1

FromBitstoHits:VideoGamesMusicChangesitsTuneKarenCollins

citeas:
Collins,Karen2005.FromBitstoHits:VideoGamesMusicChangesitsTune
FilmInternational#12,January2005.pp.419.

WhenIwasakid,mybrotherandIwouldplayNintendountilwewerebothdoubledoverwithwhatwedcalled
Nintendothumb.Ilaterlearnedthetechnicaltermforthisproblemwascarpaltunnelsyndrome,butitdidnt
matterIwashooked.Hookedonthelittlecartoonishcharactersthatfeltsolifeliketomeatthetime,hookedon
gamesthatledmethroughtime,throughhistory,throughworldsknownandunknown,andmostimportantly,
hookedonlaughingatmybrotherasIjoinedinwiththequickdescendingglissandobleepingofthemachine,
signifyingthecharactersdeath,andmyturntoplay.

Thoseofuswhogrewupinfrontofseveralgenerationsofgamesconsolestakeforgrantedthatgamesmusichas
comealongwayfromtheblipsandbleepsoftheearlymachines.Afterall,eventheconservativeNational
AcademyofRecordingArtsandScienceshasnowallowedforGrammyawardsforinteractivegamesmusic.
i
There
arealsoBAFTAandMTVawardsnowforgamessoundtracks.Infact,manyfilmcomposersandpopularmusic
groupsarebecomingincreasinglyinvolvedintheproductionofgamesmusic,andsoundtrackstovideogamesare
findingaconsiderableaudienceamongstmusicfans,asmoreandmoregamessoundtracksbecomereleasedas
musicCDs.HowardShore,composerofthefilmsTheLordoftheRingsandTheSilenceoftheLambshasrecently
completedthescoreforWebzensSUN,andMichaelNyman,famousforhisPeterGreenawayfilmscores,hasalso
producedmusicforgames,suchasSegasEnemyZero.Despitetheadvancesingamestechnology,manyacademics
havebeenslowtorecognizethegrowingimportanceofgamesmusic.

Assoundtechnologyimprovedthroughthelastthreedecades,sodiditsroleingames.Musicquicklywentfrom
beingacatchygimmickdesignedtosuckerquartersfromunsuspectingpassersbyinarcades,tobeinganintegral
partofthegamingexperience.Gamesmusicsharesmostofthefunctionsoffilmmusicithelpsestablishsettings,
emphasizesmovement,andservesnarrativefunctions(continuity,unity,cuing,foreshadowing,etc.).
ii
Inaddition
tothesefunctions,gamesaudio,duetoitsinteractiveelements,hasadditionalfunctions,suchashelpingtolocate
theplayerinthegame,drawingtheplayerinemotionally,symbolizingspecificeventsoritemstolettheplayer
knowwhentheyvedonesomethinggoodorbad,andmostimportantly,cueingplayerstotakeanaction,suchas
warningtheplayerthatabadguyisjustaroundthecorner.Therehaveevenbeengamesinwhichmusicplaysa
pivotalroleintheplotandplayersmustpayattentiontomusicalcuesinordertoprogress.Anygamertodaycan
tellyouthatmostgamesaredifficulttoplaywithoutsoundon.

Anewfunctiontodayofgamesmusicismarketingeithertosellthesoundtrackstothegames,ortoattractmusic
fanstoaparticulargame.Popularmusicisoftenincludedingamestoday,asisevidencedbyIsland/DefJams
recentpartnershipwithElectronicArts,thelargestgamemanufacturer.
iii
TherecentgameTonyHawk's
Underground:T.H.U.G2,forinstance,hasaneclecticrangeoftracks,fromoldschoolpunkliketheRamonesand
theSexPistols,tojustplainoldschoollikeFrankSinatraandJohnnyCash,aswellascontemporaryhiphopartists
likeAesopRock.Themusicindustryisevendiscoveringvideogamesasanewchannelformarketingbands,as
artistslikeAndrewWK,GoodCharlotte,andTrustCompanyhavesuccessfullygainedexposurethroughthe
medium.
iv
Onesurveysuggests55percentofteenagegamerslearnofnewmusicthroughgamesnow,andasong
inapopulargameislikelytobeheard600milliontimes.
v
Gamessoundtracksareevenmakingtheirwayintothe
charts,asElectronicArtsNBALive2003recentlybecamethefirsttoachieveplatinumsales(onemillionunits).

2
TheaimsofthispaperaretooutlineandexplainwhatIwillrefertoasthethreemainstagesofgamesaudio
development.Thefirstisthemusicofthe8bitmachines,thatpivotaltimeofblipsandbleepsthatmanystillcallto
mindwhendiscussinggamesmusic.Thesecondstageisthemusicoftheinbetweenyears,whendevelopments
intechnologyexpandedintoMIDIandwavetablesynthesis,andsubsequentlymoresophisticatedmusicingames
begantodevelop.ThefinalstagebeginswiththeinclusionofRedbook(CD)audioandtakesustotodaywhen
therearefewlimitationsintechnologyandgamesscoringhasbecomealucrativebusiness.
PartOne:The8BitRevolution

