without any of the highei-oidei coi-
iections.
8 History
While Einstein was the ist to have coiiectly
deduced the mass-eneigy equivalence foimula,
he was not the ist to have ielated eneigy
with mass. But neaily all pievious authois
thought that the eneigy which contiibutes to
mass comes only fiom electiomagnetic elds.
'
8.1 Newton: matter and light
ln 11 lsaac Newton speculated that light
paiticles and mauei paiticles weie intei-
conveitible in Qeiy 30 of the Opticks, wheie
he asks
Aie not the gioss bodies and light
conveitible into one anothei, and
Jannsen, M., Mecklenbuig, M. (200), Fiomclassical
to ielativistic mechanics Electiomagnetic models of the
election., in V. F. Hendiicks, et al., Interactions: Mathe-
matics, Physics and Philosophy (Doidiecht Spiingei) -
134
' Whiuakei, E.T. (191-193), 2. Edition: A History of
the theories of aether and electricity, vol. 1: e classical
theories / vol. 2: e modern theories 1900-1926, London
Nelson
Millei, Aithui l. (1981), Albert Einsteins special the-
ory of relativity. Emergence (1905) and early interpreta-
tion (1905-1911), Reading Addison-Wesley, lSBN 0-201-
049-2
Daiiigol, O. (200), Te Genesis of the theoiy of
ielativity. (PDF), Sminaire Poincar 1 1-22
Wikipedia.org 1
may not bodies ieceive much of
theii activity fiom the paiticles of
light which entei theii composi-
tion`
8.2 Electromagnetic mass
Teie weie many auempts in the 19th and the
beginning of the 20th centuiylike those of J.
J. Tomson (1881), Olivei Heaviside (1888), and
Geoige Fiedeiick Chailes Seaile (189), Wil-
helm Wien (1900), Max Abiaham (1902), Hen-
diik Antoon Loientz (1904) to undeistand as
to how the mass of a chaiged object depends
on the electiostatic eld. ' Tis concept
was called electiomagnetic mass, and was con-
sideied as being dependent on velocity and di-
iection as well. Loientz (1904) gave the follow-
ing expiessions foi longitudinal and tiansveise
electiomagnetic mass
m
L
=
m
0
(

1
v
2
c
2
)
3
, m
T
=
m
0

1
v
2
c
2
,
wheie
m
0
=
E
em
c
2
.
8.3 Radiation pressure and inertia
Anothei way of deiiving some soit of electio-
magnetic mass was based on the concept of ia-
diation piessuie. ln 1900, Henii Poincai as-
sociated electiomagnetic iadiation eneigy with
a ctitious uid having momentum and mass
m
em
= E
em
/c
2
. By that, Poincai tiied to save
the centei of mass theoiem in Loientzs the-
oiy, though his tieatment led to iadiation paia-
doxes.
Fiiediich Hasenhil showed in 1904, that elec-
tiomagnetic cavity iadiation contiibutes the
appaient mass m
0
=
4
3
Eem
c
2
to the cavitys
mass. He aigued that this implies mass depen-
dence on tempeiatuie as well.
8.4 Einstein: mass-energy equiva-
lence
Albeit Einstein did not foimulate exactly the
foimula E = mc
2
in his 190 Annus Miiabilis
papei Does the lneitia of a Body Depend Upon
lts Eneigy Content`, ' iathei, the papei states
that if a body gives o the eneigy L in the
foim of iadiation, its mass diminishes by L/c
2
.
(Heie, iadiation means electiomagnetic iadi-
ation, oi light, and mass means the oidinaiy
Newtonian mass of a slow-moving object.) Tis
foimulation ielates only a change m in mass
to a change L in eneigy without iequiiing the
absolute ielationship.
Objects with zeio mass piesumably have zeio
eneigy, so the extension that all mass is pio-
poitional to eneigy is obvious fiom this iesult.
ln 190, even the hypothesis that changes in en-
eigy aie accompanied by changes in mass was
untested. Not until the discoveiy of the ist
type of antimauei (the position in 1932) was it
found that all of the mass of paiis of iesting pai-
ticles could be conveited to iadiation.
First derivation (1905)
Alieady in his ielativity papei On the electio-
dynamics of moving bodies, Einstein deiived
the coiiect expiession foi the kinetic eneigy of
paiticles
E
k
= mc
2

