Sense Organs

Classification of sense organs

The sense organs are often classified as special sense organs and general sense organs.
Special sense organs, such as the eye, are characterized by large and complex organs or
by localized groupings of specialized receptors in areas such as the nasal mucosa or tongue.
The general sense organs for detecting stimuli such as pain and touch are microscopic receptors
widely distributed through out the body. Other general sense organs include receptors that
indicate the tension on our muscles and tendons so that we can maintain balance and muscle
tone and be aware of the positions of our body parts. Table 7-3classifies the special sense organs.
Converting stimulus into a sensation
ll sense organs, regardless of size, type, or location, ha!e in common some important functional
characteristics. "irst, they must be able to sense or detect a stimulus in their
en!ironment. Of course, different sense organs detect and respond to different types of stimuli in
different ways. #hether it is light, sound, temperature change, mechanical presence, or the
presence of chemicals identified as taste or smell, the stimulus must be changed into an
electrical signal or ner!e impulse. This signal is then transmitted o!er a ner!ous system
$pathway$ to the brain, where the sensation is percei!ed.
Table 7-3. Special Sense Organs
SENSE SPECIFIC ECEPTO T!PE OF SENSE
O"#N ECEPTO
Eye %ods and &ons 'hotoreceptor (ision
Ear
Nose
Taste buds
Organ of &orti
&ristae ampularis
Olfactory cells
)ustatory cells
*echanoreceptor
*echanoreceptor
&hemoreceptor
&hemoreceptor
+earing
,alance
Smell
Taste
1
Special sense organs
T$e E%e
#hen you loo- at a person.s eye you see only a small part of the whole eye. Three layers of tissue
form the eye ball/ the sclera, the choroids, and the retina 0"igure 7-123. The outer layer of sclera
consists of though fibrous tissue. The white of the eye is part of the front surface of the sclera. The
other part of the front surface of the sclera is called the cornea and is sometimes spo-en of as the
window of the eye because of its transparency. t a casual glance, howe!er, it does not loo-
transparent but appears blue, brown, gray, or green because it lies o!er the iris, the colored part
of the eye. mucous membrane -nown as the con4uncti!a lines the eyelids and co!ers the sclera
in front. The con4uncti!a is -ept moist by tears formed in the lacrimal gland located in the upper
lateral portion of the orbit.
The middle layer of the eyeball, the choroid, contains a dar- pigment to pre!ent the scattering of
incoming light rays. Two in!oluntary muscles ma-e up the front part of the choroids. One is the iris,
the colored structure seen through the cornea, and the othere is the ciliary muscle 0"igure 7-123.
The blac- center of the iris is really a hole in this doughnut-shaped muscle5 it is pupil of the
eye. Some of the fibers of the iris are arranged li-e spo-es in a wheel. #hen they contract
the pupils dilate, letting in more light rays. Other fibers are circular. #hen they contract, the
pupils constrict, letting fewer light rays. 6ormally, the pupils constrict in bright light and dilate
in dim light. #hen we loo- at distant ob4ects, the ciliary muscle is relaxed, and the lens has only
a slightly cur!ed shape.
Figure 7-&3. 'ori(ontal Section t$roug$ t$e )eft E%eball. T$e e%e is
vie*e+ from above 0Source/ &arola, %., +arley,7.'., 6obac- %.&., 018893,
+uman anatomy and physiology, *c )raw hill inc, 6ew :or-, 9
nd
ed,3
To focus on near ob4ects, howe!er, the ciliary muscle contract. s it contracts, it pulls the
choroids coat forward toward the lens, thus causing the lens to bulge and cur!e e!en more.
*ost of us become more farsighted as we grow older and lose the ability to focus on close
ob4ects because our lenses lose their elasticity and con no longer bulge enough to bring near
ob4ects into focus. 'resbyopia or oldsightedness is the name for this condition.