Theearliestvideogamesthosegoingbacktowhatisallegedlythefirst,WilliamHigginbothamsTennisforTwo
gameof1958,andSteveRussellsSpacewarof1962hadnosound.Likewise,theearliesthomeconsolessuchas
theMagnavoxOdysseywerealsosilent.ItwasntuntilAtarisPong(1972),anearlyelectronictabletennisgame,
thatavideogameincludedsound,makingthebeepingpongsoundwhentheballhitthepaddle.AsStephenKent
reports,thepongsoundwasreportedbydesignerAlAlcornasanaccident:

Thetruthis,Iwasrunningoutofpartsontheboard.Nolan[Bushnell]wantedtheroarofacrowdofthousandsthe
approvingroarofcheeringpeoplewhenyoumadeapoint.TedDabneytoldmetomakeabooandahisswhenyou
lostapoint,becauseforeverywinnertheresaloser.IsaidScrewit,Idontknowhowtomakeanyoneofthose
sounds.Idonthaveenoughpartsanyhow.SinceIhadthewirewrappedonthescope,Ipokedaroundthesync
generatortofindanappropriatefrequencyoratone.Sothosesoundsweredoneinhalfaday.Theywerethesounds
thatwerealreadyinthemachine(Kent,2001:4142).

Taito/MidwaysSpaceInvadersof1978wasthefirstmajorarcadegamesuccess,andalsothefirstgametoinclude
acontinuousbackgroundsoundtrack:foursimplechromaticdescendingbassnoteswhichrepeatedinaloop.Along
withthemusic,thegameincludedsixsoundeffects:amissileshot,explosions,astrikeonasaucer,aflyingsaucer
sound,invaderhits,andthebonusmissilebase.MostremarkableaboutSpaceInvadersisthefactthat,despite
beingthefirsttoincludeabackgroundtrack,italsorecognizedtheneedforthesoundtracktobeinteractivethat
is,themusicstempowasaffectedbytheplayersprogressinthegame.Inthiscase,thefourtonesbecamethe
marchingofalienfeetthatspedupasthegameprogressed.

Mostvideogamesmusicatthetimeoftheearlyarcadehitsincludedoneortwochanneltuneseitherasquicktitle
themesortwotothreesecondingameloops,althoughanotherimportantinventioningamesaudiocame
quicklythecutscene,anintermission,orbreakinagameduringwhichplayerssitbackandwatch,usedasa
rewardforattainingaparticularlevel.TohruIwatanisPacman,thefirstgametoincorporateacutscene(1980),
enjoyeditsmostmusicaltimesduringthesescenes,sincerunningaudioandplayerinteractionatthesametime
wastypicallytootaxingontheoldprocessors,butwithouttheplayerinteraction,soundcouldbeboosted.Pacman
alsobroughtaboutamassrealizationofthecatchinessofsoundingamesitsinfamouswacawacaingame
soundandopening2channeltitlethemebecamethesourceofseveralgimmicksongsinthe80s,suchasWeirdAl
YankovicsPacman,andBucknerandGarciasPacmanFeverthelatterofwhichquicklyledtoanalbumof
othergamestunes,including"GoinBerserk","DoTheDonkeyKong","OdetoaCentipede","Froggy'sLament"and
"Defender".Videogamesmusicmayhavebeenviewedasagimmick,butitwasheretostay.

Thebeginningsofinteractiveaudioonlyprovidethevaguestofcluesastowhatwastocome.Soundwasslowto
develop,andifonerecognizesthepoorgraphicsqualityofthoseearlygamescomparedwiththoseoftoday,its
notamajorleapoftheimaginationtorealizethesoundoftheoldgameswasequallypoor,ifnotworse.PCsin
particularwereconsideredbusinessmachines,andaudiowasnotseentohavemanybusinessapplications,and
wasthereforenotapriorityforcomputerdevelopers.Nevertheless,thereweremanyprogressiveideasintroduced
totheaudioof8bitmachinegames,and8bitgamesdevelopedauniqueaestheticthatisstillenjoyedbygamers
andmusicfanstoday.Infact,awholegenreofelectronicmusicknownasbitcore,bithop,bliphopor
micromusichasbeenspawnedbycomposerswhostilluse8bitmachinestoday.
vi

Themajorityof8bitmachines(andearlyarcadeandpinballmachines)usedwhatisknownasProgrammable
SoundGenerators,orPSGsound.EarlyPSGsusedanaloguesynthesis,orsubtractivesynthesis,whichstartswitha
waveformcreatedbyanoscillator,andusesafiltertoattenuateorsubtractspecificfrequenciesandthenpasses
thisthroughanamplifiertocontroltheenvelopeandamplitudeofthefinalresultingsound.Thesespecifications
wereusuallycodedinassemblylanguage,andearlysoundprogrammersneededtounderstandtheprogramming
languagetoengagethechip.Thismeantthatmostearlycomposerswereinfactprogrammersworkingonother
aspectsofagame,oratbest,inhouseprogrammermusicianswhohadtoworkcloselywithprogrammersworking
onotheraspectsofthegame.PSGsofferedlittlecontroloverthetimbreofasound,usuallylimitingsoundsto
singlewaveformswithoutmuchabilitytomanipulatethatwaveform.ManyofthesePSGsweregenericchips
createdbyTexasInstrumentsorGeneralInstruments,butsomeearlyhomecomputercompanies,suchasAtariand
Commodore,designedtheirownsoundchipstoimprovesoundquality.

