PROBLEME CONTROVERSATE DE MORFOLOGIE SI SINTAXA A LIMBII ENGLEZE

Alina Pana


Obiective principale: Scopul urmarit de acest curs consta in perfectionarea si
aprofundarea cunostintelor dobandite anterior de studenti in domeniul limbii engleze
Trecerea in revista a principalelor puncte de reper in studiul categoriilor verbale,
al tipologiei predicatiei si al complementatiei este insotita de aplicatii menite sa
largeasca si sa imbogateasca competentele studentilor in performarea corecta a
analizelor sintactico-morfologice utilizand un metalimbaj adecvat, sa le faciliteze accesul
la un aparat teoretic-metodic util atat unui utilizator al limbii engleze cat si unui viitor
cercetator in domeniul lingvisticii.

Tematica
Tematica prelegerilor este urmatoarea
I) Morphology: Derivation vs. Inflection; Categories: Lexical categories vs. Functional
categories.Verbal categories:Tense . Time reflected by tense. ; Tense: a deictic
category.Time adverbials and tense inflections . Reichenbach's model (ST,RT,ET) The
semantic description of the tenses of the Indicative
II) Aspect:definition The main aspectual opposition.Situation-type aspect vs
Grammatical aspect. Vendler's aspectual classification of VPs; Syntactic tests performed
to identify the aspectual classes, Recategorizations undergone by the classes of VPs;
the imperfective paradox
III)Modality : definition. Ways of expressing modality in English. Defining criteria for
modals. Deontic modality vs. Epistemic modality. Hoffman's disambiguating tests. The
description of modal verbs .Mood :definition. The Indicative vs. the Subjunctive. Types of
subjunctive.The distribution of the Subjunctive in independent and subordinate
sentences
IV)Predication. Structural and logico-semantic tasks . The syntactic property of
transitivity. Copulative predication; Copula and Copula-like verbs; Typology of
predicatives.
V)Non copulative Intransitives. Simple intransitive verbs. Complex intransitives.
Intransitivisation
VI)Transitive predication. Syntactically simple transitives.Syntactically complex
transitives
VII)Complementation; Types of complement clauses; THAT clauses: transformations
and patterns;The distribution of THAT clauses
VIII)Infinitive clauses vs. THAT clauses. Characteristic features of Infinitive
constructions. Changes undergone by the subject of Infinitive Complement Clauses; The
distribution of Infinitive constructions, Classes of SSR and SOR triggers;
IX)Gerundial clauses vs THAT clauses and Infinitive clauses. Types of Gerundial
constructions. Transformations undergone by Gerundial Clauses. The distribution of
Gerundial Clauses. Gerund vs Infinitive. Gerund vs Participle



Bibliografie minima obligatorie:
1)Crainiceanu, I. -- Elements of English Morphology, Editura Fundatiei Romania de
Maine, Bucuresti 2007
p.86-196
2) Dutescu- Coliban,T --Aspects of English Morphology , Editura Fundatiei
Romania de Maine, Bucuresti 2000 p. 150-242
3)Leech,G --Meaning and the English Verb, Longman, London 1971 (available in
the faculty library)
4)Serban, D --The Syntax of English Predications, Editura Fundatiei Romania de
Maine, Bucuresti 2006
5)Serban. D, Hatagan,R and Moisescu,D --English Syntax Workbook -Editura
Fundatiei Romania de Maine Bucuresti 2004
6)Tudosescu, A -- Syntax 2 .Lecture Notes, copies available in the faculty library
(unpublished ms) 2002

Bibliografie optionala
1)Cornilescu,A ; Iclezan Dimitriu, I. Accuracy and Fluency, Institutul European, Iasi ,
1996
2)Cornilescu, A --Concepts of Modern Grammar, Bucharest University Press,
Bucharest 1996
3)Cornilescu ,A --English Syntax , vol 2 , TUB, 1984
4)Vince,M --Advanced English Practice, Heinemann, 1994


I) Morphology: Derivation vs. Inflection; Categories: Lexical categories vs.
Functional categories.Verbal categories:Tense . Time reflected by tense. ; Tense:
a deictic category.Time adverbials and tense inflections . Reichenbach's model
(ST,RT,ET) The semantic description of the tenses of the Indicative



Morphology is that branch of grammar that studies the structure of words, dealing
with both word formation and inflection. Consequently there are two sub-branches of
morphology
-derivational morphology- studies word formation ( by prefixation, suffixation,
compounding)
-inflectional morphology- studies inflection

Both inflectional markers and derivational markers are attached to a base. However
the effect exerted by derivation and inflection on the lexical class of the base is different.
Derivational affixes change the lexical class of the base in most cases, adding extra
elements of meaning eg. : bright- brighten, build - building, nation- national . Diminutive
suffixes do not change the lexical category of the base : book- booklet
Inflectional markers do not change the lexical category of the base as all the inflected
forms are variants of the same part of speech organized in paradigms. The members of
a paradigm are in complementary distribution eg: go-goes-went-gone-going represent
the inflected forms of the verb to go
Lexical categories stand for what traditional linguists call " parts of speech" and
structuralists "form class or morpheme class"
Within the class of lexical categories we include the following parts of speech : noun
(N), verb (V), adjective (A),adver(Adv), preposition (P), particle (Prt).Each lexical
category has a corresponding functional grammatical category. Unlike lexical categories
functional categories are deprived of descriptive meaning and are organized in closed
classes.
For the lexical category of V the corresponding functional category is the
auxiliary(Aux). The auxiliary includes the grammatical markers of Tense, Aspect, Mood .
(eg. She may have been waiting)

The verbal categories are tense, aspect, mood and modality.
TENSE- is defined as the chronological order od events in time as perceived by the
speaker at the moment of speaking
Tense grammatical form
Time physical notion
Time has a linear representation which preserves the sequential order of
events in the perception of the world.
properties: durationally infinite
segmentable
reversible or bi-directional (in Physics)
unidirectional and irreversible for human beings
The division of time into segments is performed by two different procedures:
1) a personal, subjective estimation of time personal time human
emotions function as an instrument.
2) a public estimate based on the periodicity of natural phenomena public
time or clock time
To be able to order perceived events one has to set them in relation to another
event that serves as an orientation criterion and creates an axis of orientation.
An axis of orientation has a source event relative to which a chronological
order can be established for the perceived events. These events can take place:
sequentially with the source event: before or after
simultaneously with the source event
The primary axis of orientation is The PRESENT
I. Present axis of orientation includes the following tenses:
simple present
present perfect
simple future

II. The Past axis contains:
-past
- past perfect
- future in the past

III The Future axis includes:

-Simple Future
} related with the Present Point (PP)
-Future Perfect

-Future in the past
} related with the Retrospective Point (RP)
-Future perfect in the past

H. Reichenbach (1947) gave a semantic interpretation of Tense in terms of
PRIMITIVES (ST, RT, ET) along the axis of time representation
Speech Time (ST) = the time at which a certain sentence is uttered (the moment of
speech)
Reference Time (RT) = the time indicated by the sentence (present, past or future)
Event Time (ET) = the moment when the relevant event occurs
Tense = a ST, RT, ET configuration structured by relations of simultaneity and
sequency (Reichenbach)
Tense = a deictic category: the moment now of initiating speech is central in
the sense that time, past or future, represents a direction the orientation of which
depends on it
ST=always now
RT = a combination of tense inflections and time adverbials
While ST and ET are pragmatically observable, RT represents an abstract moment of
time postulated by the linguist. It plays a mediating role between ST and ET. Tense
inflection and time adverbials must have compatible relational values, otherwise the
string is ungrammatical.
eg. Sue left yesterday
*Sue left tomorow
Reichenbach's theory conceives tense as a complex made up of three points in time
(ST/RT/ET) but more recent studies suggest that we should replace the concept of point
in time by that of time intervals as there are very few events that could be considered
momentary (instantaneous). The great majority of events last for a period of time , they
require an interval of time to happen.
The temporal value of adverbials
1) Anchored adverbials have explicit relations with the moment of speech(ST)
eg.yesterday , tomorrow , now
2) Non-anchored adverbials their temporal interpretation is not determined relative to
ST
eg. on Tuesday, in July
Time adverbials are classified according to their meaning:
1) Anterior (<--): yesterday, -ago, last-, in July, on Tuesday
2) Simultaneous (=): now, right now, at this moment
3) Posterior (-->): tomorrow, next-, in-, on Tuesday, in July
Time adverbials include adverbs, adverb phrases and subordinate adverbial
clauses. In sentences without time adverbials a larger context may act as a time
adverbial. In temporally vague sentences lacking time adverbials the temporal
interpretation associated with RT is that of simultaneity as a the tendency is to choose
the interpretation that requires the least additional information.

E.T.= specified with the help of prepositions that are part of the adverbial phrase
at=simultaneity
before=anteriority ------------------- to RT
after= posteriority

-already=anteriority
-the auxiliary have - ET precedes RT (anteriority)
ST, RT, ET combine to give the abstract temporal representation of a sentence , the so
called ATR
e.g. Allan played golf before noon
ST=now
ATR--------------- RT= noon, simple past RT<---ST
ET=before ET<----RT

Temporal adverbs contribute to the location of a situation in time. Some adverbs have
aspectual value , they can occur only with a certain type of situation. In other cases the
aspectual features of a predication are at variance with the aspectual properties of a
temporal adverb so the two cannot co-occur.The clash between the incompatible
aspectual properties of the two is sometimes rezolved by a contextual recategorization
or a shift in the aspectual class of the respective predication
According to Bennet and Hall-Pantee (1972,1978) and Smith (1978) we can
distinguish the following classes of temporal adverbs
a)Completive Adverbs / Containers
b)Durative Adverbs
c)Locating Adverbs / Frame Adverbs
d)Frequency Adverbs

A)Completive Adverbs (also termed "containers" or "adverbs of the interval") have
the role to locate a situation at an interval during which the event reaches it's highest
point or climax. They are endowed with the aspectual value and are compatible with telic
situations and they are at variance with atelic ones. They combine with events
(accomplishments and achievements). The strings with activities and states are
ungrammatical
Completive adverbs include expresions of the type "in x time" such in 3 hours, within
two years, in ten seconds etc
e.g The priest wrote a sermon in 2 hours
* Mary ate sandwiches in half an hour
* John resembled his father in ten seconds

B)Duration Adverbs- are used to specify the lenght of time a certain situation is
asserted to take. The stated intervals are not specifically confined to future or past.
They have aspectual value and are compatible with atelic situations (states and
activities/processes). The aspectual features of telic events are incompatible with the
aspectual properties of the durative adverbs
e.g. The two lovers danced for half an hour
He owned the cottage for ten years
* The helicopter landed for ten minutes
Some telic non-homogeneous situations (either punctual or durative) can occur with
the durative adverbs andare recategorized as atelic/durative situations . They acquire
new values such as "incompletion" or "iteration"
e.g.The priest wrote a sermon for two hours ->incompletion ("He wrote at the sermon
without finishing it")
He kicked the ball for ten minutes -> iterative meaning ( a momentary event
becomes a repeated process)
Durative adverbials include expressions such as "for x time", "since x time", "all the
evening" , "half the evening", "during the summer holiday" , "always" "from March to/till
July" etc
The durative temporal phrase "since x time" can occur with both homogeneous and
non-homogeneous situations but the usage is restricted exclusively to the present
perfect tense. The since adverbis an indefinite one although it is translated into
Romanian by means of a definite adverb : the de-phrase

C)Locating Adverbs or Frame Adverbs - are used to locate situations in time by
relating them to other times or other situations (Smith 1991) They require an orientation
point and they mirror relations of simultaneity ans sequence. Depending on the time of
orientation these adverbs fall into three sub-classes:
1)deictic adverbs- explicitly valued to ST
e.g. today, tomorrow, this week/year, last Friday etc
2)anaphoric adverbs- oriented to a previously established time
e.g. on Monday, in June, early in two days, already etc
3)referential adverbs - relate to a time established by the clock or calendar
e.g. in 1989, on the 1st of June, at five etc

D)Frequency Adverbs - indicate the recurrent accurence of a situation within the
reference interval. Aspectually, a series of individual events taht occur with a given
frequency within the reference interval make up a state
They include expresions such as: often, never, oncea day, usually, daily, yearly, every
week/month/year, on Sundays



Semantic Values of Tenses in English
I. The Simple Present Tense
1) Generic use
to express eternal truths
to express general laws in scientific language
in proverbs
in geographical statements
e.g.: London stands on the Thames
in prescriptive statements
e.g.: In chess, bishops move diagonally
imply the presence of the adverbial always
no reference to a particular moment or situation or individual is intended

2) Habitual value
indicates that a situation is repeated with a given frequency during an interval
does not specify a particular event or a particular moment of time
adverbials of frequency: rarely, often, never, usually, every morning, three
times a week, most days etc.
refers to an individual or an object
e.g.: The milkman calls on Sundays.