1
v
2
c
2
1

.
Now the question iemained open as to which
foimulation applies to bodies at iest. Tis was
Philip Ball (Aug 23, 2011). Did Einstein discovei E
mc2`. Physics Woild.
1 Mass-Energy Equivalence
tackled by Einstein in his papei Does the inei-
tia of a body depend upon its eneigy content`.
Einstein used a body emiuing two light pulses
in opposite diiections, having eneigies of E
0
befoie and E
1
afei the emission as seen in its
iest fiame. As seen fiom a moving fiame, this
becomes H
0
and H
1
. Einstein obtained
(H
0
E
0
) (H
1
E
1
) = E

1
v
2
c
2
1

then he aigued that HE can only diei fiom

the kinetic eneigy K by an additive constant,
which gives
K
0
K
1
= E

1
v
2
c
2
1

.
Neglecting eects highei than thiid oidei in v/c
this gives
K
0
K
1
=
E
c
2
v
2
2
.
Tus Einstein concluded that the emission ie-
duces the bodys mass by E/c
2
, and that the
mass of a body is a measuie of its eneigy con-
tent.
Te coiiectness of Einsteins 190 deiivation of
E = mc
2
was ciiticized by Max Planck (190),
who aigued that it is only valid to ist appiox-
imation. Anothei ciiticism was foimulated by
Heibeit lves (192) and Max Jammei (191), as-
seiting that Einsteins deiivation is based on
begging the question. On the othei hand,
John Stachel and Robeito Toiieui (1982) aigued
that lves ciiticism was wiong, and that Ein-
lves, Heibeit E. (192), Deiivation of the mass-
eneigy ielation, Journal of the Optical Society of America
42 (8) 40-43, doi10.134/JOSA.42.00040
Jammei, Max (191/199). Concepts of Mass in Clas-
sical and Modern Physics. New Yoik Dovei. lSBN 0-48-
29998-8.
steins deiivation was coiiect. Hans Oha-
nian (2008) agieed with Stachel/Toiieuis ciit-
icism of lves, though he aigued that Einsteins
deiivation was wiong foi othei ieasons. Foi
a iecent ieview, see Hecht (2011).
Alternative version
An alteinative veision of Einsteins thought ex-
peiiment was pioposed by Fiitz Rohilich (1990),
who based his ieasoning on the Dopplei eect.
Like Einstein, he consideied a body at iest
with mass M. lf the body is examined in a
fiame moving with non-ielativistic velocity v,
it is no longei at iest and in the moving fiame
it has momentum P = Mv. Ten he supposed
the body emits two pulses of light to the lef
and to the iight, each caiiying an equal amount
of eneigy E/2. ln its iest fiame, the object ie-
mains at iest afei the emission since the two
beams aie equal in stiength and caiiy opposite
momentum.
But if the same piocess is consideied in a fiame
moving with velocity v to the lef, the pulse
moving to the lef will be ied-shifed while the
pulse moving to the iight will be blue shifed.
Te blue light caiiies moie momentumthan the
ied light, so that the momentum of the light in
the moving fiame is not balanced the light is
caiiying some net momentum to the iight.
Te object has not changed its velocity befoie
oi afei the emission. Yet in this fiame it has
Stachel, John, Toiieui, Robeito (1982), Ein-
steins ist deiivation of mass-eneigy equivalence,
American Journal of Physics 50 (8) 0-3, Bibcode
1982AmJPh..0..0S, doi10.1119/1.124
Ohanian, Hans (2008), Did Einstein piove
E = mc
2
`, Studies In History and Philosophy
of Science Part B 40 (2) 1-13, aiXiv080.1400,
doi10.101/j.shpsb.2009.03.002
Hecht, Eugene (2011), How Einstein conimed
E
0
= mc
2
, American Journal of Physics 79 () 91-00,
Bibcode 2011AmJPh..9..91H, doi10.1119/1.349223
Rohilich, Fiitz (1990), An elementaiy deiivation of
E = mc
2
, American Journal of Physics 58 (4) 348-349,
Bibcode 1990AmJPh..8..348R, doi10.1119/1.118
Wikipedia.org 1
lost some iight-momentum to the light. Te
only way it could have lost momentumis by los-
ing mass. Tis also solves Poincais iadiation
paiadox, discussed above.
Te velocity is small, so the iight-moving light
is blue-shifed by an amount equal to the non-
ielativistic Dopplei shif factoi 1v/c. Te mo-
mentum of the light is its eneigy divided by c,
and it is incieased by a factoi of v/c. So the
iight-moving light is caiiying an extia momen-
tum P given by
P =
v
c
E
2c
.
Te lef-moving light caiiies a liule less mo-
mentum, by the same amount P. So the total
iight-momentum in the light is twice P. Tis
is the iight-momentum that the object lost
2P = v
E
c
2
.
Te momentum of the object in the moving
fiame afei the emission is ieduced by this
amount
P