InternationalBusinessMachines(IBM)introducedtheirPersonalComputer(PC)in1981.ThefirstIBMPCsand
clonescontainedonlyatinyspeakerthatcouldproducesimpletones(typicallysquarewaves)ofvaryingfrequency
butofafixedvolume,designedtoindicateerrorsorothermessages,sometimesreferredtoasabipperora
beepertheywere,asthenamesuggested,businessmachines,andgameswereviewedfairlyirrelevanttothe
market.By1983,seeingthesuccessofcompaniessuchasCommodoreandApple,IBMrealizedthattheirbusiness
couldbeexpandedintoawidermarketbymakingthePCmoreaccessibletotheneedsofthehomeuser.Withthis
inmind,theIBMPCjrwaslaunchedin1984.TobettercompetewiththeotherhomePCsbeingmarketedatthe
time,severalchangesweremadetotheoriginalPC.Enhancedgraphicsandsoundillustratedtheimportanceof
videogamesinthehomecomputermarket.AlthoughthePCjrhadseveralfailingswhichhelditbackfromgreat
success,
vii
theseproblemswereimproveduponbyitspopularclone,RadioShacksTandy1000.TheTandy1000
retainedtheenhanced3voicesoundofthePCjr,makingitpopularwithgamersandgamedevelopersintheearly
1980s.

IBM,inanefforttomarketthePCjr,hiredtheUScompanySierratoproduceaPCjrgamethatwouldshowoffthese
newlyenhancedcoloursandsoundcapabilities.Sierrahadpreviouslycreatedgraphicandtextadventuresforthe
PC,suchasUlyssesandtheGoldenFleece,MysteryHouse,andTheDarkCrystal.SierrasanswertoIBMs
assignmentwasKingsQuest,thefirst3Dgraphicadventuregame.ButSierrawentonestepfurther,creatingan
AdventureGameInterpreter,orAGI,whichwouldbecomethestandardforprogrammingSierraspopulargraphic
adventureseriessuchasSpaceQuest,PoliceQuest,andtheLeisureSuitLarryseries.TheAGIformatwasdesigned
forandmodeledaroundthePCjrssoundchip,usingallavailablesoundchannels.ThePCjr,TandyandMacintosh
versionsofthegamessongswerecomposedoffourparts;themelody,twoaccompanimentparts,andonenoise
(generallyforsoundeffects).ThegamescouldalsobeplayedontheIBMPC,althoughthePCssinglechannelcould
onlyplaythemelodyportion(firstchannel)ofthesongs.

MostearlygamesforthePCwerecodedinBASICA,otherwiseknownasAdvancedBASIC(BeginnersAllPurpose
SymbolicInstructionCode),theofficialBASICofIBM.BASICasalanguageforgameprogrammingwassomewhat
limitedontheoldmachines,whichhadtroublemanagingsoundatthesametimeasexecutingothertasks.The
processorscouldonlymaintainstaticsound,or,insomecases,apatchydynamicsound,andtheseparate
channelsforthosefewPCsthathadthem,wouldoccasionallyexperiencedelayduetotheslowexecutionofthe
commands.
viii
Atbest,then,gameshadatitletheme,athemeatkeyevents(suchasdeathofamajorcharacter),
sometimestiedinwithcutscenes,andagameoversequence.BackgroundmusicfortheearlyhomePCswasrare.

AswiththePC,thirdpartysoundexpansionboardswerebuiltfortheMacintoshAppleIImodels,themostpopular
ofwhichusedGeneralInstrumentsAY38192PSGchip,whichprovidedthreetonechannelsandonenoise
generator.SweetMicroSystemsMockingboardwasthebestsellingofthesesoundboardstousetheAY38912,
andwasavailableinfourdifferentpackages,addingspeechsynthesisandupto6channelsofsound.Withoutmany
gamessupportingthemusic,however,mostoftheaddonboardswereusedbyhomemusiciansratherthan
gamers.



4

ItwasCommodorewhichfullyrecognizedtheimportanceofgamingtothehomecomputermarket.In1982,after
thesuccessofitsVIC20model,Commodorereleasedits64Kmodel,whichwouldgoontobecomethebestselling
computerofalltime,havingsoldanestimated22millionunits.TheC64wasoriginallyconceivedofasagame
computer,andthegraphicsandsoundremainevidenceofthis.Thesoundchip(calledSID,orSoundInterface
Device)wasathreevoiceplusnoisegeneratorchip,createdbyRobertYannes,whohadhelpedengineertheVIC
20,andwouldlatergoontocreatetheDigitalOscillatorChipfortheAppleIIGS,andthentofoundEnsoniq
keyboards.UnlikeotherPCchipsatthetime,eachtoneonthechipcouldbeselectedfromarangeofwaveforms
sawtooth,triangle,pulse,andnoise.Eachtonecouldalsobesubjectedtoavarietyofeffectsandprogrammable
filtersincludingringmodulation.AnindependentADSRamplitudeenvelopemodulatorenabledtheSIDtomore
accuratelyimitateotherinstrumentsthanpreviouschips.Thenoisechannelcouldalsooperateasasimplepulse
wavemodulation4bitsampler.