3) Instantaneous value
picks out a particular event and a particular moment of time is referred to
the event is assumed to be simultaneous with the moment of speaking
used in: - sports commentaries
- demonstrations
- stage directions
- with performative verbs such as: name, sentence, pronounce, etc.
e.g.: I hereby pronounce you man and wife
- the speaker must have the social position to use this verb
-exclamations starting with here or there e.g. Here comes the bride!

4) Future value
a) in simple sentences with an explicit future adverbial to refer to official or collective
arrangements considered unalterable. It occurs with timetables , itineraries, schedules
e.g. The plane takes off at 9 o'clock tomorrow
b) in subordinate adverbial clauses of time and condition introduced by : if, unless,
when,as soon as, before, after, etc. e.g I won't go to the party if she doesn't invite me
I shall give her the present when she comes back

5) Past value (historic present) the relating of past events as if they were going
on at the present time.
e.g.: At that moment in comes a messenger.
with verbs of linguistic communication: tell, hear, listen ,say
e.g.: The ten oclock news says its going to be cold.
in newspaper headlines announcing recent events
e.g.: Ex-Champ dies
in novels as a stylistic device

II.The Present Progresive-has the following values
1) event-now-in-progress value
-to refer to temporary situations including ST in their time span (framing effect). In
association with states it may denote deliberate behaviour e.g. You are being tolerant
today!
2)habitual / iterative value
- unlike the habitual Simple Present associated with an indefinitely long period, the
Progressive refers to " a habit in existence over a limited period". A side-meaning of the
iterative is that of persistent activity having an annoying or amusing efect on the
speaker. e.g. She is constantly complaining about her husband
3)"anticipated event" (or future) value
- to express a definite plan in the near future e.g. I am finishing my paper tomorrow
night.
4)"polite use "
-to reinforce the idea of" lack of commitment"

III. The Simple Past Tense
1) Deictic use
creates a retrospective axis of orientation
locates an event at some specified time in the past
2) Habitual value
expresses recurrence of a past event
requires a frequency adverbial whose determiner is indefinite
eg.: three times a week
3) Past Perfect value
presents two consecutive events
e.g.: He knocked and entered.
4) Future value
a stylistic device used in SF
a make-believe technique employed in virtue of a convention that requires
that past events should be narrated in the simple past. Future events are narrated as
if they were recollected, not anticipated.
5) Present value
in everyday conversation to make questions more polite and less pressing.
e.g.: I wondered if youd look after my dog while I go shopping.

IV . Past Tense Progressive
1)temporary value
-to expres temporary or incomplete activities of limited duration e.g. They were playng
chess this time yesterday.
2)habitual / iterative value
-with the same connotation of limited duration like the Present Progressive
3)anticipated event (future in the past) value e.g. I went to bed at 10 o'clock as I was
leaving for Paris the next day.
4)polite use .

V. The Present Perfect
1) Indefinite Past Theory
the time reference of the Present Perfect is indefinite (it locates events before
the moment of speaking, but without pointing to any particular moment)
The time reference of Past Time is definitely specified.
2) The Extended Now Theory
the Present Perfect is a marker of prior events which are included within the
overall period of the present the extended now RT = ST
the Past Tense marks events assigned to a past which is concluded and
separate from the extended present RT <--ST
3)The Current Relevance Theory (CR)
According to Jespersen(1931) it is only the Present Perfect that purports current
relevance at the moment now. The Past Tense does not evince this feature. Later this
theory on the pragmatics of the present perfect was resumed as the "discourse topic"
theory. The discourse topic represents the subject matter under discussion in a certain
context and consequently a sentence may be used in the present perfect or the past
tense depending on its being pragmatically felicitous , i.e. its discourse topic meets the
demands imposed by the use of the present perfect or the past tense

The values of this tense are
1) state-up-to-the-present (the continuative Present Perfect)
e.g. Have you known my cousin Sue for a long time?
2)habitual Present Perfect
e.g.John has played golf in this club for seven years
3)experiential Present Perfect or indefinite past use
e.g. Have you ever listened to Michael Bolton?
4)resultative Present Perfect
e.g The helicopter has landed
5)"hot news" Present Perfect
e.g.A famous DJ has been shot in a disco.
6)future value
e.g. We shall go for a drive when I have finished my essay

VI The Present Perfect Progressive- its values are the following
1)temporary situation up to the present
e.g.She has been living in this hostel for weeks now
2)incomplete event
e.g. I have been digging the garden for the last two hours (I haven't finished the job
yet)
3)resultative value
e.g "Your hands are dirty " "I have been repairing the car"

VII. Past Perfect
specifies that an event occurred in an interval of time that started in the past
up to the retrospective point, RP (then) which must be specified
-the Past Perfect (Simple and Progressive) is similar to the Present Perfect (Simple
and Progressive)
excepting the fact that temporally it is placed on the past axis. Its values are similar to
those of the Present Perfect

VIII. Means of expressing futurity - In English the tense opposition is that between
past/non-past. Unlike other European languages which have a one-to-one
correspondence between the three time relations Past, Present , Future and the tense
inflections , English has only two verbal inflections -(e)s for the Present and -ed for the
Past. As present tense denotes both present and future time , many linguists call it non-
past . The linguistic means of expresing futurity in English are either modal or aspectual
since epistemic modality can describe non factual, possible, potential situations while
the use of the progresive belongs to the aspectual sphere.
The means of expresing futurity are the following
1) Simple Present with future value
2) Will / Shall Future for predictions
3) Will / Shall + Progressive infinitive prediction
4) The Present Progressive with future value to express:
a) human volition
b) planned actions
c) arrangements
d) imminence
5) Be-Going to- Future to express:
a) future fulfilment of present intention
e.g.: Im going to stay at home and write.
b) future fulfilment of present cause
e.g.: Shes going to have a baby. (Shes already pregnant.)
6) Future Perfect = specifies a situation that takes place in the interval of time
that starts before the RT, which in this case is future
7)Be+to infinitive- arrangements

Topics for further discussion and self-assesment tests
1)What aspects of language does morphology deal with?
2)Discriminate between derivational affixes and inflectional ones
3)State the difference between public and personal time
4)Define the three primitives and explain how we specify each of them in a sentence
5)Why is tense a deictic category
6)Enumerate and illustrate the values of the Present Tense Simple
7)Enumerate and illustrate the values of the Past Tense Simple
8)Enumerate and illustrate the values of the Present Perfect Simple
9)Enumerate and illustrate the main means of expressing futurity in English
10)What have modern linguists suggested instead of the traditional three way tense
distinction for English? How is their choice motivated?
11)Discuss the factors of the opposition Past Tense vs. Present Perfect
12)Discriminate between Present Tense Simple and Present Tense Continous

Examples of exam questions

1)Match the underlined verb with the appropriate value of the Present Tense:
So on Friday, Terry tells Lila to be ready for a surprise
1)Generic value
2)Habitual value
3)Instantaneous value
4)Past Tense value
5)Future value

Ans. 4

2)Match the underlined verb with the appropriate value of the Present Progressive:
My wife is having a headache
1)habit in existence over a limited period of time
2)polite use
3)present arrangement
4)annoying habitual activity
5)action in progress at ST
6)deliberate behaviour

Ans. 6

3)Specify which of the following adverbials can be used :
a)only with the Past Tense
b)only with the Present Perfect
c)with both tenses
d)with neither of the tenses

1)recently
2)so far
3) in two weeks' time
4)for a fortnight

Ans. 1c, 2b, 3d, 4c

4)Match the underlined verb with the appropriate value of the Present Perfect
I've had interviews all the year but I still don't have a job.
1)Resultative Perfect
2)"Hot News" Perfect
3)Continuative perfect
4)Iterative Perfect
5)Experiential Perfect

Ans.4

5)Match the underlined verb with the appropriate means of expressing futurity
The plane will be landing shortly
1)Present arrangement
2)Prediction
3)Matter-of-course future
4)Future fullfilment of present intention
5)Future fullfilment of present course
6)Timetable future

Ans. 3


II) Aspect:definition The main aspectual opposition. Vendler's aspectual
classification of VPs; Syntactic tests performed to identify the aspectual classes,
Recategorizations undergone by the classes of VPs; the imperfective paradox


Aspect
I. Aspects
different ways of viewing the internal temporal constituency of a situation
a non-deictic category; it relates the time of the event described in the
sentence to a time of reference past
present
future
II. Perfectivity versus Imperfectivity is the main aspectual opposition.
a) the perfective aspect presents a situation in its totality without concern for
its internal phases
b) the imperfective aspect presents a situation as divided into internal phases.
The aspectual system of languages is made up of two componets : The aspectual
opposition perfective/imperfective which instantiates grammaticla aspect and the
aspectual situation-type component. The latter is semantic in nature and its
interpretation is decided at the level of the whole predication (i.e. the meaning of the
verb and its arguments) Both components are defined and identified by means of their
temporal
structure. Semantically , we disambiguate between the two aspectual components by
means of the following feature: [ + stative] , [ + telic] [ + durative] and compositionality.
1) [ + stative] divides the situation types into states and non-states. Non-states are
dynamic, they involve causation , activity and change
2) [ + telic] devides the situation-types into telic situation-types which are goal-
oriented and atelic situations which can be terminated at any time. Telic events have a
natural/inherent end-point while atelic events have an arbitrary end-point.
3) [ + durative] divides aspectual situations into durative situations and punctual
(instantaneous) ones.
4) Compositionality - the aspectual interpretation of a sentence is established at the
level of verb constellation (i.e. the verb and its arguments)
e.g. John ate a sandwich
V [+telic]+Noun [count]=VP[accomplishment ,+telic]
John ate popcorn
V[+telic] + Noun[mass]= VP [activity,-telic]

III. Vendlers Aspectual Classification of Verbs
Time the basic concept used for the description of a VP
There are 4 classes of verbs: states, activities, accomplishments, achievements.
IV. Syntactic Tests Performed to Identify the Aspectual Classes of Verbs
1) The Imperative test
only activities and accomplishments admit the imperative
2) The Progressive Test
only activities and accomplishments are used in the progressive
3) Modification by the adverbs: carefully, deliberately, willingly
only activities and accomplishments admit such adverbs
4) Complementation by Force / Persuade
only activities and accomplishments admit complementation by the verbs
to force / to persuade
e.g.: I persuaded / forced Jane to write / run / work.
*I persuaded Jane to know the answer.
5) Use of the prepositions IN / FOR
only activities admit the preposition for
only accomplishments admit the preposition in
e.g.: He was pushing a cart for twenty minutes.
He drew a circle in twenty seconds.
6) Space adverbials indicating destination
only accomplishments admit them
e.g. Go / walk to the park.
7)Occurrence in pseudo-cleft sentences with the auxiliary do. Only activities and
accomplishments can appear in such patterns.
e.g. What Susan did was play the piano/ play a sonata
Activities go on in time in a homogeneous way e.g.: to write, to sing, to swim
Accomplishments are not homogeneous; the parts are not of the same nature
as the whole e.g.: to write a novel, to play a sonata, to swim the Channel
States last for a period of time and are homogeneous e.g.: to know, to love,
to hate, to be tall, to be a bastard, to see
Achievements occur at a single moment of time, they are punctual e.g.: to start,
to land, to die, to stop, to find