The retina or innermost layer of the eyeball contains microscopic receptor cells, called rods and
cones because of their shapes. ;im light can stimulate the rods, but fairly bright light is necessary
to stimulate the cones. <n other words, rods are the receptors for night !ision and cones for
daytime !ision. There are three -inds of cones5 each is sensiti!e to a different colour/ red, green, or
blue. Scattered throughout the central portion of the retina, these three types of cones allow us to
distinguish between different colours.
"luids fill the hollow inside of the eyeball. They maintain the normal shape of the eyeball and help
refract light rays5 that is, the fluids bend light rays to bring them to focus on the retina. =ueous
humor is the name of the watery fluid in front of the lens 0in the anterior ca!ity of the eye3, and
!itreous humor is the name of the 4ellyli-e fluid behind the lens 0in the posterior ca!ity3. =ueous
humor is constantly being formed, drained, and replaced in the anterior ca!ity. <f drainage is
bloc-ed for any reason, the internal pressure within the eye will increase, and damage that could
lead to blindness will occur. This condition is called glaucoma.
The lens of the eye lies directly behind the pupil. <t is held in place by a ligament attached to the
ciliary muscle. <n most young people, the lens is transparent and somewhat elastic so that it is
capable of changing shape. >xposure to ultra!iolet 0?(3 radiation in sunlight may cause cataracts
or mil-y spots on the lens. @arge or numerous cataracts may cause blindness. &ataracts
can be remo!ed surgically and replaced with artificial lenses.
,isual Pat$*a%
@ight is the stimulus that results in !ision 0that is our ability to see ob4ects as they exist in our
en!ironment3. @ight enters the eye through the pupil and is refracted or bent so that it is focused
on the retina. %efraction occurs as light passes through the cornea, the a=ueous humor, the lens,
and the !itreous humor on its way to the retina.
The innermost layer of the retina contains the rods and cones, which are the photoreceptor cells of
the eye 0"igure 7-1A3. They respond to a light stimulus by producing a ner!ous impulse. The rod
and cone photoreceptor cells synapse with neurons in the bipolar and ganglionic layers of the
retina. 6er!ous signals e!entually lea!e the retina and exit the eye through the optic ner!e on the
posterior surface of the eyeball. no rods or cones are present in the area of the retina where the
optic ner!e fibers exit. The result is a $ blind spot$ -nown as the optic disc 0"igure 7-133.
fter lea!ing the eye, the optic ner!es enter the brain and tra!el to the !isual cortex of the
occipital lobe. <n this area of the brain, !isual interpretation of the ner!ous impulses that were
generated by light stimuli in the rods and cones of the retina result in $seeing$.
Figure 7-&-. Cells of t$e etina 0Source/ &arola, %., +arley,7.'., 6obac-
%.&., 018893, +uman anatomy and physiology, *c )raw hill inc, 6ew :or-,
9
nd
ed,3
T$e Ear
<n addition to its role in hearing, the ear also functions as the sense organ of e=uilibrium and
balance. s we shall later see, the stimulation or $trigger$ that acti!ates receptors in!ol!ed with
hearing and e=uilibrium is mechanical, and the receptors themsel!es are called
mechanoreceptors. 'hysical forces that in!ol!e sound !ibrations and fluid mo!ements are
responsible for initiating ner!ous impulses e!entually percei!ed as sound and balance.
The ear is much more than a mere appendage on the side of the head. large part of the ear,
and by far its most important part, lies hidden from !iew deep inside the temporal bone. <t is
di!ided into the following anatomical areas 0"igure 7-1A3.