Frogger,releasedin1981inthearcadesand1983fortheIBMPCandC64,revealsthegreatdifferencesbetween
themachinesofthetimes.ThePC(andtheAtariVCS1982version)couldonlyhandleashorttwochanneltitletune
andlevelintrosong,therestofthegameremaininglimitedtosoundeffects.TheCommodore64ontheother
handcouldadaptthesongfromthearcadeversion,whichhadacontinuousbackgroundmedley,includingYankee
DoodleandCamptownRaces.Infact,CommodoresadvancedSIDchipallowedformuchgreaterreplicationof
recognizablesongs,andtheadaptationofsongsfromthebetterequippedarcadeversionsapracticeknownas
portingwascommonontheC64.Othertrackswereadaptedfrompopularsongs:1986sInternationalKarate,
forinstance,wasinspiredbyRyuichiSakamotosscoreforthe1983warfilmMerryChristmasMr.Lawrence,and
MontyontheRun,usinganewpitchbendcodeinventedbycomposerRobHubbard,wasinspiredbyTheDevil's
Gallop(CharlesWilliams),thetitlethemeforthe1940sAmericandetectiveradioshow"DickBarton".Aswellas
theseimitationsofknowntunes,andtheuseofthecopyrightfreemedleysseeninFrogger,songswerealsoinrare
caseslicensedspecificallyforgames.Forinstance,GriggandJansencoveredtheKingsmensLouieLouiefor
CaliforniaGames.

Likehomecomputers,theearly8bitconsoleshadsinglePSGs,mostlywiththreeplusonechannelsofaudio,and,
likePCs,theaudiochannelshadtobedownmixedtoonemonooutput.Programmersfor8bitconsolesraninto
manyofthesamedifficultiesasPCgameprogrammers.Therewaslittleroomingamesformusic,soagain,atbest,
atitlesongorshortvictorysongmayhavebeenused.TheIntellivisionforinstancehadacartridgespaceof4K,and
audiowasgivenperhapstenpercentofthisspace.
ix
AtariVCSgameswereluckytohaveanymusicatall.

TheAtariVCS(VideoComputerSystem,alsoknownasthe2600)sawlimitedsuccesswhenitwasfirstreleasedin
1976.In1980,however,AtarilicensedthearcadehitSpaceInvaders,whichbecameabestsellerandhelpedto
spuronthesalesoftheVCS.Eventually,over25millionVCSsystemsweresold,andover120millioncartridges.
x

ThesoundchipintheVCSwasknownastheTIA(TelevisionInterfaceAdapter),andalsohandledgraphics.The
audioportionhadtwochannels,eachwitha4bitvolumecontrol,a4bitwaveformcontrolselectoranda5bit
frequencydivider(capableofdividingafrequencyof30KHzby32values).This5bitfrequencycontrollerwas
incrediblylimited,andusedapolynomialcounter,atypeofbinarycounterthatusesapseudorandomwayof
counting,ratherthanthenormalbinaryincremental/decremental.Achosenfrequencywasdivideddownfromthe
systemclock,meaningmanypitcheswerenotintunewithothers,makingitdifficulttoprogrammelodies.Even
titlethemeswereuncommon,andifanythingafewnoteswhichsoundedcompletelyrandommightbethrownin
asatitlesong.

ThelackofprogrammabilitymeantthattheAtariVCS,whenitdidhavemusic,hadmoreoriginalsongs,asporting
songsfromwellknownmusicwasdifficult,althoughattemptsweremade.ThegameUpndowninparticular
showsthedistincteffecttheAtaristuningshadonthecompositionofsongs,asitturnsabluesyF#minorgroovein
thearcadeversiontoanalmostdementedsoundingversioninCminor.



5

Figure1.UpNDownArcadeVersion(Sega1983)

Figure2.UpNDownAtariVCSVersion(Sega1983)

MattelsanswertotheAtariVCSwastheIntellivision,moreadvancedinsoundandgraphics.Alsoimportantwas
itsmodulardesign,allowingforextensionssuchastheEntertainmentComputerSystem,amusickeyboardand
secondsoundchip,allowingforsixsimultaneouschannels.TheoriginalIntellivisionusedaGeneralInstruments
PSGsoundchip,theAY38914.PartofaseriesofGIchipspopularwithgamemakers(thechipswereusedinthe
ZXSpectrum,AmstradCPC,BBCMicro,AtariST,SegaMasterSystemandmanyarcademachines),the8914had
threetonegeneratorchannelsandonenoise.Eachchannelallowedforindividualcontroloffrequency,volumeand
envelope.PitchwasstillcontrolledbythefrequencydivisionmethodlikeontheVCS,buttheGIchipusedatwelve
bitregistertosetthedivisor,allowingfor4096possibilitiesinsteadofonly32intheVCS.Thismeantthe
Intellivisioncouldmorecreatemorerecognisablerenditionsofknownsongs,suchasBillGoodrichsuseofFlight
oftheBumblebee(RimskyKorsakov)onthegameBuzzBombers.
xi

Undoubtedlythemostpopularofall8bitmachineswastheNintendoEntertainmentSystem,orNES.TheNES,
releasedinNorthAmericain1985,usedabuiltinfivechannelPSGwithonewaveformforeachchanneltwo
pulsewaves,atrianglewave,anoise,andasamplechannel.Thepulseandtrianglechannelshadan11bit
frequencycontrol,capableofabouteightoctaves.Thepulsechannelshadfourdutycycleoptionsanda4bit
amplitudeenvelopefunction,andoneofthechannelshadafrequencysweepfunctionthatcouldcreate
portamentolikeeffects,andwasoftenusedforUFOorlasergunsoundeffects.Thepulsewavescouldalsobe
detuned,andvibratoeffectscouldbesimulated.Thetrianglewavechannelwassetoneoctavelowerthanthatof
thepulsewaves,hadafourbitfrequencycontrol,buthadnovolumeorenvelopecontrol.Thefifthchannelwasa
PCMchannelsampler,alsoknownastheDeltaModulationchannel(DMC).