V. The types of changes in the aspectual class of the VP induced by the presence
of:
1) Bare Plurals and Mass Nouns
Type of change: accomplishment -->activity; achievement -->activity
2) Adverbial phrases of extent and locative NPs indicating destination
Type of change: a) Adverb of extent for in: activity -->accomplishments;
b) Locative prepositional NP indicating destination: activity
-->accomplishment
3) The Progressive aspectual form activity interpretation

VI. Recategorisations undergone by the classes of verbs
1) Activity verbs describing movement + locative NPs or + adverbs of extent
behave like accomplishments
e.g.: to swim to swim to the shore (activity -->accomplishment)
2) The use of a particle in a verb-particle construction induces an accomplishment
reading
e.g.: to turn the radio on; to take the garbage out
3) the use of the for-phrase activity interpretation;
the use of the in-phrase accomplishment interpretation
4) The Progressive form activity interpretation
The simple habitual or generic form state interpretation
Are you smoking? activity
Do you smoke? state

VII. The Imperfective Paradox
The sense of the progressive aspectual form is that of a process unfolding at a
certain reference time (RT).
e.g.: 1) John drew a circle the existence of a circle is implied
2) John was drawing a circle at that time the progressive suspends
the result interpretation
Event verbs indicate that a certain goal is reached. Used in the progressive
they become simple processes that unfold at the RT of the sentence.
e.g.: They are dying whilst I speak.
State verbs of the type be + Adj used in the progressive become processes
unfolding now.
e.g.: Harry is an awkward boy (property of Harrys)
Harry is being awkward now (he is deliberately behaving in this way)

Topics for further discussion and self-assesment tests
1)Define aspect and discuss the main aspectual opposition in English
2)Is aspect deictic or not? Motivate your choice
3)Discuss the main characteristics of the aspectual class of activity VPs and specify the
conditions under which they may undergo recategorization
4)Discuss the main characteristics of the aspectual class of accomplisment VPs and
specify the conditions under which they may undergo recategorization
5)Discuss the main characteristics of the aspectual class of states and specify the
conditions under which they may undergo recategorization
6)Discuss the main characteristics of the aspectual class of achievements and specify
the conditions under which they may undergo recategorization
7)Describe the different sub-classes of states and discuss the effect exerted by the be-
progressive on these VPs
8)Discuss the syntactic tests performed to identify the aspectual classes of VPs
according to Vendller


Examples of exam questions

1) True/False
Accomplisments select Bare Plurals as Direct Objects
Ans. F
Achievements are goal-oriented
Ans. T

2) Multiple choice
Specify the aspectual class to which the underlined predication belongs according to
the Vendlerian aspectual classification of VPs
She dyed her hair ash-blonde
1)state
2)activity
3)accomplisment
4)achievement
Ans: 3

Identify the type of aspectual recategorization undergone by the underlined VP in the
following sentence
Quite surprisingly, John is being helpful today
1)from an achivement to a state
2)from an accomplisment to an activity
3)from an state to an accomplisment
4)from a state to an activity
Ans. 4

Specify which of the following tests performed on the underlined VP induces a
recategorization of the aspectual class.
He drank a glass of soda
1)an adverbial phrase of extent
2)a Mass Noun as a Direct Object
3)the preposition in
4)a Bare plural as a Direct Object
Ans 2, 4


III)Modality : definition. Ways of expressing modality in English. Defining
criteria for modals. Deontic modality vs. Epistemic modality. Hoffman's
disambiguating tests. The description of modal verbs .Mood :definition. The
Indicative vs. the Subjunctive. Types of subjunctive.The distribution of the
Subjunctive in independent and subordinate sentences


Modality
Modality represents a very complex phenomenon. The concept of modality in
ordinary language includes beliefs and attitudes of the speaker towards what he is
saying.
For an adequate analysis of modality, it is necessary to consider not only the
superficial syntactic environment and the logic semantic structure, but also the
larger context in which the discourse occurs, i.e. pragmatic elements.
There are many ways of expressing modality in English:
A. Nouns change, hope, expectation, surprise, doubt, etc.
B. Adjectives conceivable, possible, likely, obvious, surprising, etc.
C. Adverbs hardly, perhaps, fortunately, etc.
D. Verbs: 1) Main Verbs: alarm, anger, bother, disgust, doubt, think, suggest, etc.
2) Modals: shall, should, will, would, can, could, may, might, must,
need, ought to.
Defining Criteria for Modals
Modals are placed in the same class as primary auxiliaries
1) They lack the s marker for the 3 rd person singular
2) They lack non-finite form i.e. the infinitive and the present and past participle
3) Negative form with the enclitic nt
4) They lack derived nominals
e.g.: ungrammatical strings: *Johns can-ness; *Johns can-ity
Johns ability grammatical string-->ungrammatical string
5) They can have present forms (shall, will, can, must, may) or past forms
(should, would, could, might) in the present tense sequence.
e.g.: I think he may / might stay now
Syntactic criteria
1) When stressed, they can express emphatic affirmation without the use
of the do-periphrasis
e.g.: I can walk
2) They form the negative by placing nt right after the modal without do.
3) Inversion with the subject in interrogation without do.
e.g.: Should he help his brother?
4) They are used without periphrasis as pro-forms
e.g.: Paul would like that and so would I (i.e. and I would like it, too)
5) They do not occur in imperatives
6) They always occur as first element of the phrase
e.g.: Mary may dare to want to come now
7) They do not combine with each other
e.g.: *He should can see it, if he wants to
8) They always precede the following infinitive without the infinitive marker to

Two different Readings of the Modals
1) one of a concrete nature (i.e. expressing permission, ability, volition, obligation
known in the literature as the root (deontic) sense
(deontic derived from a Greek word = it is right)
2) a more abstract reading expressing epistemic value (i.e. from possible to
probable up to certain) the epistemic sense
(epistemic derived from the Greek word episteme = knowledge)
There are cases when the modal is ambiguous between the root sense and the
epistemic sense.
e.g.: John can work hard ambiguous sentence
a) root John is able to work hard
b) epistemic It is possible for J. to work hard
Hoffman (1968) proposed some grammatical tests that distinguish between
deontic and epistemic modals.
a) In the root sense the perfective aspect and the progressive aspect are excluded
b) The subject of the root modals has to be [+ Animate]
c) The root modals have past tense forms. Epistemic modals do not have any of
the properties mentioned under a) c) above
The epistemic and deontic senses are closely connected. Modal verbs are in
fact polysemous. In spite of the different occurrences of a modal there is something
in the meaning it has which is always invariable: a common kernel meaning. The
different meanings of a modal collapse into a core sense.
There are two kinds of modal verbs.
a) primary modals: can, may, must, will, shall
b) secondary modals: could, might, ought to, would, should, dare, need
(For a detailed description of the modal verbs see Crainiceanu p.168-196)

Mood
Mood is a category by means of which the speaker expresses his mental
attitude towards the situation expressed by the verb phrase (Poutsma, 1926)
The situation can be presented as a fact or as only possible and consequently
uncertain with respect to its realisation.
The Indicative Mood is used to represent a situation as a fact, to provide the
hearer with a representation of the world. The indicative is used in assertions to
describe a portion of reality to which the hearer is supposed to have no access.
Language is used informatively.
The Subjunctive Mood is used in value judgements, both moral and non-moral
and presents a situation as only possible, as something desirable, commendable. The
Subjunctive is used in non-assertions. In non-assertions language is no longer
descriptive, it is prescriptive.
The subjunctive has a synthetic form (the old inflectional form of the subjunctive
mood) and an analytical form (the old periphrastic subjunctive) mainly with should. At
present, British English (BE) favours the analytical form while American English
seems to prefer the synthetic form.
The distribution of the Subjunctive
It is used in both independent and dependent sentences:
a) The Subjunctive in Independent Sentences
From a syntactic point of view these sentences have been described as
embedded sentences where the deleted matrix verb is I wish / order.
From a semantic point of view these sentences express exhortations or
commendations that certain solutions be brought about.
e.g.: Thy kingdom come!; Success attend you! Grammar be hanged!;
So be it!; Suffice it to say!; The Devil seize that man!
b) The Subjunctive in Dependent Clauses
These clauses are of two different syntactic types: 1) Complement that
clauses; 2) Various types of adverbial clauses
1) Complement that clauses the matrix verbs that occur in these patterns are:
a) exercitive verbs: ask, require, demand, forbid, order, urge, etc. introduce
an exhortation that a certain state of affairs come into being
b) boulomaic verbs: want, wish, hope, desire introduce a commendation
c) verbs of linguistic communication: tell, say, declare, inform, point out,
persuade the situation is presented as non-factual
d) emotive verbs
patterns with emotive adjectives the situation is described as commendable
2) Subordinate adverbial clauses present non-actual situations
Types of adverbial clauses: a) concessive clauses; b) unreal conditional clauses;
c) clauses of purpose; d) clauses of unreal comparison; e) clauses of time; f) clauses
of place; g) clauses of result; h) clauses of cause.
In many cases both the indicative and the subjunctive can occur in the same
structure depending on the attitude towards the solution described:
a) the situation is factual the indicative is used
b) the situation is not factual, but only possible the subjunctive is used.
(for a detailed description of the use of the analytic subjunctive amd synthetic
subjunctive see Coliban p.222-228, p238-241)

Topics for further discussion and self-assesment tests
1)Define modality and discuss the ways of expressing modality in English
2)State the criteria according to which modal verbs can be placed in the same class as
primary auxiliaries
3)Disambiguate between epistemic modality and deictic (root) modality from a semantic
and syntactic point of view
4)Discuss and illustrate modal verbs expressing degrees of certainty
5)Discuss and illustrate modal verbs expressing necessity and constraint
6)Discuss modal verbs expressing permision and ability
7)Define mood and discuss the relationship between mood and modality
8)State the main semantic opposition between the Indicative and the Subjunctive
9)Discuss the different forms of the Subjunctive. How are they used in BE and AE?
10)Discuss and illustrate the use of the Subjunctive in independent clauses
11)Discuss and illustrate the use of the Subjunctive in that-Complement clauses
12)Discuss and illustrate the use of the Subjunctive in different types of adverbial
clauses

Examples of exam questions

1)Choose the correct translation of the following sentence
Nu era nevoie sa-ti iei umbrela; mergem cu masina la gara.
1)You didn't need to take your umbrella; we are driving to the station.
2)You needn't have taken your umbrella; we are driving to the station
3)You needn't had taken your umbrella; we are driving to the station
Ans. 2

2)Identify the contextual meaning of the modal verb Will
1)Boys will be boys
2)I will protect you
3)The suitcase won't open
4)She will be undercover somewhere

a)predictability
b)reluctance
c)volition will
d)characteristic behaviour
Ans. 1d, 2c, 3b, 4a

3)Specify the effect triggered by the presence of the Perfect Infinitive after the modal
verb in the sentence
She may sleep in the spare room
1)a change from the epistemic to the deontic interpretation of the modal
2)a change from the deontic to the epistemic interpretation of the modal
3)no change in the interpretation of the modal
4)both readings are possible irrespective of the presence of the perfect infinitive
Ans. 2

4)True/ False
Modality can be expresed only by verbs and adverbs
Ans. F
The subject of epistemic modals is always [+Human]
Ans. F
Epistemic may is replaced by might in interrogative sentences
Ans. F
In negative sentences deontic must not negates the event indicating the obligation no
to perform some action (internal negation)
Ans. T
The synthetic subjunctive uses old inflectional forms
Ans. T
After it is time one can use either a subjunctive or a For +Acc+Infinitive without any
change of meaning
Ans. F
The analytic subjunctive is used after exercitive verbs in object clauses
Ans. T
The analytic subjunctive is used after emotive verbs and adjectives
Ans. F
The analytic subjunctive cannot be used in adverbial clauses of result
Ans F
The analytic subjunctive is used to express unreal comparison
Ans. F

IV)Predication. Structural and logico-semantic tasks . The syntactic property
of transitivity. Copulative predication; Copula and Copula-like verbs; Typology of
predicatives.