1. >xternal ear
9. *iddle ear
3. <nner 0internal3 ear
Figure 7-&.. T$e Ear. E/ternal0 mi++le an+ inner ear 0Source/ &arola, %.,
+arley,7.'., 6obac- %.&., 018893, +uman anatomy and physiology, *c )raw
hill inc, 6ew :or-, 9
nd
ed,3
E/ternal ear
The external ear has two parts/ the auricle or pinna and the external auditory
canal. The auricle is the appendage on the side of the head surrounding the opening of the
external auditory canal. The canal itself is a cur!e about 9.A cm 01 inch3 in length. <t extends
into the temporal bone and ends at the tympanic membrane or eardrum, which is a partition
between the external and middle ear. The s-in of the auditory canal, especially in its outer one
third, contains many short hairs and ceruminous glands that produce a waxy substance called
cerumen that may collect in the canal and impair hearing by absorbing or bloc-ing the
passage of sound wa!es. Sound wa!es tra!elling through the external auditory canal stri-e the
tympanic membrane and cause it to !ibrate.
1i++le Ear
The middle ear is a tiny and !ery thin epithelium lined ca!ity hollowed out of the temporal bone. <t
houses three !ery small bones. The names of these ear bones, called ossicles, describe their
shapes malleus 0hammer3, incus 0an!il3, and stapes 0stirrup3. The $handle$ of the malleus
attaches to the inside of the tympanic membrane, and the $head$ attaches to the incus. The incus
attaches to the stapes, and the stapes presses against a membrane that co!ers a small opening,
the o!al window. The o!al window separates the middle ear from the inner ear. #hen sound
wa!es cause the eardrum to !ibrate, that mo!ement is transmitted and amplified by the ear
ossicles as it passes through the middle ear.
*o!ement of the stapes against the o!al window causes mo!ement of fluid in the inner ear. point
worth mentioning, because it explains the fre=uent spread of infection from the throat to the ear, is
the fact that a tube the auditory or eustachian tube connects the throat with the middle ear.
The epithelial lining of the middle ears, auditory tubes, and throat are extensions of one continuous
membrane. &onse=uently a sore throat may spread to produce a middle ear infection called otitis
media.
Inner Ear
The acti!ation of specialized mechanoreceptors in the inner ear generates ner!ous impulses that
result in hearing and e=uilibrium. natomically, the inner ear consists of three spaces in the
temporal bone, assembled in a complex maze called the bony labrynth. This odd shaped bony
space is filled with a watery fluid called perilymph and is di!ided into the following parts/ !estibule,
semicircular canals, and cochlea. The !estibule is ad4acent to the o!al window between the
semicircular canals and the cochlea 0"igure 7-1B3. 6ote in "igure 7-1B that a ballonli-e
membranous sac is suspended in the perilymph and follows the shape of the bony labyrinth
much li-e a $tube within a tube.$ This is a membranous labyrinth, and it is filled with a thic-er
fluid called endolymph.
Figure 7-&2 T$e Inner ear 0Source/ &arola, %., +arley,7.'., 6obac- %.&.,
018893, +uman anatomy and physiology, *c )raw hill inc, 6ew :or-, 9
nd
ed,3
>CT>%6@ >% *<;;@> >% <66>% >%
Figure 7-&7 Effect of Soun+ 3ave on Coc$lear Structure 0Source/ &arola,
%., +arley,7.'., 6obac- %.&., 018893, +uman anatomy and physiology, *c
)raw hill inc, 6ew :or-, 9
nd
ed,3
The specialized membranoreceptors for balance and e=uilibrium are located in
the three semicircular canals and the !estibule. The three half-circle semicircular canals are
oriented at right angles to one another 0"igure 7-1B3. #ithin each canal is a specialized receptor
called a crista ampullaris, which generates a ner!e impulse when you mo!e your head. The
sensory cells in the cristae ampullares ha!e hair li-e extensions that are suspended in the
endolymph. The sensory cells are stimulated when mo!ement of the head causes the endolymph
to mo!e, thus causing the hairs to bend. 6er!es from other receptors in the !estibule 4oin
those from the semicircular canals to form the !estibular ner!e, a di!ision of the acoustic ner!e or
cranial ner!e (<<< 0"igure 7-1B3. >!entually, ner!ous impulses passing through this ner!e reach
the cerebellum and medulla. Other connections from these areas result in impulses reaching the
cerebral cortex.