6
TheNESwasshippedwiththegameSuperMarioBrothers,agamewhichwouldspurcomposerKojiKondointothe
spotlightinJapan.AlthoughmanyNorthAmericansprobablycouldntrecognizeKondosname,mostofthem
wouldprobablyrecognizethetune.
xii
KondoquicklymasteredthelimitationsoftheNESsoundchip,managingto
filloutitsthreetonechannelswithacleveruseofpercussion,catchymelodies,andsmoothloopingcapabilities
thatusedslightvariationstokeepthesongfromgettingasmonotonousasearliergames.MostNESsongs
consistedofamelody,thickenedoutwithasecondchannel,abassline,andpercussion,andthelimitationsmeant
mostsongsweremelodybased,butsomecomposersexploredotherpossibilities,includingHirokazu"Hip"
TanakasnowwellknownscorefortheMetroidgame,whichintentionallyavoidedmelodybasedsongs,instead
optingforascoreperhapsclosertothatofsciencefictionfilmmusic,wheresoundeffectsandsongblurtogether
tocreateanatmosphere,andthemusicdisappearsintothebackground.

Figure3Metroidtitletheme(HirokazuTanaka)(Nintendo1986)

NESsoundandmusicwasgenerallyallottedabouttenpercent(440Kb)ofthetotalgamesize,
xiii
althoughsome
gamesusedincartridgesoundchipstoaddextrachannels.Forinstance,theKonamiVRC6andVRC7chip,usedin
CastlevaniaandLagrangePoint,generatedsoundusingFMsynthesis.FrequencyModulation(FM)synthesishad
beendevelopedbyJohnChowningatStanfordUniversityintheearly1970s,andeventuallylicensedandimproved
uponbyYamaha,whowouldusethemethodfortheircomputersoundchips,aswellastheDXseriesofkeyboards.
FMusesamodulatingwavesignaltochangethepitchofanotherwave(knownasthecarrier).EachFMsound
needsatleasttwosignalgenerators(oscillators),oneofwhichisthecarrierwaveandoneofwhichisthe
modulatingwave.FMsoundchipsfoundtheirwayintomanyoftheearlyarcadegamesofthelate1970sandearly
1980s,andintomostmid80ssoundcards.ComparedwiththePSGchips,theywerefarmoreflexible,offeringa
muchwiderrangeoftimbresandsounds,withalimitedamountofmemoryrequired.Theywere,however,too
expensivefortheearliesthomeconsoles,althoughtheyfoundtheirwayintomanyearlyarcadegames.

RecognizingthatgamersandmusicianswanteddecentqualitysoundfromtheirPCswithouthavingtogooutand
buynewcomputers,addonthirdpartyFMsoundcardsbegantodevelopinthemid1980s.Itsworthnotingthat
soundcardsweredesignedwiththegamerinmind:theygenerallyhadajoystickgameportwhichcoulddoubleas
aMIDIportwithanadapter.Aswell,linesin/outforspeakers,headphones,homestereosandmicrophoneswere
oftenincluded.ThefirstpopularPCsoundcardwasproducedbythesmallCanadiancompanyAdLibMultimediain
1986.AdLibbasedtheircardonaYamahaFMchip,YM3812,whichwasalaterversionofthepopularYM3526
usedinmanyarcadegames.IthadnineFMchannels,orsixtonechannelsandfiveforpercussion.TheuseofFM



7
synthesistechniquesmeantthatgamedeveloperscouldnowuseawiderrangeofinstrumentsandsounds.To
boostsales,theAdLibcardwaspackagedwithsoftwarecapableofplayingbackMIDIfiles(JukeBox),aMIDI
sequencerprogramequippedwith145presetvoices(VisualComposer),andanFMsynthesisprogramtodesign
soundsorinstruments(InstrumentMaker).
xiv

KeyboardmanufacturerRolandhadalsobegunmakingsoundcardsforPCsbythelate1980s.Remarkableforits
time,theMT32had32voices,with256presetyetprogrammableinstrumentsreadyforMIDIuse.Whatreally
madeitunique,however,wasthatitusedwavetablesynthesis.Wavetablesynthesisusespresetdigitalsamplesof
instruments,usuallycombinedwithbasicwaveformsofanaloguesynths.Rolandwasgivenaseriousboostwhen
theSierrasoftwarecompanysignedadealwiththecompanyalongwithAdLib.Aswellasbecomingaresellerof
theproducts,SierrawouldadoptbothRolandsMT32soundcardandtheAdLibasstandardsfortheir
compositions,beginningwithKingsQuestIV.
xv
Sierrawouldonceagainshowoffthecapabilitiesofthehardware
components,bybringingonboardGrammyandEmmynominatedcomposerWilliamGoldstein,and,laterJan
Hammer,amongothers,tocomposeforthegames.