1.0. Predication. Structural and Logico-semantic Tasks
The key to the structure of the IP is the predicative core or nucleus, realising
the relation of predication and the function of Predicate Phrase. This core is made
up of verbal items and phrases, which form two clusters. The central one is the
head constituent Inflection (I ). Its immediate constituents obligatory Tense (the
formatives 0/-s for the Present and ed for the Past) in finite sentences, Mood and
Modality (the Vs shall, will, can, may a. s. o.), Aspect ( the set of formatives have
+ -en for the Perfect and be-ing for the Progressive), as well as the Agreement
markers (the features of person and number transferred from the Subject NP)
carry out all the formal or structural tasks of predication:

The head of the VP, V , expresses an event or a state-of-affairs, or it assigns a
property to the referent of the Subject NP. The V head occurs by itself (for most
intransitives), or it selects a sister constituent in Complement position (for
transitives). Together, the V and its Complement select the Subject NP, which
expresses the main participant in the event, the Protagonist. In most cases this is an
Agent or an Experiencer, both these thematic roles being realised by [+human] NPs.
The most relevant elements for predication are, therefore: 1. the subcategorisation
frame of the verb; 2. the theta-grid associated with the verb.
In what follows we shall supply the typology of predications in English,
using as a main guideline the subcategories that realise the predication tasks as
heads of the VP.
1.1. The Syntactic Property of Transitivity
The main syntactic property that brings about a partition of V items into two
big subcategories is transitivity. The syntactic property of transitivity refers to the
obligatory valency / contextual feature of V: [+ __ NP]. Vs that never enter this
frame are intransitive. They are further subdivided into meaningless intransitives
called copulas or copular / linking Vs (mainly the verb BE), and meaningful
intransitives. The latter can be further subcategorised by taking into account the
number of arguments in their theta-grid and the thematic roles they bear. The main
division within intransitives with one argument is that between: a) unergatives,
one-argument Vs that merely take an Agent as Subject, e.g. cough, sneeze, neigh,
sleep, bark, etc.; and b) unaccusatives, one-argument intransitives that take a Theme-
bearing
argument which cannot be assigned Accusative case. Hence it has to be
moved to Subject position. Here we include eventives like happen, occur, existentials
like be and exist, Vs of seeming like seem and appear, resultative state verbs like die.
By contrast with these two subclasses, transitives are associated with two
thematic roles: Agent as external argument and Theme or Patient as internal argument.
The first role is grammaticalised as Subject, the second as Direct Object. Consider:
a) unergative intransitive: The boxer was barking (in the back yard).
Agent
b) unaccusative intransitive: The accident happened (last night).
Theme
c) transitive: The woman was describing the scene.
Agent Theme
Transitivity has a floating nature, it can determine shifts of Vs from the
basic intransitive regime to a derived intransitive one. These shifts are explained as
cases of recategorisation. Thus the intransitive verb LIVE may be recategorised as
transitive in the following contexts: a) if it occurs with a Cognate Object as in They
lived a miserable life; b) if the locative Preposition in is deleted, as in They lived
Oxford Street. The reverse direction can be illustrated by cases of Direct Object
Deletion, e.g. Sean was smoking, or of Passivals, e.g. That dictionary sold well.

2.0. Intransitives
2. 1. The Copulative Predication Type
A. Copulative Predication is characterised by the following features:
1) it is a discontinuous, binary structure made up of two constituents:
- The Copula a meaningless or quasi-meaningless intransitive V, like BE
and other Copula-like Vs which carries out the formal tasks of predication
- The Predicative realised by an adjectival or nominal phrase which conveys
the meaning of the predicate, thus performing the lexical tasks of predication
Consider: The show was quite successful. (BeAP)
The show was a great success. (BeNP)
The Predicative may be realised by one of the following Phrases:
Adjectival Phrase (AP)
Noun Phrase (NP) simple ----- non-clausal constituents
Prepositional Phrase (PP)

Complementizer Phrase (CP) ---clausal constituents (finite or non-finite)


e.g: a) This teacher is absent-minded. - AP
b) This teacher is the Head of the English Department. - NP
c) This teacher is in need of money. - PP
d) The problem is that this teacher has not attended those courses. - CP
2) the tasks of predication are carried out as follows:
i) the formal / structural tasks are fulfilled by copular BE and other similar
verbs which are the carriers of the markers of predication (the formatives that make
up the Inflection head):
Agreement markers copied from the Subject NP [person; number]
Tense, Aspect, Modality markers
Here are examples of Aspect marking: a) John has been very rude today (the
Perfect); b) John is being very rude (the Progressive). The two Aspects never
combine in copulative predicates: *John has been being rude.
ii) the lexical tasks are carried out by the Phrase in Complement position,
functioning as Predicative; the predicative may:
a) assign a property or an attribute to the referent of the Subject NP,
e.g.: Peter is fanciful / a poet / a fanciful poet. (the last variant assigns
two properties by means of the NP)
b) assign an identity to the referent of the Subject NP, thus functioning
as identifier,
e.g.: Marian is my brother's wife. / She is the leader of our team.

B. More on the Copula and Copula-like Verbs
Be enjoys a multiple grammatical regime, i.e. it may be: a) a meaningful
existential V belonging to the subcategory of unaccusatives; b) a copular,
link(ing) V; c) an auxiliary for the Progressive and the Passive; d) a modal
substitute (to-be-to Infinitive).
Examples:
a) Once upon a time there was a princess. - existential Be (denoting
Their villa is on the outskirts of the town. existence in space and/or time)
b) Two is company, three is a crowd. - copular Be
c) The application is being typed. - auxiliary Be (marker of the
Progr or Pass)
d) He is to arrive tomorrow. - modal Be
Despite the distinct syntactic and semantic features of the three types of BE,
they all share the same behavioural peculiarities, namely: a) Be does not require
Do-insertion (except Negative Imperatives like Dont be so cheeky!); b) in
Question formation it undergoes inversion with the Subject (e.g. Is the puppy in
the kennel? Is it barking? Is it black and white?); c) the Negator is inserted after
Be and contraction can freely apply, e.g. This pupil is not (isnt) writing; d) all
types of Be can undergo deletion in contexts like Relative Clauses (e.g. the pad
which is on the desk -->the pad on the desk), Accusative with Infinitive
constructions (e.g. I considered Chomsky (to be) a genius), Time Adverbial
Clauses introduced by when or while (e.g. Tom is very witty when / while (he is)
sober); e) all types of Be can undergo There-Insertion, except copular Be, e.g.
There is a puppy in the kennel; There is a man crying for help, but: *There is a girl
clever.; f) Be does not theta-mark its NP neighbours, but for existential Be which
takes a Theme-marked NP that moves to Subject position, being frequently
associated with a Location e.g. Paris is on the Seine. (theta-grid: <Theme, Loc>)
Copula-like verbs evince the same combinatorial possibilities as BE, but they
are idiosyncratic; hence the Lexicon indicates the contextual features specific to
each. In point of meaning they are semantically poor, forming a scale from
meaningless to meaningful: MAKE is, like BE, meaningless or it may have a tinge
of becoming (the [+ inchoative] feature), e.g. This book makes excellent reading;
She will make a very good French teacher. The Vs of BECOMING share the feature
[+ inchoative] and pattern as follows:
BECOME [ _ Pred. NP] On leaving school he became a bank clerk.
[ _ AP] Our work is becoming more challenging.
[ _ PP] I wonder what became of the gold watch you
used to wear.
COME [ _ AP] Her dreams have come true.
[ _ to Inf] In some towns the streets came to be used as
parking places.
GET [ _ AP] Its getting dark.
[ _ to Inf.] They got to be friends.
GROW [ _ AP] Marian is growing prettier and prettier.
[ _ to Inf.] She's growing to like him better.
Positional Verbs can also undergo a weakening of meaning, thus becoming
copula-like Vs. It is the case of loom, lie, sit, stand and rank. The student is
required to look up the dictionary entries for each and take down contexts to
illustrate their behaviour as copula-like Vs.
Perception Verbs are placed at the other end of the semantic scale. They are
meaningful state Vs, which take APs as Predicatives and to-NPs as Indirect Objects
expressing the role Experiencer: e.g. Those oranges tasted sour (to the child); The
news sounds incredible (to my ears). The class also includes the verbs sound, feel,
look. All sense perception Vs are basically [+ state], but they may recategorise as
[- state] and shift from intransitives to transitives, e.g.: The lilac smelled sweet.
(smell: [+ state], copula-like V: [ _ Pred AP]) and I smelled the lilac. (where smell:
[- state], transitive V: [ _ NP])

2.2. Typology of Predicatives

1) According to the the logico-semantic criterion predicatives can be either
attributive or equative:
a) Attributive predicatives are property assigners, the predicative assigns a
property to the subject, hence the subject is called the attributed term and the
predicative the attribuant, e.g.: The fresher was impudent. The predicative
adjective impudent assigns the property of being impudent to the subject. The two
terms cannot be reverted: *Impudent was the fresher. (--> the S is ungrammatical)
The subject may be expressed by a [ definite NP]:.
The task was too hard for him.; A policeman was rude.
The predicative may be: [AP] Jenny is cute.; [- definite NP] Jenny is a
student of German.; [PP] His country is in a state-of-change.; [CP] Seeing is
believing.
This attributive relation may be of two kinds:
i. Class membership: A . B This novel is interesting.
(The referent of the subject is a member of the class of interesting entities)
ii. Class inclusion: A c B The / A tiger is a feline.
(The referents of the Subject form a small set included in the bigger set
denoted by the Predicative)
b) Equative (identifying) predicatives establish the identity of the subject and
both the subject and the predicative must be marked by [+ definiteness]. The
subject and the predicative can be reverted: Tony Blair is Prime Minister. The
Prime Minister is Tony Blair.
The predicative may be: [+ definite NP] Jane was her teacher.; [AP,
+ superlative] This student is the smartest of all.; [CP] Her change of mood was
what puzzled everybody.

2) According to the syntactic criterion, APs may be: a. both modifying and
predicative (a kind man; He was kind.) b. exclusively modifying, occurring in
prenominal contexts as Noun Modifiers (an utter fool), c. exclusively predicative,
occurring in verbal contexts as Predicatives (The child wasnt asleep.)
Exclusively modifying As include: a) classifying As (financial help, economic
problems); these As serve to specify a set of reference, and most of them are
[- gradable] and [+ denominal]; b) emphasizing As (utter, sheer, absolute); c) As
indicating position (lower, upper); d) certain -ing As (freezing cold, scalding hot)
Exclusively predicative As include a-prefixed As: awake, asleep, alive, alone,
ablaze, adrift.