The organ of hearing, which lies in the snail shaped cochlea, is the organ of &orti. <t is surrounded
by endolymph filling the membranous cochlea or cochlear duct, which is the membranous tube
within the bony cochlea. Specialized hair cells on the organ of &orti generate ner!e impulses when
they are bent by the mo!ement or endolymph set in motion by sound wa!es 0"igures 7-1B and 7-
173.
T$e Taste eceptors
The chemical receptors that generate ner!ous impulses resulting in the sense of taste are called
taste buds. bout 1D,DDD of these microscopic receptors are found on the sides of much larger
structure on the tongue called papillae and also as portions of other tissues in the mouth and
throat. 6er!ous impulses are generated by specialized cells in taste buds, called gustatory cells.
They respond to dissol!ed chemicals in the sali!a that bathe the tongue and mouth tissues
0"igure 7- 1E3.
Figure 7-&4. T$e Tongue. #0 5orsal surface an+ regions sensitive to
various tastes. 60 Enlarge+ vie* of a section t$roug$ a taste bu+.
0Source/ &arola, %., +arley,7.'., 6obac- %.&., 018893, +uman anatomy and
physiology, *c )raw hill inc, 6ew :or-, 9
nd
ed,3
Only four -inds of taste sensationssweet, sour, bitter, and saltyresult from stimulation of taste
buds. ll other fla!ors result from a combination of taste bud and olfacctory receptor stimulation.
<n other words, the myriads of tastes recognized are not tastes alone but tastes plus odors. "or
this reason a cold that interferes with the stimulation of the olfactory receptors by odors from
foods in the mouth mar-edly dulls taste sensations. 6er!ous impulses generated by
stimulation of taste buds tra!el primarily through two cranial ner!es 0(<< and <C3 to end
specialized taste area of the cerebral cortex.
T$e Smell eceptors
The chemical receptors responsible for the sense of smell are located in a small area of epithelial
tissue in the upper part o the nasal ca!ity 0"igure 7-183. The location of the olfactory receptors is
somewhat hidden, and we are often forced to forcefully sniff air to smell delicate odors. >ach
olfactory cell has a number of specialized cilia that sense different chemicals and cause the
cell to respond by generating a ner!ous impulse. To be detected by olfactory receptors, chemicals
must be dissol!ed in the watery mucus that lines the nasal ca!ity.
18B
Figure 7-&7. Olfactor% structures 0Source/ &arola, %., +arley,7.'., 6obac- %.&., 018893, +uman anatomy and
physiology, *c )raw hill inc, 6ew :or-, 9
nd
ed,3
lthough the olfactory receptors are extremely sensiti!e 0that is, stimulated by e!en !ery slight
odors3, they are also easily fatigued Fa fact that explains why odors that are at first !ery
noticeable are not sensed at all after a short time. fter the olfactory cells are stimulated by odor-
causing chemicals, the resulting ner!e impulse tra!els through the olfactory ner!es in the olfactory
bulb and tract and then enters the thalamic and olfactory centers of the brain, where the ner!ous
impulses are interpreted as specific odors. The pathways ta-en by olfactory ner!e impulses and
the area where these impulses are interpreted are closely associated with areas of the brain
important in memory and emotion. "or this reason, we may retain !i!id and long-lasting memories
of particular smells and odors.
Temporary reduction of sensiti!ity to smells often results from colds and other nasal infections.
'rogressi!e reduction of the sense of smells often seen in smo-ers because of the damaging
effects the pollutants in tobacco smo-e. <n olfaction, as with all the special senses, ad!ancing age
often brings a structural degeneration that result in reduced function. <t is no wonder that many
older adults become isolated and depressed when their contact with the outside world, the
special senses, is gradually lost. &aring health professionals recognize these signs of aging
and pro!ide assistance needed by their aged patients to en4oy life.