ItwasaroundthistimethatMIDI,aprotocoldefinedin1982toallowmusicaldevices(synthesizers,keyboards,
sequencers,mixingdesks,computers)tobecompatibleinastandardizedformat,revolutionizedthepossibilitiesfor
gamescomposing.Onlycommands,ratherthanactualsounds,aretransmitted,meaningfilesizewasverysmall
absolutelycrucialforgames.AMIDIcommandmight,forinstance,tellasynthesizerwhentostartandstopplaying
anote,atwhatvolumeandwhatpitch,andwhatvoice,orsound,touse.Initially,someofthisinformationwould
varygreatlydependingonthedevicesused,butin1991aGeneralMIDIstandardwasagreedupon.Thisstandard
laidoutatemplatefor128instrumentsandsoundeffects,sothatthesamenumbersettingwouldbethesameon
anyMIDIdevice:soacommandsayingplaynumber39wouldalwaysplayaslapbass.

Mostimportantlytogamesmusic,MIDIallowedfornewinnovationsininteractivity.Onesuchdevelopmentwas
LucasArtssiMUSE(InteractiveMusicandSoundEffects),in1991.iMUSEwasoriginallydevelopedforLucasArts
StarWarsgameforNintendo,butfounduseinpopularLucasArtsgameslikeMonkeyIsland2,andIndianaJones
andtheFateofAtlantis.TheiMusesystemsequencedMIDIinawaythatallowedcomposerstoorganizemusical
cuesinsuchawaythatitcouldjumpaboutwithinagiventrack,tointeractwithwhatwashappeninginthegame.
Itcould,forinstance,changevolume,tempo,oraddorremoveinstrumentsorsoundeffectsinresponsetoagiven
actioninagameinotherwords,itcouldcreatetrueinteractivegamesmusic.

CompetingwithMIDIintheearlystagewasthetrackerformat,alsoknownasmoduleformat,orMOD.Tracker
programsworkedmuchlikemodernMIDIsequencers.Atrackerprogramwouldstoredataonthenotes,volume
setting,effectsandinstrument(likeMIDI),howevertheywouldalsorecorddigitalsamplesoftheinstrumentsin
theactualfile,limitedonlybythesizeoffile(the880Kbfloppydisk).MODfileshadtheadvantageoverMIDI,then,
inthatmusicorothersoundeventswouldsoundasthecomposerintended,andawealthofpossiblesoundswas
suddenlyopenedupforthecomposertouse.MODfileswerealsoeasiertoprogramfornonmusicianslikemany
gamecomposersandmadeiteasytosequencerepetitiveloopsalsoimportantforgamecomposers.
xvi
The
MODformatneverreallycaughtonbecauseofitssizerequirementsandthelimitationsofgamescartridges,and
thefactthatthesoundqualityofthehardwarewasgenerallynotasgoodasMIDIcomponents.Althoughthere
wereafewgamecompaniesthatusedtrackerformat(EpicMegagames,forinstance),themajorityusedthe
bettersupportedMIDI.

PartTwo:The16BitEvolution

Thefirst16bitconsolewasreleasedbythemultinationalcommunicationscorporationNECinJapanin1987as
thePCEngine.ThePCEngine,orTurboGrafx16asitbecameknownintheWest,wasnottrue16bit,butratherhad
two8bitprocessors.Nevertheless,itdidhavea16bitgraphicschip,and6channelstereosoundwith5bit
sampling,andwaspopularinJapanwhenitwasreleased.WhenitcametimeforaNorthAmericanrelease,



8
however,theTurboGrafx16didnotfaresowell.PartofthereasonforthiswasthefactthatNintendohadmany
gamedevelopingcompaniesunderstrictexclusivecontracts,restrictingthemfromdevelopingforothersystems.
TheTurboGrafxCDmodelprovidedgamersattimeswithoptionsoflisteningtothesystems6channelsound
generatororprerecordedCDaudioatselecttimesinthegames.

Thefirstreal16bitconsolewasthe1989releasebySega,theMegadrive(theNorthAmericannamewasthe
Genesis).TheMegadriveproducedmanygamesportedfromsuccessfulSegaarcadegameslikeSpaceHarrier,After
BurnerandGhoulsNGhosts.ThesystemoriginallycamepackagedwiththearcadehitAlteredBeast,butsoontook
onNintendosMariowiththeirSonictheHedgehogcharacter.TheMegadrivealsohadsuperiorsoundoverthe
NES:ithadonePSG3+1chiptohandleeffectsandtheoccasionalmusicpart(aTexasInstrumentschip,thesame
usedintheColecovision),aswellasaYamahaFMsynthesizerchip,whichhadsixchannelsofdigitisedstereo
sound,andonePCM8bitsamplechannelwhichwascapableofasamplerateof22KHz(thesamechipusedinthe
YamahaDX27andDX100keyboards).Castlevaniashowsofftherapidimprovementinsoundqualityonthe
Megadrive.