Topics for further discussion and self-assesment tests
1)Discuss the structure of the IP.
2)Discriminate between strict subcategorizations and selectional ones .Supply your own
examples of frames for different classes of verbs.
3)Discuss the differences between the meaningful intransitives and the transitives in
tems of the number of arguments in their theta-grid and the thematic roles they bear
4)Discuss the "floating nature" of transitivity
5)Give a full description of the Copulative Predication in terms of its constituents
6)Give a description of the Copulative Predication in terms of the way in which the tasks
of predication are fulfilled
7)Discuss and illustrate the multiple grammatical regime of the verb BE.
8)Discuss the common semantic and syntactic features of the different types of BE and
state the existing formal and semantic differences.
9)Discuss and illustrate in examples of your own the subcategorization frames of five
copula-like verbs
10)Give a semantic description of the different classes of copula-like verbs
11)Discuss and illustrate in examples of your own the classes of predicatives within a
logico-semantic classification of APs
12)Discuss and illustrate the classes of predicatives within a syntactic classification of
APs

Examples of exam questions
1) Matching
: Match the copular Vs in the first column with the appropriate subcategorization
frame(s) in the second
1)Get a)[-pred. AP]
2)Be b)[-Pred. NP]
3)Come c)[-PP]
4)Sound d)[-to Inf.]
e)[-CP]

ans. 1ad, 2abcde, 3ad, 4a

2) Multiple choice
. Specify whether the adjective fond is
a)[+predicative/+modifying]
b)exclusively predicative
c)exclusively modifying

ans . b

Specify whether the following predication is attributive or equative
A fresher is a first-year student
a)equative
b)attributive

ans. b

3)True/False
The attributive nominal predicate is realized by a singular [+definite] NP as a
predicative
ans. F
Copula-like verbs of becoming have been recategorized from intransitive motion verbs
ans T
Positional Copula-like verbs can take PPs as predications
ans. F

V)Non copulative Intransitives. Simple intransitive verbs. Complex
intransitives. Intransitivisation


3.0. Non-copulative Intransitives

Intransitives can be divided into syntactically simple intransitives and
syntactically complex intransitives.

3.1. Simple intransitive verbs

Lexically simple intransitives are "verbs of complete predication", as they can
carry out the tasks of predication by themselves. Their subcategorisation frame is
[ ___ #]. Semantically, they express events of all types activities, processes or
states with reference to a wide range of possible Subjects. Syntactically, these
predicates can take as optional Adjuncts Prepositional Objects, as well as Averbial
Modifiers of various kinds, e.g.: The lilies have (splendidly) bloomed (in my garden).
( optional Adjuncts: Manner Av splendidly, Place Av in my garden)
Simple intransitives can be subdivided into the class of unergatives, with
Agentive Subjects (bloom, work, sleep, blink, fly, run) and the class of unaccusatives
with Theme Subjects (die, grow, appear, vanish, burst, collapse).
Syntactically simple intransitives can also be expressed by lexically complex
verbs, made up of Verb and Averbial Particle (traditionally labelled as Complex /
Phrasal Verbs). They evince a high degree of idiomaticity, e.g.: The lights have
gone out. Other examples: pass away, take off, show up, etc.

3.2. Complex Intransitives

3.2.1. Prepositional Intransitives

This subcategory includes Vs with obligatory preposition, such as: to look at,
to wait for, to do with. The subcategorisation frame is [ __ PP], the obligatory PP
having the syntactic function of PO (Prepositional Object). Prepositional
intransitives can undergo passivisation, e.g.: Jack insisted on that proposal. That
proposal was insisted on.

3.2.2. Intransitives with Particle and Preposition: [ __ Prt, PP]

The class includes phrasal Vs which take an obligatory Preposition
governing an Object:
They had done away with this piece of legislation.
The family came [up]Prt [against fresh problems]PO.
3.2.3. Intransitives with a Prepositional Indirect Object: [ __ to NP]
Several subclasses of intransitives, among which eventive Vs, experiencer
Vs, relational Vs take an Indirect Object marked by the Dative preposition to.
a. The eventive type: verbs like happen and befall take Dative NPs expressing
the Experiencer of an event, e.g.: What's happened to the old man?
b. The experiencer type: the class consists of verbs of seeming (seem, appear),
verbs of perception (sound, taste, smell), verbs of cognition (occur to smb that..).
Examples: It seemed to me that I was dreaming.
That possibility had never occurred to anyone.
c. The relational type: these Vs can be grouped into 1. those indicating
relations between all kinds of entities (Vs indicating possession: belong to smb,
pertain to smb, e.g. The dash and fire pertaining to youth are transient.) and
2. those specialised for inferiority relations between man and other entities,
including bow to smb., accrue to smb., cringe to / before smb, yield to smth.
Examples: The girl bowed to the audience.
Our people will never surrender to foreign invaders.

3.2.4. Intransitives with Two Prepositional Objects: [ __ PP, PP]

A number of intransitive Vs may be followed by two PPs. Prepositional
Object Deletion often applies, having as an effect in surface structure the removal
of one or the other of the two Objects. These Vs can be further subdivided into:
a) Vs with an Indirect Object marked by to, followed by a PO in which the
Prep indicates a topic about, on, upon, or the cause or purpose of an action for.
He lectures [to undergraduates]IO [on the Elizabethan theatre]PO.
b) Vs such as argue, discuss or quarrel which take as first Object a with NP
indicating the human participating as a partner in the respective activity, e.g.: He
was arguing with his wife about money.

3.2.5. Intransitives with Adverbial Modifiers: [ __ AvP]

There are several subcategories of Vs that take obligatory Adverbials of
various kinds:
a) Intransitives with Adverbial Modifiers of Place and Direction: verbs
denoting existence in space such as be, lie, remain, sit, stand commonly take a
Place Adverbial either a locative Adverb or a locative PP; Motion Vs take,
according to the semantic subclass they belong to, AvPs expressing: (a) the
departure point; (b) the destination point; (c) the path or itinerary. One and the
same V sometimes enters all four, e.g.: Have you flown up to this place?
(destination point), Have you flown from Athens to Rome? (path)
b) Intransitives with Quantifying Adverbials: the verbs cost, weigh and owe,
often treated erroneously as transitives (on account of their co-occurrence with a
non-prepositional NP) actually take Quantifying Adverbials, e.g.: The dictionary
costs 200$. Quantifying Adverbials of Place occur obligatorily with the verb
stretch and optionally with most of the motion Vs, e.g.: The corn field stretched
miles away. The verb last takes an obligatory Quantifying Adverbial of Time,
e.g.: The concert lasted (for) three hours.

3.2.6. Reciprocal Intransitives

Inherently reciprocal Vs occur in two alternative configurations: (a) with a
phrasally conjoined and NP or other types of [+ set] NPs as Subject; and (b) in a
prepositional construction, if the Subject is a [+ sg] NP. In the latter case the
Preposition is indicated for each reciprocal V in its lexical entry.
Examples: (a) 1. The train and the bus / they / the trains collided (with
each other).
2. The married couple has recently separated.
(b) The train collided with the bus. The bus collided with the train.

3.3. Intransitivisation

Some transitive verbs may be recategorised as intransitives in the following
cases:
1. A number of transitives allow the deletion of their Direct Object NP if the
DO is more or less specialised semantically (i.e. if it satisfies the V's selectional
features), but is not definite referentially.
Examples: I don't particularly like the way she sings (songs -->).
Whenever I see her, she is smoking (cigarettes -->).
2. The Reflexive Direct Object can also be deleted with some transitive Vs,
among which dress, shave or wash
He is the habit of shaving (himself -->) daily.
3. The Direct Object may be promoted in Subject position. This occurs in
activo-passives or passivals.
This material washes well. (DO -->Subject; V remains active)

Topics for further discussion and self-assesment tests
1)Give a description of the simple intransitive verbs in terms of their syntactic behaviour
2)Discuss the term of "split intransitivity"
3)Discriminate between unergatives and unacussatives in term of their D-structure
4)Disambiguate between lexically complex and syntactically complex intransitives
5)Discuss different patterns belonging to the class of Complex(Phrasal) Intransitives
and point out syntactically relevant differences between them.
6)Discuss the behaviour of intransitives with Prepositional Object in terms of their
passivization
7)Give a full description of the sub-classes of intransitives with a Prepositional Indirect
Object
8)Disambiguate between the sub-classes of intransitives with obligatory Adverbials from
a semantic point of view
9)Explain the concept of intransitivisation and illustrate it in your own examples.

Examples of exam questions
1)True/False
Unergatives can take Agentive subjects or Theme subjects
ans.F
Verbes of possession belong to the eventive type
ans.F

2)Matching
Match the intransitive verbs in the first column with the type of Adverbial modifier in
the second column
1)stretch a)Adverbial of Manner
2)last b)Quantifying Adverbial
3)weigh c)Quantifying Adverbial of Time
4)act d)Quantifying Adverbial of Place

ans. 1d, 2c, 3b, 4a

3)Multiple choice
Specify whether the underlined verb in the sentence "The apparently happy couple
separated" is:
a)a prepositional intransitive
b)a reciprocal intransitive
c)a transitive verb

ans. b

VI)Transitive predication. Syntactically simple transitives.Syntactically complex
transitives


4.0. Transitive Predications

All transitives share the feature [ __ NP]. This NP occupies the Complement
position, being governed by the transitive V. The V governor assigns Accusative
case to its governee. The lexical entry of a transitive V also includes information
about the selectional restrictions imposed by the respective item, e.g. Vs like cut
and slice select [- animate], [- abstract] NPs as DOs, while know and believe select
[- animate], [+ abstract] NPs as DOs. The inherent semantic features of each
transitive are also specified in the lexical entry (e.g. [+ causative], [ state], etc.).
Features like [+ Object Deletion] or [+ Passivisation] indicate the transformational
behaviour of each item. The lexical entry also includes the theta-grid associated
with the respective V. Most transitives take an Agent as external argument and a
Patient / Theme as internal argument.

4.1. Syntactically Simple Transitives: [ __ NP]

1. Monotransitives with Affected Objects indicate activities which affect
concrete entities, including Vs like: accumulate (goods, wealth), adapt (a script, a
piece of furniture), decorate, ornament (a room, a house), air (the room, the
bedding), back (a car). A subcategory apart includes verbs which take as Direct
Objects parts of the human body. The respective NPs are determined by
Possessives which are co-referent with the NP-Subject. Passivisation is blocked:
bare (ones head), bite (ones tongue), bump (ones head), clap (ones hands), close
(ones eyes), drag (ones feet), nod (ones head), shrug (ones shoulders).