= Mv 2P =
(
M
E
c
2
)
v.
So the change in the objects mass is equal to
the total eneigy lost divided by c
2
. Since any
emission of eneigy can be caiiied out by a two
step piocess, wheie ist the eneigy is emiued
as light and then the light is conveited to some
othei foim of eneigy, any emission of eneigy
is accompanied by a loss of mass. Similaily, by
consideiing absoiption, a gain in eneigy is ac-
companied by a gain in mass.
Relativistic center-of-mass theorem - 1906
Like Poincai, Einstein concluded in 190 that
the ineitia of electiomagnetic eneigy is a neces-
saiy condition foi the centei-of-mass theoiem
to hold. On this occasion, Einstein iefeiied to
Poincais 1900 papei and wiote '
Although the meiely foimal con-
sideiations, which we will need foi
the pioof, aie alieady mostly con-
tained in a woik by H. Poincai, foi
the sake of claiity l will not iely on
that woik.
ln Einsteins moie physical, as opposed to foi-
mal oi mathematical, point of view, theie was
no need foi ctitious masses. He could avoid
the peipetuum mobile pioblem, because on the
basis of the mass-eneigy equivalence he could
show that the tianspoit of ineitia which ac-
companies the emission and absoiption of ia-
diation solves the pioblem. Poincais iejec-
tion of the piinciple of action-ieaction can be
avoided thiough Einsteins E = mc
2
, because
mass conseivation appeais as a special case of
the eneigy conseivation law.
8.5 Others
Duiing the nineteenth centuiy theie weie sev-
eial speculative auempts to showthat mass and
eneigy weie piopoitional in vaiious ethei the-
oiies. ln 183 Nikolay Umov pointed out a
ielation between mass and eneigy foi ethei in
the foim of E = k mc
2
, wheie 0.5 k 1.
' Einstein, A. (190), Das Piinzip von dei Eihaltung
dei Schweipunktsbewegung und die Tigheit dei En-
eigie (PDF), Annalen der Physik 20 2-33, Bibcode
190AnP32..2E, doi10.1002/andp.190320814
Einstein 190 Tiotzdem die einfachen foimalen
Betiachtungen, die zum Nachweis diesei Behauptung
duichgeluhit weiden mussen, in dei Hauptsache beie-
its in einei Aibeit von H. Poincai enthalten sind, weide
ich mich doch dei Ubeisichtlichkeit halbei nicht auf jene
Aibeit stutzen.
Helge Kiagh, Fin-de-Siecle Physics A Woild Pic-
tuie in Flux in Qantum Geneiations A Histoiy of
Physics in the Twentieth Centuiy (Piinceton, NJ Piince-
ton Univeisity Piess, 1999.
18 Mass-Energy Equivalence
Te wiitings of Samuel Tolvei Pieston,
and a 1903 papei by Olinto De Pieuo, pie-
sented a mass-eneigy ielation. De Pieuos pa-
pei ieceived iecent piess coveiage when Um-
beito Baitocci discoveied that theie weie only
thiee degiees of sepaiation linking De Pieuo to
Einstein, leading Baitocci to conclude that Ein-
stein was piobably awaie of De Pieuos woik.