9
Figure4CastlevaniaBloodines(MichiruYamane),Konami1994.SegaMegadrive

WiththeMegadriveleaguesaheadoftheNESincapabilities,Nintendorealizedthattheywouldhavetobuilda16
bitsystemtocompete.By1991,theyhaddevelopedtheirSuperFamicom,orSuperNintendoEntertainment
System(SNES).TheSNESsoundmoduleconsistedofseveralcomponents,themostimportantofwhichwasthe
SonySPC700,whichactedasacoprocessorwithitsownmemory.TheSPC700wasan8bitCPUrunningat2
MHz,withanattached16bitSonydigitalsignalprocessor,essentiallyawavetablesynthesizerwhichsupported
eightstereochannelsatprogrammablefrequencyandvolume,andeffectssuchasreverb,filters,panning,and
envelopegenerators,andwithapresetstockofMIDIinstruments.Inaddition,therewastypicallyasignificant
amount(24Mbit)cartridgememorythatcouldbeusedforsound.Foreaseofprogramming,softwarewas
developedtoconvertPC/MacMIDIfilesintofilesexecutablebytheSPC700,andthereforemusicianscouldspend
moretimecomposingthesongs.

TheThirdStageandtheStartofCDAudio
Althoughbytheearly1990smostcomputershadFMsoundcardssupportingMIDI,manyofthesesoundcards
werecheap,andtheFMsynthesismadetheMIDImusicsounddisappointing.WhenCDROMScameout,MIDIin
gamingwasprettymuchabandoned,andwithitthenotionofinteractivemusic.PopularearlyCDROMtitleslike
7
th
Guestcameoutwithhighresolutiongraphicsandhigherqualitymusic.TheCDROMtechnologyensuredthat
therewasmoreroomformusicingamespreviouslymostgameshadshippedon3.5floppydisks,and,perhaps
moreimportantlytothegamecomposers,sincetheaudiowasnotreliantonasoundcardssynthesis,composers
couldknowhowthemusicwouldsoundonmostsystems.

SegareleasedtheirCDROMbased32bitSaturnin1994.Theaudioalonehadtwoaudioprocessors,runningon
theMotorola68000thesameprocessorthathadbeenusedastheMegadrivesCPUknownastheSaturnCustom
SoundProcessor(SCSP),manufacturedbyYamaha.TheSCSPconsistedofa32channelPCMsoundgenerator,
capableof44.1KHzsampleratesanda16bitdigitaltoanalogueconverter.Thesoundboardalsohada32voice
MIDIYamahaFMsynthesizer,whoseoutputcouldbemixedinstereousinga16channeldigitalmixerandtimer.
TheonlydrawbacktoSaturnssoundsystemwasthelimitedamountofRAMaccordedtosound.Becauseaudio
sampleshadtobedownloadedraw(decompressed)intotheaudiomemorybufferof512K,thismeanttherewasa
limitedamountofspaceforsimultaneoussounds,andsothesampleratewasoftenreducedtoconservememory.
TheSaturnsawmostpopularityinJapan,asdidthePanasonicFZ13DOandtheAtariJaguar,bothsystemswhich
havepassedintoobscurity.TheonlyrealrelevancetothispaperistheJaguarsreleaseofTempest2000,oneofthe
firstgamestohaveaseparatesoundtrackforsale,andtheinclusionofknownpopularartistssuchasWhite
ZombiessoundtrackforWayoftheWarrioronthe3DO.OneofthereasonsfortheultimatefailureoftheSaturn
andotherstocatchonwasthecompetitionwiththeSonyPlaystation,asystemwhichwascheaperandeasierto
programfor,andthereforesawthesupportofmoregamesdesigners.

TheSonyPlaystationbeganitslifeasaCDROMaddoncomponentforNintendosSNESsystem.Nintendohad
joinedforceswithSonytobettercompeteinthevideogamesmarket,butthetwocompaniescouldnotagreeon
thesystem.Sonydecidedtopushaheadwithitsown32bitsystem,thePlaystation.ThePlayStationwas
enormouslysuccessful,sellingover85millionunits,mostlikelyduetoitsaffordabilityandmassivelibraryof
availablegames.ThePlaystationsmotherboardfeaturedseveralgraphicschipstohandle3Dgraphicsandtexture
mapping,anddedicatedaudiomemoryandsoundchip.The2xspeedCDROMdrivecouldalsoplayaudioCDs,in
fact,thereweresomegameswhereitwaspossibletopausethegame,andstickinanychosenaudioCDtolisten
toTwistedMetal4,forinstance,afightingactiongame.Thesoundchipwascapableof24channelsof16bit
digitizedsoundatCDqualitysamplingrate,andallowedforrealtimeeffectslikeADSRchanges,looping,reverb
andpitchmodulation.LiketheSegaSaturn,thePlaystationofferedMIDIsupportforeaseofprogrammingthe
audio,butunliketheSaturn,samplesdidnothavetobecompressed,andthetypical4:1compressionratethatwas
usedmeantthatsoundqualitycouldbegreatlyimprovedontheSaturn.



10

AftersplittingofffromSony,Nintendobypassedthe32bitmachinesaltogether,goingstraighttoa64bitreleasein
1996,theNintendo64(N64).TheN64wellsurpassedthePlaystationincapabilities.Themainprocessorcontrolled
theaudio,producing16bitstereosoundataslightlyhighersampleratethanCDquality48MHz.Somegames
supportedsurroundsound,andthiswasenhancedwiththethirdpartyaddonreleaseofRumbleFx3DSound
Amplifier.ItusedADPCMcompression,withthepossibilityofusing13simultaneouswaveformsinrealtimeonthe
hardware,andevenmoreusingthecartridge.Filtersandeffectslikechorus,panningandreverbcouldalsobe
implementedintheinternalCPU,orinthesoftware.