"eneral Sense Organs
)roups of highly specialized and localized receptors are typically associated with the special
senses. <n the sense organs, howe!er, receptors are found in almost e!ery part of the body. To
demonstrate this fact, try touching any point pf your s-in with the tip of a toothpic-. :ou can
hardly miss stimulating at least one receptor and almost instantaneously experiencing a
sensation of touch. Stimulation of some receptors leads to the sensation of heat5 Stimulation of
others gi!es the sensation of cold, and stimulation of still others gi!es the sensation of pain or
pressure. )eneral sense receptors are illustrated in "igure 7-9D. #hen special receptors in the
muscles and 4oints are stimulated, you sense the position of the different parts of the body and
-now whether they are mo!ing and in which direction they are mo!ing without e!en loo-ing at
them. 'erhaps you ha!e ne!er realized that you ha!e this sense of position and mo!ement a
sense called proprioception or -inaesthesia.
Epit$elium
Tactile
Corpuscle
Figure 7-89. "eneral Sense eceptors. #0 1eissner:s corpuscle. 60 Pacinian corpuscle. C0 Free nerve en+ing. 50
uffini:s corpuscle. E0 ;rause:s en+-bulb. 0"rom Thibodeau, )ary . and Ge!in T. The +uman ,ody in +ealth
and ;isease, ed. B, 'hiladelphia, 18E7, 7.,.@ippincot &ompany3
;isruption of general sense organs can occur by a !ariety of mechanisms. "or example, third
degree burns can completely destroy general sense receptors throughout the affected area.
Temporary impairment of general sense receptors occurs when the blood flow to them is
slowed. This commonly occurs when you put your legs in a position that presses your legs in a
way that reduces blood flow. #hen you try to stand up, you cannot feel you legs because the
general sense organs are temporarily impaired. :ou may not e!en be able to wal- because you
cannot tell where you legs are without loo-ing at them. s blood flow returns, reacti!ation of the
sense organs may produce a tingling sensation.
evie* <uestions
1. #hat general function does the ner!ous system performH
9. #hat other system performs the same general function as
the ner!ous systemH
3. ;escribe a ner!e impulse. +ow does conduction along a
myelinated fiber differ from conduction along an
unmyelinated fiberH
2. #hat are neurotransmittersH )i!e se!eral examples
ofneurotransmitters.
A. ;ifferentiate between the terms in each of the following
pairs/
a. axon and dendrite
b. gray matter and white matter
c. receptor and effector
d. afferent and efferent
e. sensory and motor
f. ner!e and tract
B. #hat is a mixed ner!eH )i!e se!eral examples.
7. 6ame the components of a reflex arc.
E. 6ame and locate the main parts of the brain, and briefly
describe the main functions of each.
8. 6ame the four surface lobes of the cerebral hemispheres
and describe functions of the cortex in each.
1D. ;escribe the thalamus5 where is it locatedH #hat are its
functionsH
11. #hat acti!ities does the hypothalamus regulateH
19. 6ame and locate three di!isions of the brain stem.
13. @ocate and describe the spinal cord. 6ame three of its
functions.
12. ;ifferentiate between the dorsal and !entral roots of a
spinal ner!e.
1A. ;efine a plexus. 6ame the three main plexuses of the
spinal ner!es.
1B. 6ame four general functions of the cranial ner!es.
17. 6ame and describe the functions of the 19 cranial ner!es.
1E. 6ame the co!ering of the brain and the spinal cord. 6ame
and describe its three layers.
18. #hat is the purpose of the cerebrospinal fluidH #here
and how is the cerebrospinal fluid formedH
9D. #hat are the functions of the sympathetic part of the
autonomic ner!ous system, and how do these compare
with those of the parasympathetic ner!ous systemH I