Pieston and De Pieuo, following Le Sage, imag-

ined that the univeise was lled with an ethei
of tiny paiticles which aie always moving at
speed c. Each of these paiticles have a kinetic
eneigy of mc
2
up to a small numeiical factoi.
Te non-ielativistic kinetic eneigy foimula did
not always include the tiaditional factoi of 1/2,
since Leibniz intioduced kinetic eneigy with-
out it, and the 1/2 is laigely conventional in
pie-ielativistic physics. By assuming that ev-
eiy paiticle has a mass which is the sum of the
masses of the ethei paiticles, the authois would
conclude that all mauei contains an amount of
kinetic eneigy eithei given by E = mc
2
oi
2E = mc
2
depending on the convention. A
paiticle ethei was usually consideied unaccept-
ably speculative science at the time, ' and since
. . . . ., 190.
(Russian)
Pieston, S. T., Physics of the Ethei, E. & F. N. Spon,
London, (18).
Bjeiknes S. Tolvei Piestons Explosive ldea E =
mc
2
.
MathPages Who lnvented Relativity`
De Pieuo, O. Reale Instituto Veneto Di Scienze, Leere
Ed Arti, LXlll, ll, 439-00, iepiinted in Baitocci.
Umbeito Baitocci, Albert Einstein e Olinto De
PreoLa vera storia della formula pi famosa del mondo,
editoie Andiomeda, Bologna, 1999.
Pientiss, J.J. (August 200), Why is the eneigy
of motion piopoitional to the squaie of the velocity`,
American Journal of Physics 73 (8) 0
' John Woiiall, ieview of the book Conceptions of
Ether. Studies in the History of Ether eories by Cantoi
and Hodges, Te Biitish Jouinal of the Philosophy of Sci-
ence vol 3, no 1, Maich 198, p. 84. Te aiticle contiasts
a paiticle ethei with a wave-caiiying ethei, the lauei was
acceptable.
these authois did not foimulate ielativity, theii
ieasoning is completely dieient fiom that of
Einstein, who used ielativity to change fiames.
lndependently, Gustave Le Bon in 190
speculated that atoms could ielease laige
amounts of latent eneigy, ieasoning fiom an
all-encompassing qualitative philosophy of
physics.
8.6 Radioactivity and nuclear en-
ergy
lt was quickly noted afei the discoveiy of ia-
dioactivity in 189, that the total eneigy due
to iadioactive piocesses is about one million
times gieatei than that involved in any known
moleculai change. Howevei, it iaised the ques-
tion wheie this eneigy is coming fiom. Afei
eliminating the idea of absoiption and emis-
sion of some soit of Lesagian ethei paiticles,
the existence of a huge amount of latent en-
eigy, stoied within mauei, was pioposed by
Einest Rutheifoid and Fiedeiick Soddy in 1903.
Rutheifoid also suggested that this inteinal en-
eigy is stoied within noimal mauei as well. He
went on to speculate in 1904
lf it weie evei found possible to
contiol at will the iate of disinte-
giation of the iadio-elements, an
enoimous amount of eneigy could
be obtained fiom a small quantity
of mauei.
Einsteins equation is in no way an explana-
tion of the laige eneigies ieleased in iadioactive
decay (this comes fiom the poweiful nucleai
foices involved, foices that weie still unknown
Le Bon Te Evolution of Foices.
Bizouaid Poincai lquation de Poincai, Einstein
et Planck.
Rutheifoid, Einest (1904), Radioactivity, Cam-
biidge Univeisity Piess, pp. 33-338
Heisenbeig, Weinei (198), Physics And Philos-
ophy Te Revolution ln Modein Science, New Yoik
Haipei & Biotheis, pp. 118-119
Wikipedia.org 19
in 190). ln any case, the enoimous eneigy ie-
leased fiom iadioactive decay (which had been
measuied by Rutheifoid) was much moie eas-
ily measuied than the (still small) change in the
gioss mass of mateiials, as a iesult. Einsteins
equation, by theoiy, can give these eneigies by
measuiing mass dieiences befoie and afei ie-
actions, but in piactice, these mass dieiences