2. Verbs with Effected / Resultative Object indicate activities that effect /
create concrete entities. The prototype of this class of Vs is to make. They often
take a second object, expressing the beneficiary of the respective activity by means
of a for NP. The class includes: build (a shelter), carve (a statue), compose (music),
cook (cakes), create (a model), crochet (gloves), dig (ditches), draw (a cartoon),
erect (a monument). A special type of effected object is the Cognate Object taken
by inherently intransitive verbs, which recategorise, in this way, as transitives: to
smile an amiable smile, to dream a melancholy dream, to sleep the sleep of the just.
3. Verbs with Affected and/or Effected Object
One and the same verb may take, contextually, either an affected or an
effected direct object. Compare: Whod like to carve the chicken? (affected DO)
and Whoever carved this statue was a genius. (effected DO). Other verbs that may
take both types of objects are: paint, raise, dig, burn, etc.
4. Relational Verbs express symmetric or asymmetric relations between
entities. Symmetric relations are rendered by reciprocal verbs which express mutual
relations between humans (marry, divorce) or relations of similarity between entities
(resemble).
Vs of possession express asymmetric relations. Their prototype is HAVE,
which has a multiple semantic and syntactic regime (as auxiliary for the Perfect,
causative V, modal, prop-V) Its synonyms own and possess also predicate
configurations with a possessive meaning. The Subject NP grammaticalises the
role Benefactive, the Direct Object NP bears the role Theme.
The two classes of relational Vs described above resist Passivisation.
Inclusion relationships are rendered by transitive verbs such as contain, hold,
comprise, include, cover, a. s. o. These verbs are semantically related to verbs of
possession.
5. Verbs with Instrumental Object like use, handle, employ, manipulate
take Direct Objects that gramaticalise the role Instrument, e.g.: Tom used a knife to
cut the salami.
6. Verbs with Locative Object such as enter (a place), inhabit (a flat), reach
(a destination), leave (a town) co-occur with Direct Objects that have a locative or
directional tinge, otherwise rendered by Prepositional markers. Compare: enter the
hall to go into the hall; leave the town to depart from the town.
7. Verbs with Abstract Direct Object include Vs like denote, imply,
elucidate, etc, whose Direct Object expresses an abstraction. Quite often such Vs
take a Complement Clause in Object position. Vs of linguistic communication, or
Vs of cognition often take such a clausal Direct Object, e.g.: The jury declared that
the proofs were not valid. They considered that the man was not guilty.
8. Causative Verbs (periphrastic, lexical, morphological)
They are transitive verbs inherently marked by [+ causative] or intransitive
ones recategorised as transitives and occurring contextually as causatives. These
Vs express either mere causation of an event (cause, make, get), or an event in
which causation is implied, e.g. teach (cause smb to learn), cool (cause smth to
become cool), persuade (cause smb to believe). All causative constructions are
transitive, owing to the fact that causation always implies two roles: a causer and
an affected or effected entity. Causatives can be classified into:
a) Periphrastic causatives including the Vs: cause, determine, make, have and
get. Semantically speaking, they render the idea of causation quite neutrally, with the
exception of have and get, which may have an additional tinge of compulsion or
order, e.g.: I shall have him rewrite the story. (= I shall oblige him to )
b) Lexical causatives form pairs with intransitive verbs, denoting the
resultative aspect of the respective activity, process or state by means of a lexically
distinct item. Consider the pair: Caesar died. / Brutus killed Caesar. The verb die
occurs as a one-term verb, taking the Patient as Subject. The same Patient occurs
as Object of its causative counterpart kill, which is a two-term verb, with an Agent
as Subject. The relation between the transitive and the intransitive verb
configurations is lexicalised, in that the possibility of using the same V lexeme in
these cases is ruled out: *Brutus died Caesar. Here are some more members of this
class: give = cause smb to have; remind = cause smb to remember; put = cause
smth to be in a place; entertain = cause smb to rejoice; send = cause smb to
receive; raise = cause smth to rise; fell = cause smth to fall.
c) Morphological Causatives are derived from other lexical items by means
of word formation processes, namely by conversion or affixation.
1) Causatives derived by conversion: to cool (from the A cool, A V, She
cooled the soup.), to blind (A-->V), to better, to empty;
2) Causatives derived by affixation include:
a) causatives formed by prefixation: with prefix be- (becalm, benumb),
prefix dis- (disable, disanimate), en- ( enlarge, enrich, embitter)
b) causatives formed by suffixation: with suffix -ate (activate, differentiate),
with suffix -ise (-ize) (commercialise, criticise), with -en (madden, lessen).
d) Attitudinal Causatives / Experiencer Causatives express a psychological
reaction aroused in a human being by an exterior stimulus and include verbs like
puzzle, terrify, surprise, please, etc, e.g.: The news pleased everybody.
e) Dative Causatives include causatives that take two objects, an IO and a
DO: give smth to smb, sell smth to smb, show smth to smb.
f) Ergative Verbs are verbs which couple the basic regimes of both
transitives and intransitives. The same verb may predicate, without any difference
in its phonological form, a one-term intransitive configuration or a two-term
transitive one: Sarah moved the branch. (move = transitive V) and The branch
moved. (move = intransitive V). Other Vs: drop, break, melt, roll, improve, stir.
9. Lexically Complex Verbs are made up of a verbal item and an Adverbial
Particle, e.g.: Turn off the lights! Some of these verbs can undergo particle
movement, e.g.: Turn the lights off!
Intransitives Recategorised as Causatives
Intransitive verbs may be recategorised as transitive, when they contextually
incorporate the [+ causative] feature: He walked the horse up and down.

4.2. Syntactically Complex Transitives

1. Dative Verbs have the following subcategorisation frame: [ __ NP, to / for
NP], they include verbs like: make smth for smb, lend smth to smb, communicate
smth to smb. For details see erban, D., English Syntax, vol. 1, pp. 335-364.
2. Prepositional Transitives enter configurations in which the DO is
followed by a PO ([ __ NP, PP]): accuse smb of smth, blame smb for smth, deprive
smb of smth, reproach smb with smth.
3. Transitives with Particle and Preposition include verbs with Adverbial
Particle followed by an obligatory preposition: to look down on smb, to let smb in
on smth, to get smb off to a good start, etc.

Topics for further discussion and self-assesment tests
1)Discuss the subcategorization of monotransitives in terms of the Theta-Role of the
Direct Object. Illustrate the class of transitives with Affected Object
2)Discuss the class of monotransitives with Effected Object
3)Give a description of patterns included within the class of Relational verbs
4)Discuss the classification of causative verbs. Illustrate it in examples of your own
5)Discuss the syntactic and semantic behaviour of ergative verbs
6)Discuss the different types of syntactically complex transitives in terms of their
subcategorization frame


Examples of exam questions
1)Multiple choice
State whether passivisation is allowed or blocked in the following sentence
She shrugged her shoulders
a)Passivisation is blocked
b)Passivisation is allowed

ans. a

2)Matching
Match the following transitive verbs with the appropriate direct object
1)The prisoners dug ditches round the military camp
2)Grandma airs her bedding every morning
3)The two rascals left the town at midnight
4)They believed that their son was innocent

a)Locative Object
b)Affected Object
c)Resultative Object
d)Abstract DO

ans. 1c, 2b, 3a, 4d

3)True/False
Relational verbs expressing simmetric relations resist passivisation
ans.T
The verb to remind the sentence "She reminded me of her eldest sister" is a
morphological causative
ans.F


VII)Complementation; Types of complement clauses; THAT clauses:
transformations and patterns;The distribution of THAT clauses


Alongside with Relativisation, Subordination by Complementation stands as
a major syntactic means to encode and render semantic information, for the various
patterns featuring Complement Clauses can express semantic relations of the
descriptive, effective, and circumstantial types altogether.
In order to identify the types of Complement Clauses, an important
phenomenon has to be brought into relief, namely the fact that the embedded by
complementation clause may become more and more nouny, and less sentency.
Thus, a hierarchy can be obtained, reflecting the degrees of nominalisation: Clausal
Complement Nominal Complement.
(1a) [That Mike gladly offered his expensive books to Joe] amazed us all.
(THAT Clause Finite)
(1b) [For Mike to offer / to have offered gladly his books to Joe] amazed us all.
Split Infinitive to gladly offer / to have gladly offered (FOR-TO Infinitive V loses its
Tense)
(1c) [How gladly Mike offered his books to Joe] amazed us all.
(Embedded Question Finite)
(1d) [Mike / Him (Acc) gladly offering his books to Joe] amazed us all.
(Half-Gerund; V loses Tense and Aspect)
(1e) [Mikes / His (G) gladly offering his books to Joe] amazed us all.
(Full-Gerund)
(1f) [Mikes / His gladly offering of his books to Joe] amazed us all.
(nominalisation; verbal N, G Determiner)
(1g) Mikes / His glad offer of his books to Joe amazed us all.
(full / proper nominalisation; deverbal N, adjective)
The Complement Clause types identified above evince differentiated syntactic
behaviour. One such distinguishing factor is surfacing of preposition:
(2) We were surprised *at [that he behaved so strangely]. (preposition deletion)
We were surprised *at [for him to behave so strangely]. (preposition deletion)
We were surprised (at) [how strangely he behaved]. (optional preposition
deletion)
We were surprised at [him / his behaving so strangely]. (obligatory preposition)
We were surprised at his strange behaviour. (obligatory preposition)
Several other important changes may also affect the structure of the
embedded clause during the gradual process of transition towards nominalisation
(i.e. along the so-called Clause Squish): the loss of its independent intonational
contour; the change of Tense, in order to express some relationship to the Predicate
in the MC (3); the loss of Tense (1b) or of Tense and Aspect (1d, 1e) distinctions;
the change of DO into Genitive Determiner (1f); the deletion of certain constituents
under identity with elements in the MC (4).
(3) [John knew] [he will win] John knew [(that) he would win].
(Past in MC triggers Future-in-the-Past)
(4) [I wanted] [I become a scientist] I wanted [to become a scientist].

1. THAT Clauses
They are the most sentency, preserving most features of the independent
sentence. Sentencehood of THAT Clauses is supported by the fact that they can have
the same distribution as NPs. This actually demonstrates that they are non-phrases (in
other words, THAT Clauses and NPs are mutually exclusive). Moreover, THAT
Clauses undergo transformations that are typical of NPs: movement by passivisation
(5a), the pseudo-cleft test (5b), the than-pattern test (5c). Yet, they differ from
NPs in their behaviour in respect to Coordination, coordinated THAT Clauses in
Subject position triggering agreement with the matrix V in the singular (5d).
(5a) Scientists have demonstrated [that the artificial creation of tissues is
possible].-->[That the artificial creation of tissues is possible] has been
demonstrated by scientists.
(5b) What scientists have demonstrated is [that the artificial creation of tissues
is possible].
(5c) I noticed nothing else than [that the thief had a gun].
(5d) [That you successfully graduated] and [that you have an opportunity
for a job] is wonderful.
Extraposition followed by IT Insertion represents a transformational
sequence frequently occurring in cases of THAT Clause embedding (and not only
see further). Thus, the THAT Clause Construction is produced by inserting the
clause in for instance Subject position; then the clause undergoes extraposition
(i.e. a rightward movement to the end); a gap appears, and, consequently, a formal
Subject will be obligatorily introduced, namely the dummy Subject IT, anticipating
the true Deep Structure Subject, which is the THAT Clause.