in 190 weie still too small to be measuied in
bulk. Piioi to this, the ease of measuiing ia-
dioactive decay eneigies with a caloiimetei was
thought possibly likely to allow measuiement
of changes in mass dieience, as a check on
Einsteins equation itself. Einstein mentions in
his 190 papei that mass-eneigy equivalence
might peihaps be tested with iadioactive de-
cay, which ieleases enough eneigy (the quanti-
tative amount known ioughly by 190) to pos-
sibly be weighed, when missing fiom the sys-
tem (having been given o as heat). Howevei,
iadioactivity seemed to pioceed at its own unal-
teiable (and quite slow, foi iadioactives known
then) pace, and even when simple nucleai ieac-
tions became possible using pioton bombaid-
ment, the idea that these gieat amounts of us-
able eneigy could be libeiated at will with any
piacticality, pioved dicult to substantiate. lt
had been used as the basis of much specula-
tion, causing Rutheifoid himself to latei ieject
his ideas of 1904, he was iepoited in 1933 to
have said that Anyone who expects a souice
of powei fiom the tiansfoimation of the atom
is talking moonshine.
Tis situation changed diamatically in 1932
with the discoveiy of the neution and its mass,
allowing mass dieiences foi single nuclides
We might in these piocesses obtain veiy much
moie eneigy than the pioton supplied, but on the aveiage
we could not expect to obtain eneigy in this way. lt was
a veiy pooi and inecient way of pioducing eneigy, and
anyone who looked foi a souice of powei in the tians-
foimation of the atoms was talking moonshine. But the
subject was scientically inteiesting because it gave in-
sight into the atoms. Te Times aichives, Septembei 12,
1933, Te Biitish associationbieaking down the atom
and theii ieactions to be calculated diiectly,
and compaied with the sum of masses foi the
paiticles that made up theii composition. ln
1933, the eneigy ieleased fiom the ieaction of
lithium- plus piotons giving iise to 2 alpha
paiticles (as noted above by Rutheifoid), al-
lowed Einsteins equation to be tested to an ei-
ioi of 0.. Howevei, scientists still did not
see such ieactions as a souice of powei.
Afei the veiy public demonstiation of huge en-
eigies ieleased fiom nucleai ssion afei the
atomic bombings of Hiioshima and Nagasaki in
194, the equation E = mc
2
became diiectly
linked in the public eye with the powei and
peiil of nucleai weapons. Te equation was
featuied as eaily as page 2 of the Smyth Re-
poit, the ocial 194 ielease by the US govein-
ment on the development of the atomic bomb,
and by 194 the equation was linked closely
enough with Einsteins woik that the covei
of Time magazine piominently featuied a pic-
tuie of Einstein next to an image of a mush-
ioom cloud emblazoned with the equation.
Einstein himself had only a minoi iole in the
Manhauan Pioject he had cosigned a leuei to
the U.S. Piesident in 1939 uiging funding foi
ieseaich into atomic eneigy, waining that an
atomic bomb was theoietically possible. Te
leuei peisuaded Roosevelt to devote a signi-
cant poition of the waitime budget to atomic
ieseaich. Without a secuiity cleaiance, Ein-
steins only scientic contiibution was an anal-
ysis of an isotope sepaiation method in theoiet-
ical teims. lt was inconsequential, on account
of Einstein not being given sucient infoima-
tion (foi secuiity ieasons) to fully woik on the
pioblem.
While E = mc
2
is useful foi undeistanding
the amount of eneigy potentially ieleased in a
ssion ieaction, it was not stiictly necessaiy
to develop the weapon, once the ssion pio-
cess was known, and its eneigy measuied at
Covei. Time magazine, July 1, 194.
lsaacson, Einstein His Life and Univeise.
20 Mass-Energy Equivalence
Figuie 2 Te populai connection between Ein-
stein, E = mc
2
, and the atomic bomb was
piominently indicated on the covei of Time
magazine in July 194 by the wiiting of the
equation on the mushioom cloud itself.
200 MeV (which was diiectly possible, using a
quantitative Geigei countei, at that time). As
the physicist and Manhauan Pioject paiticipant
Robeit Seibei put it Somehowthe populai no-
tion took hold long ago that Einsteins theoiy
of ielativity, in paiticulai his famous equation
E = mc
2
, plays some essential iole in the the-
oiy of ssion. Albeit Einstein had a pait in
aleiting the United States goveinment to the
possibility of building an atomic bomb, but his
theoiy of ielativity is not iequiied in discussing
ssion. Te theoiy of ssion is what physicists
call a non-ielativistic theoiy, meaning that iel-
ativistic eects aie too small to aect the dy-
namics of the ssion piocess signicantly.
Howevei the association between E = mc
2
and
nucleai eneigy has since stuck, and because of
this association, and its simple expiession of the
ideas of Albeit Einstein himself, it has become
the woilds most famous equation.
While Seibeis view of the stiict lack of need
to use mass-eneigy equivalence in designing
the atomic bomb is coiiect, it does not take
into account the pivotal iole which this ie-
lationship played in making the fundamental
leap to the initial hypothesis that laige atoms
weie eneigetically allowed to split into appiox-
imately equal paits (befoie this eneigy was in
fact measuied). ln late 1938, while on the win-
tei walk on which they solved the meaning
of Hahns expeiimental iesults and intioduced
the idea that would be called atomic ssion,
Lise Meitnei and Ouo Robeit Fiisch made di-
iect use of Einsteins equation to help them un-
deistand the quantitative eneigetics of the ie-
action which oveicame the suiface tension-
like foices holding the nucleus togethei, and
allowed the ssion fiagments to sepaiate to a
Robeit Seibei, e Los Alamos Primer: e First Lec-
tures on How to Build an Atomic Bomb (Univeisity of Cal-
ifoinia Piess, 1992), page . Note that the quotation is
taken fiom Seibeis 1992 veision, and is not in the oiigi-
nal 1943 Los Alamos Piimei of the same name.
David Bodanis, E = mc
2
A Biography of the
Worlds Most Famous Equation (New Yoik Walkei, 2000).
Wikipedia.org 21
conguiation fiom which theii chaiges could
foice them into an eneigetic ssion. To do
this, they made use of packing fiaction, oi nu-
cleai binding eneigy values foi elements, which
Meitnei had memoiized. Tese, togethei with
use of E = mc
2
allowed them to iealize on the
spot that the basic ssion piocess was eneiget-
ically possible
We walked up and down in
the snow, l on skis and she on
foot. and giadually the idea
took shape explained by Bohis
idea that the nucleus is like a
liquid diop, such a diop might
elongate and divide itself We
knew theie weie stiong foices that
would iesist, ..just as suiface ten-
sion. But nuclei dieied fiom oi-
dinaiy diops. At this point we
both sat down on a tiee tiunk and
staited to calculate on sciaps of pa-
pei. the Uianium nucleus might
indeed be a gingei kid, ieady to
divide itself But, when the
two diops sepaiated they would
be diiven apait by electiical iepul-
sion, about 200 MeV in all. Foi-
tunately Lise Meitnei iemembeied
how to compute the masses of nu-
clei and woiked out that the two
nuclei foimed would be lightei
by about one-fh the mass of a
pioton. Now whenevei mass dis-
appeais eneigy is cieated, accoid-
ing to Einsteins foimula E = mc
2
,
and the mass was just equivalent
to 200 MeV, it all ued' '
' A quote fiom Fiisch about the discoveiy day. Ac-
cessed Apiil 4, 2009.