(6) [That Helen was nervous] was obvious. -->was obvious [that Helen was
nervous] -->It was obvious [that Helen was nervous].
Generally, extraposition from Subject position seems to be optional. There
are, however, patterns where extraposition is obligatory: with intransitive
(existential) Vs like: seem, happen, occur, etc.
(7) *[That they never contradict him] seems-->It seems [that they never
contradict him].
The sequence Extraposition + IT Insertion is also obligatory with many
THAT Clauses in Object position.
(8) *We called [that he arrived late] regrettable -->We called it regrettable [that
he arrived late].
A survey of the syntactic functions (i.e. distribution) of THAT Clauses has
to take into consideration: the fact that the structure of the patterns is determined by
the subcategorisation of certain Vs, adjectives or Ns (their ability to take an
abstract nominal a clause rendering some state of affairs as one of their
arguments); the movement or deletion transformations that may obligatorily or
optionally apply. THAT Clauses may have the following syntactic functions:
1) SUBJECT a) Vs taking THAT Clauses as Subjects: intransitive Vs (seem,
appear, happen, matter, occur, turn out, etc) (9a); psychological transitive Vs
(alarm, bother, charm, hurt, please, tempt, etc) (9b); bisentential Vs (prove, show,
imply, etc) (9c). b) Adjectives that take sentential Subjects: participial adjectives
from psychological Vs above (alarming, charming, etc) (9d); Modal adjectives
(certain, likely, possible, probable, etc) (9e); evaluative adjectives (good, bad,
normal, odd, natural, fair, etc) (9f). c) Ns that take sentential Subjects: problem,
fact, idea, surprise, miracle, (no) wonder, pity, etc (9g).
(9a) It turned out [(that) he was a thief]. ([+ Extraposition] [ THAT Deletion])
(9b) [That she left without a word] distressed him. ([ Extraposition] [+ human DO])
(9c) [That they succeeded in their enterprise] proves [that the method is good].
(9d) [That he got the money] was amazing. ([ Extraposition])
(9e) It is probable [that no one will show up]. ([+ Extraposition])
(9f) It was clever of him [that he waited]. ([+ Extraposition])
(9g) It is a pity [that she failed the exam]. ([+ Extraposition])
2) DIRECT OBJECT a) Vs subcategorised for clausal DOs introduced by THAT:
[+ THAT Deletion] (believe, mean, remember, suppose, etc) (10a); [- THAT
Deletion] (deny, require, sense, etc) (10b). b) Vs that take a clausal DO and a PO or
IO (/ S-PNP/): communication Vs (tell, read, explain, etc) (10c); other Vs (allow,
permit, suggest, etc) (10d). c) Vs that take a clausal DO and a [+ personal] PO:
blame, beg, ask, request, etc (10e).
(10a) I think [our strategy was clearly outlined].
(10b) They know it very well [that he is emotionally unstable]. ([+ Extraposition])
(10c) John promised me [that the car would be ready in time]. ([+ Dative Movement])
(10d) She had to admit to her colleagues [that she had been too ambitious].
([+ Complex NP Shift])
(10e) He requests of them [that they reconsider their decision].
([+ Complex NP Shift] [ passivisation])
3) PREPOSITIONAL OBJECT a) Vs that take a clausal PO: Vs like ask (for), confess
(to), decide (on), insist (upon), hope (for), worry (about), etc (11a); Vs taking a
[+ personal] DO and a clausal PO (/ NP-S/) (accuse smb of, instruct smb in, warn smb
against / of, etc) (11b); Vs taking two POs (/ PNP-S/) (argue with smb about, pray
56
to smb for, etc) (11c). b) Adjectives taking a clausal PO: afraid (of), annoyed (at),
sorry (for), happy (about), etc (11d). Preposition deletion occurs in all cases.
(11a) He complained [that he had been treated unfairly].
([ Extraposition] [ THAT Deletion])
(11b) They accused the man [that he had murdered his wife]. ([ passivisation])
(11c) She agreed with him [that the expedition had been a disaster].
(11d) The students were afraid [that the final exam would be difficult].
4) PREDICATIVE Abstract Ns (non-complex Subject NPs) that may co-occur in
equative sentences with a clausal Predicative: idea, fact, reason, claim, difficulty,
etc (12).
(12) The problem is [that we have no money].
5) ATTRIBUTE Abstract Ns that may take clausal (appositive) Attributes: idea,
fact, feeling, sense, etc (13).
(13) A strange sense [that she had the power over him] possessed her.
([+ Preposition Deletion])
In some cases, the deletion of the complementizer THAT is optional (see
above). Nevertheless, deletion is obligatory if the Subject or Object Clause is
questioned or relativised.
(14) Who did you say [*that was coming]?
On the other hand, deletion does not apply if the clause is in initial position
(unextraposed Subject) (15a) or in topical, emphatic position (15b), if it is an
extraposed Object (15c), and even when intervening material separates it from the
MC (15d).
(15a) [That he passed the exam] is astonishing.
(15b) [That the prize was mine], I never knew.
(15c) Joanna liked it [that Peter was so romantic].
(15d) He claimed, it is reported, [that he was our authorised dealer].
The Subjunctive usually occurs in Subject THAT Clauses with emotive
Predicates in the MC (Vs, adjectives, Ns) (16a), and in Object THAT Clauses with
matrix exercitive Vs of command or of permission, or with some Vs of
communication (16b).
(16a) It is necessary [that the experiment should be repeated].
(16b) Helen demanded [that I should stay there].

Topics for further discussion and self-assesment tests
1)Discuss the hierarchichal ordering of Complement Clauses in terms of sentencehood
and nouniness and point out the most important syntactic transformations undergone by
the embedded clause towards nominalisation
2)Explain why THAT Clauses and NPs are mutually exclusive
3)Discuss and illustrate the distribution of THAT Clause
4)State the conditions under which Extraposition followed by IT insertion is obligatory.
Supply your own examples
5)State the conditions under which the deletion of the complementizer THAT is
obligatory , optional and blocked by supplying your own examples

Examples of exam question

1)True/False
Infinitive clauses are more sentency than THAT clauses
ans. F
THAT clauses occur as predicatives in equative sentences with [+abstract NP]
subjects
ans. T

2)Multiple choice
Specify the syntactic function of the embedded clause
" I was fully aware that she was lying to me"
a)Direct object
b)Predicative
c)Adverbial of Result
d)Prepositional object

ans. d
Specify whether the deletion of the complementizer THAT is obligatory
a)If the object clause is questioned
b)If the subject clause is unextraposed
c)If the clause is an extraposed object

ans. a

VIII)Infinitive clauses vs. THAT clauses. Characteristic features of Infinitive
constructions. Changes undergone by the subject of Infinitive Complement
Clauses; The distribution of Infinitive constructions, Classes of SSR and SOR
triggers;



2. Infinitive Clauses
Some NP positions within Complex Sentences can be filled by sentential
entities, and the latter may change into an Infinitive Clause. Infinitive Clauses are
less sentency and more nouny than THAT Clauses, and this is mainly due to the
loss of Tense distinctions. Yet, they still exhibit certain sentential features: like
Finite Sentences, they can be negated and passivised (17a); they allow
Extraposition + IT Insertion in a way similar to THAT Clauses (17b); the Deep
Structure preposition is deleted (17c); aspectual distinctions are retained (17d).
(17a) He was disappointed [not to be nominated]. (both negated and passivised)
(17b) It would be a disaster [for him to marry her now].
(17c) She was delighted [to find him there].
(17d) He is pleased [to be making progresses].
The Infinitive Complement can replace Indicative or Subjunctive Clauses:
(18) I am glad [that I have met you]. -->I am glad [to have met you].
I asked him [that he should leave]. -->I asked him [to leave].
The characteristic marker of such constructions is the complementizer TO
(with the variants FOR-TO, TO).
Important changes affect the Subject of Infinitive Complement Clauses. It is
assumed that they have underlying Subjects, i.e. that they are S complements, and
not VP complements. The underlying Subject suffers modifications of form or it is
lost in Surface Structure.
1) When the Subject is retained in Surface Structure:
a) it is preceded by FOR and acquires Accusative form (the FOR-TO Infinitive
Construction):
(19) It is very unwise [for him to borrow so much money].
b) it can become a member of the matrix clause, functioning as Subject or Object
(TO Complementation) These constructions are produced by Raising, i.e. a
constituent of a Subordinate (of lower rank) becomes a constituent of the MC.
- When the Subject of the Complement Clause is raised to Subject position in the MC,
the transformation is called Subject-to-Subject Raising (SSR). The resulting pattern is
(according to traditional grammars) the Nominative + Infinitive Construction:
(20) It seems [that he is very selfish]. -->He seems [to be very selfish].
- When the Subject of the Complement Clause is raised to Object position in the MC,
the transformation is called Subject-to-Object Raising (SOR). Its result is the
Accusative + Infinitive Construction:
(21) They found [that he was very intelligent].-->They found him [to be very
intelligent].
2) When the Subject is missing in Surface Structure:
a) it is deleted because it is identical with some NP (Subject, Object) in the MC
(deletion under identity / Equi NP Deletion Subject or Object Control):
(22) She tried [to improve her pronunciation]. (Su Control)
I want him [to improve his pronunciation]. (Object Control)
b) it is deleted because it is semantically indefinite (deletion under indefiniteness /
One Deletion):
(23) It is impossible [to argue with him]. (for someone / anyone)
The distribution of Infinitive Constructions (in patterns which do not
involve Raising FOR-TO Complementation ) consists in the following inventory
of syntactic functions:

59
1) SUBJECT a) With matrix Predicates including adjectives (probable, common,
essential, etc) (24a) or Ns (fun, pleasure, necessity, etc) (24b), and with some
transitive Vs (show, prove, need, etc) (24c).
(24a) It is highly unlikely [for her to agree with him].
(24b) [To talk to her] is a real pleasure.
(24c) [To succeed in that career] needs sustained effort. (Complement Su has to be
deleted)
b) With matrix Predicates that take an IO (which can be identical with the
Complement Subject 25a or not 25b , the latter being deleted or,
respectively, preserved).
(25a) It is hard for me [to figure him out].
It is kind of them [to do that for us].
(25b) It would be better for all of us [for you to tell him].
c) A special attention deserve the so-called Tough Movement (TM) patterns. TM
occurs with adjectives (easy, difficult, tough, nice, etc) or with Ns (pleasure,
delight, joy, etc), and it resides in the promotion of the initial Object (DO, PO, IO)
in the Subordinate as Subject of the MC, provided that the Subject of the
Subordinate has been previously deleted.
(26) It is easy [to get along with Jane]-->Jane is easy [to get along with].
It was hard for Tom [to figure out the solution] -->
The solution was hard for Tom [to figure out]. (the for-NP is a matrix IO)
2) OBJECT a) As DO, the Infinitive Construction may occur in patterns with
transitive Vs (forget, try, attempt, manage, love, like, begin, continue, etc).
(27) She intends [to abandon the plan]. (Su is normally deleted under identity Su
Control)
We would love [for you to spend more time with us].
(non-identical Subjects, American English)
This law enabled many people [to buy land].
(identity between MC DO and Complement Su Object
Control)
b) Also as DO, the construction may occur with a group of transitive Vs optionally
deleting BE in the Complement Clause (appoint, choose, nominate, elect, etc), and
thus triggering structures with Object Complement, provided that there is an
identity between the DO in the MC and the Complement Subject.
(28) They chose him [to be president]. -->They chose him (as) president.
(Object Complement)
c) As DO with Vs also taking a IO or PO, the Infinitive Construction is possible only
if there is an identity between the IO or PO in the MC and the Complement Subject.
(29) I reminded him [to come a little later than usual]. (IO Dative Movement)
We may rely on him [to solve the problem]. (PO)
d) As PO, the construction occurs with Vs (apply for, persist in, shudder at, care for,
consent to, etc) (30a) or adjectives (anxious about, afraid of, eager to, etc) (30b). The
preposition is always deleted.
(30a) He consented [for John to go there].
(30b) We were anxious [for our son to return].
3) PREDICATIVE The Complement Subject may be preserved or deleted (under
identity, indefiniteness).
(31) The most important thing is [for you to look at the whole picture].
His favourite pastime is [to make small toys]. (identity)
[To admire oneself too much] is [to deceive oneself]. (indefiniteness)
4) ADVERBIAL a) Of Purpose (the clause may be introduced by expressions
signalling purpose or not):
(32) She lied [on purpose to protect him].
She sent them away [in order / so as to have some peace].
They went out [to breathe some fresh air].
b) There are various patterns of Result: with adjectives determined by the
quantifiers enough or too, which have a positive or, respectively, negative ability
element incorporated in their meaning (33a); patterns based on a comparative
structure, paralleling certain THAT Clauses as Adverbial of Result (33b); patterns
introduced by only, and expressing in many (but not all) cases a disappointing
result (33c); other patterns of result (33d).
(33a)He was considered clever enough [to be entrusted with such a job].
The river is too deep [for us to wade across it].
(33b) He was so kind as [to show me the way]. =~He was so kind [that he showed
me the way].
(33c) He applied for the job [only to be turned down].
vs: They hurried to the house [only to find it happy].
(33d) Who are we [to judge him so mercilessly]?!...
c) There are also various patterns combining Reason with a Conditional meaning:
(34) You are a fool [to do it].
5) ATTRIBUTE Non-Finite RCs can be also regarded as Infinitive Clauses
functioning Attributively. The relative pronoun may be retained (35a) or not (35b).
They often occur with Ns like: idea, right, instinct, ability, capacity, power, wish,
desire, etc (35c).
(35a) I bought a toy [with which to play].
(35b) I found a man [to talk to].
(35c) You have no right [to do that].
Patterns which involve Raising (TO Complementation) do not evince an
inventory of syntactic functions, because after Raising the embedded clause ceases
to bear any relation to the matrix V (i.e. it becomes a chomeur), as a consequence
of the fact that the promoted element assumes its grammatical relation. Thus, the
term raised from a Subject Clause will become Subject in the MC, and,
respectively, the term raised from an Object Clause will become Object in the MC.
The Nominative + Infinitive Construction is the direct result of SSR or the
result of passivising the MC after SOR.
(36) She seems to be honest.
She is believed to be honest.
The following classes of SSR Triggers have to be distinguished:
1) Some active intransitive Vs (A(ppear) Vs): appear, seem, happen, occur,
prove, turn out and a small group of adjectives: likely, unlikely, sure, certain (37a).
In some cases, BE Deletion may occur (37b).
(37a) He happens to know Japanese.
Are they likely to have heard the news?
(37b) She appeared ignorant. (Nominative + Subject Complement pattern)
2) Inchoative Vs: become, come, grow, get, remain, go, stay.
(38) You will grow to adore this neighbourhood.
3) Aspectual Vs: begin, continue, start, stop, commence (when occurring in intransitive
configurations, and thus having non-agentive meaning). Formal Subjects usually occur.
(39) It was beginning to drizzle when he left.
There continued to be cases of bribery.
4) The verbal phrases had better and had best, which are followed by a Naked
Infinitive (without TO).
(40) There had better be no mistakes in those documents.
5) Some BE + adjective combinations: to be about to, to be bound to, to be apt to,
to be supposed to.
(41) It is going to rain.
That building is going to collapse.
6) Vs of physical perception (accidental, non-intended, non-durative perception):
see, hear, feel.
(42) We heard our neighbour unlock his door. (active construction, Naked Infinitive)
vs: He was heard to unlock his door. (passive, Long Infinitive)
The Accusative + Infinitive Construction is the direct result of SOR.
(43) We believe him to be reliable.
The following classes of SOR Triggers have to be distinguished:
1) Vs of propositional attitude of judgement and mental perception (B(elieve)
Vs): believe, consider, hold, think, guess, deny, conclude, etc. BE Deletion may
occur (44a). For regard, recognise, feel, etc the propositional constituent is
obligatory (44b). For say, admit, certify, etc the raised NP must be removed from
post-verbal position (44c).
(44a) They found the man (to be) insane.
(44b) He regards them as inferior. (vs: *He regards them.)
(44c) She is said to be handy.
2) Causative Vs: cause, set, occasion, get, make, have, let (the last three followed
by a Naked Infinitive).
(45) I will have them re-write the report.
You must get it seen to. (BE Deletion)
3) Illocutionary Vs of permission and command: allow, permit, command, order,
instruct, etc.
(46) We forbade the personnel use this door.
4) Vs of liking and disliking: like, love, prefer, want, wish, expect, hate, etc.
(47) I should like it done. (BE Deletion)
5) Vs of physical perception: see, hear, listen, watch, perceive, etc.
(48) The nurse watched the young mother feed the baby.
(active construction, Naked Infinitive)
Both SSR and SOR can be frequently followed by BE Deletion. The deleted
BE may be a progressive BE, a passive BE or a copula.
After SOR, the resulting constructions are: a) Accusative + Present participle
(progressive BE Deletion) (49a); b) Accusative + Past Participle (passive BE Deletion)
(49b); c) Accusative + (Derived) Object Complement (copular BE Deletion) (49c).
(49a) Jane saw her husband cooking.
(49b) She had her car fixed.
(49c) She considers him an ordinary man.
The application of MC passivisation to these constructions, or of SSR and BE
Deletion, derives the corresponding Nominative + V constructions: a) Nominative +
Present participle (progressive BE Deletion) (50a); b) Nominative + Past Participle
(passive BE Deletion) (50b); c) Nominative + (Derived) Subject Complement
(copular BE Deletion) (50c).
(50a) The manager was heard mentioning this aspect.
(50b) The car was found abandoned by the thieves.
(50c) He was considered an ordinary man.

Topics for further discussion and self-assesment tests
1)Discriminate between THAT Clauses and Infinitive Clauses in terms of their syntactic
behaviour
2)Discuss the changes undergone by the Subject of Infinitive Complement Clauses.
Illustrate the modifications with examples of your own
3)Discuss the distribution of Infinitive constructions in patterns which involve Raising
4)Discuss the distribution of Infinitive constructions in patterns which do not involve
Raising
5)Discuss and illustrate the main classes of SSR triggers
6)Discuss and illustrate the concept of Tough Movement
7)Discuss and illustrate the main classes of SOR triggers
8)State the conditions under which BE Deletion occurs and the types of the deleted BE

Examples of exam questions

1)True/False
The Nominative+Infinitive pattern is the result of passivising the MC after SSR
ans. F
In a passive construction verbs of non-durative perception are followed by a Bare
Infinitive
ans F
Inchoative verbs may function as SSR triggers
ans T

2)Multiple choice
Specify the syntactic function of the infinitive construction
"He was so naive as to give them the jewellery "
a)Prepositional object
b)Adverbial of manner
c)Predicative
d)Adverbial of Purpose
e)Adverbial of Result
ans. e

3)Specify the resulting construction(s) after SOR
a)Accusative+Past Participle
b)Nominative+Past Participle
c)Accusative+Present Participle
d)Nominative+ Derived Subject Complement

ans a,c

Specify whether verbs of permission and command may function as
a)SSR triggers
b)SOR triggers
c)verb of subject control

ans b


IX)Gerundial clauses vs THAT clauses and Infinitive clauses. Types of
Gerundial constructions. Transformations undergone by Gerundial Clauses. The
distribution of Gerundial Clauses. Gerund vs Infinitive. Gerund vs Participles


3. Gerundial Clauses
Gerunds are the most nouny Complement Clauses, as they evince more
nominal features than THAT Clauses and Infinitive Clauses. Thus, with them
preposition deletion does not apply (51a), Complex NP Shift applies freely (51b),
and they are allowed as internal clauses (51c). Nevertheless, conjoined -ING
Constructions (especially Acc + -ing ones) still trigger agreement with the V in the
singular (51d), in accordance to their sentential features.
(51a) I was surprised at [your knowing all about this].
(51b) I found disgraceful [his lying to us like that].
(51c) Could [his being so drunk] have any significance?
(51d) [Him winning] and [you losing] is surprising.
There are some significant differences between the two already identified
types of Gerundial Constructions.
Formally, with the Half-Gerund the Subject takes the Accusative case,
whereas in case of the Full-Gerund it takes the Genitive case. In fact, these
constructions can be regarded as having discontinuous complementizers: Acc...-ing
and Poss...-ing.
Semantically, the Half-Gerund has an event interpretation (52a), while the
Full-Gerund has a manner interpretation (52b).
(52a) The entire staff discussed about [Miller doing business with us].
(the event of Miller doing this)
(52b) The entire staff discussed about [Millers doing business with us].
(Millers manner of doing this)
Gerundial Clauses may undergo Extraposition + IT Insertion:
(53) It is no use [talking to him about this].
The Subject of the Gerundial Clause may be sometimes deleted under co-
referentiality
with some NP in the MC (54a) or under indefiniteness (54b).
(54a) I hate [getting up so early]. (Su Control)
I admire you for [being so firm]. (Object Control)
(54b) [Losing things] is a sign of negligence.

The distribution of Half (I) and Full (II) Gerund Clauses consists in the
following inventory of syntactic functions:
1) SUBJECT It is frequently unextraposed, sometimes the Complement Subject
being deleted.
(55) [You discussing the matter with her] upset me. (I)
[His letting the car kill him] was obvious. (II)
[Gambling] is his favourite pastime. (Su is deleted under co-referentiality)
2) DIRECT OBJECT If the DO Clause is very long, extraposition may occur. Its
Subject may be deleted.
(56) My parents didnt like [me racing]. (I)
I cant forgive [his being rude to my mother]. (II)
She intended [sending for more food]. (Su is deleted under indefiniteness)
She found it somehow strange at first [living in that part of the country].
(Extraposition, Su Control)
3) PREPOSITIONAL OBJECT When the Complement Subject is a N, the Half-Gerund
is more frequent; the Full-Gerund is more common when the Complement
Subject is a pronoun. The preposition is retained.
(57) We insisted on [the students attending all courses]. (I)
His arrogant attitude resulted in [his finding himself deserted by
everybody]. (II)
4) PREDICATIVE The Complement Subject may be sometimes deleted.
(58) What I do not understand is [you suddenly turning against me]. (I)
The only reason for selling this house is [the owners getting a very
expensive car]. (II)
5) ATTRIBUTE The same Ns taking other types of Clausal Attributes are to be
found with Gerunds, too.
(59) There was no record of [the method ever having been tested]. (I)
The idea of [his going to college] annoyed them. (II)
A special mention deserve Gerunds with passive meaning (not form). They
occur with Vs like: need, bear, deserve, stand, take, want, etc, with worth, and with
the preposition beyond past.
(60) The cottage would need [looking after].
This point is worth [discussing].
They were beyond [saving].

Gerund vs. Infinitive
There are adjectives or verbs that can occur both with gerunds and infinitives. These
patterns change their meaning according to the grammatical information incorporated in
the construction they are followed by. The differences in meaning are the following
1)The verb is followed by a gerund . The construction expresses an event happening in
the past , anterior to the one expressed in the main clause. The gerund is past-oriented
e.g. I can't remember paying the telephone bill
He can't forget dancing with her at the Fancy Dress Ball
I regret saying he is to blame for our failure
2)The verb is followed by an infinitive. The construction expresses an event that is
going to take place in the future. The infinitive is future-oriented, the event is posterior to
the one expressed in the main clause.
e.g. Remember/Don't forget to pay the telephone bill
I regret to say he is to blame for our failure
There are interesting changes of meaning when verbs such as stop, go on, try, mean
are combined both with an infinitive and a gerund
When the verbs want and need with a [-human] subject are followed by a gerund or a
passive infinitive the two patterns acquire the same reading
e.g. Your shoes need/want cleaning
Your shoes neeld/want to be cleaned

Gerund vs. Participles
The differences between participles and gerunds are the following
1)Participles can occur in continuous, perfect or passive tense forms while Gerunds
cannot occur in tense forms
e.g. The report is being typed now
The report has been typed
2)Gerund are preceded by prepositions while participles are preceded by conjunctions
e.g. She insisted on our joining the team (Gerund)
While vacuuming the room she always sings her favourite song (Present
Participle)
3)Gerunds function as direct and prepositional objects while participles occur as
objects only in dependent constructions (Accusative+Participle)
e.g.He started climbing the oak-tree(Gerund-DO)
He was amazed at her knowing so much about computers (gerund+PO)
I heard him playing the violin (Accusative+Participle)
4)When gerunds function as attributes the pattern is paraphrasable by means of the
preposition for
e.g. A flying saucer= a saucer used for flying
When participles function as attributes the pattern is paraphrasable by who/that/which
is+V(ing)
e.g.the sleeping child= the child who is sleeping

Topics for further discussion and self-assesment tests
1)Discuss the opposition Gerundial Clauses vs. THAT Clauses and Infinitive Clauses in
terms of their nouniness
2)Discuss the syntactic and semantic differences between the two types of Gerundial
Constructions
3)Give a full description of the distribution of the Gerundial Clauses
4)Discuss the possible transformations undergone by Gerundial Clauses
5)Disambiguate between the Present Participle and the Gerund
6)State the differences between the patterns with the infinitive and those with the
gerund in terms of their semantic interpretation

Examples of exam questions

1)True/False
Extraposition+ IT insertion is blocked with Gerundial Clauses
ans. F
The Half-Gerund has an event interpretation
ans.T
Participles cannot occur after prepositions
ans. T
The object of the Gerundial Clause is deleted under indefiniteness
ans.F

2)Multiple choice
Identify the syntactic function of the Gerundial Clause
"Do you really hope for him keeping his promise?"

a)Direct object
b)Attributive
c)Predicative
d)Prepositional object

ans.d

Specify whether the -ing form in the NP "swimming pool" is :
a) a Gerund
b) a Participle
c) verbal noun

ans. a

3) Matching
Match the Gerundial Clauses in the first column with the appropriate syntactic function
in the second one
1)It's no use crying over spilt milk
2)Don't start insisting on it again
3)I can't help laughing at her attitude
4)They insisted on our joining their team

a)Direct object
b)Attributive
c)Prepositional object
d)Predicative
e)Subject

ans.1e, 2a, 3a, 4c





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