ChangeshavecomerapidlysincetheN64time.TheSegaDreamcastwasthefirst128bitconsole,andusedspecial
GDROMs(GigaByteDiscROMs)capableofholding1.28GB.UnliketheNintendo64,samplesdidnothavetobe
decompressed,improvingaudiocapabilities.Thededicatedaudioprocessorshadtheirownmemory,meaning
soundqualitywasnotcompromisedbyotheraspectsofthegame.True3Daudiowassupported,inCDquality64
channelsound,witheffectssuchasdelay,reverbandsurroundsound.TheDreamcastreportedlysoldoversix
millionunitsuntilitwasdiscontinuedin2002.Similarlyrapidtocomeandgoonthemarket,theNintendoGame
CubeMiniDVDdiscsheldabout1.3Gigabytes,aboutthesameasaDreamcastdisc,andhadanaudiocapability
comparabletothatofthePlaystation2.

ThefollowuptotheimmenselypopularPlaystationensuredthatfansoftheoriginalwouldbesuitablyimpressed
withthenewmachine.WiththeabilitytoplayDVDmovies,andtheoptionofaddonsformodemandharddrive,
thePlaystation2wasleaguesaheadofcompetitionwhenitcameout.ItsgameswerestoredonDVDscapableof
holding5.7Gigabytes,andfullysupportedthemultichannelDVDsoundstandardsAC3,DTSandDolbyDigital,
offeringuptoeightseparatespeakerchannels.ThesoundProcessingUnitiscapableof16bitaudiowitha
maximumsamplerateof48KHzbetterthanCDaudio,andhas48channels.Ofcourse,theothermajorcontender
nowintheconsoleindustryisMicrosoftsXBOX,builtaroundaPentiumIIIprocessorwithan8GBharddrivefor
music,graphics,andsavedgameinformation.TheXBoxfeaturesitsownaudioprocessor,supportingDirectX8.0,
2562Dvoicesand64voicesusing3Dpositionalaudio.

ThedownsideoftheCDROMtechnologyingameshasbeenthatmostCDscouldholdamaximumof72minutesof
music,andwithagameincludedthismeantmuchlessrealtimeformusic.Assuch,variouscompression
technologiesweredeveloped,themostimportantofwhichwasMPEGlevel3,knownmorecommonlyasMP3.
MP3meantthatmuchlessdatawouldberequiredtostoreaudio,andgamecompaniesquicklybegan
incorporatingMPEGcompressionintotheirgamesmusic.WithlargeDVDRomgames,themusiccannowfill
severalaudioCDs,suchasFinalFantasyIX,whichwasreleasedasafourCDset.

RisetoHonor,therecentPlaystation2kungfugamestarringJetLi,offersusagoodexampleofthecurrentstateof
interactiveaudio.Thegameevenoffersusersachoiceofwhetherornottheywanttohearthedialoguein
CantonesewhensituatedinHongKong,thoughothersequencesareinEnglish.SoundismixedinDolbyDigital
Surround,andthegamemakesuseof3Daudiopositioningbestduringfightsequences,wheretheplayercanhear
theopponentsapproach,shout,kick,shoot,andthrowfromalldifferentangles.Themusicinteractswiththegame,
suchaswhentheplayerentersstealthmode,anditbecomesmoreambientandsubdued,allowingtheplayerto
focusonthemoredifficultmovesinthisstage.Percussionistheprimaryfocusinthemusic,speedingupand
slowingdownastheplayerrunsandfightsopponents,andintegratingwiththesoundeffectssopunchesandbeats
synchronizeandworkwiththeplayersmovements.

TheCurrentStateofDigitalInteractiveGamesAudio
Asmentionedatthebeginningofthispaper,gamesmusicisfinallygainingrespect.Severalorchestralgames
concertshavebeenperformedrecently,suchastheEuropeanSymphonicGameMusicConcertperformedbythe
CzechNationalOrchestra,andasoldoutperformanceofthemusicfromNobuoUematsusscoretotheFinal



11
FantasyseriesbytheLosAngelesPhilharmonic.AlthoughsuchconcertshavebeenpopularinJapanformanyyears,
ithasonlybeeninthelastcoupleofyearsthatsucheventshavetakenplaceintheWest,andithasalsobecome
quitecommonforgamessoundtrackstonowbereleasedascommercialmusicCDs.But,ascomposerswarnus,we
scholarsmustrecognizethedifferencesbetweengamesaudioandfilmorconcertmusic.AndrewBoyd,composer
forTheTwoTowersgame,remindsus:
Inagame,acomposer(ormusiceditor,forthatmatter)usuallyhasnocontroloverhowasceneunfolds;
theplayercontrolsthat.Thereisaverybasicdisconnectbetweenmusicandthegame,eachofwhich
happenovertimebutaccordingtoverydifferentinternallogic.Sincethegoalmostofthetimeistogive
theappearancethatnomatterwhattheplayerdoes,themusicisappropriatelysupportingtheactionto
makeitsoundasifthemusicwascomposedexactlyforthesituationathand,nomatterwhatthe
situationisgameshavebegunadopting"adaptive"musicsystems.Thiskindofsystemallowsthegame's
musictobemanipulatedbythegameitselfatruntime,accordingtoasetofrulesestablishedbythe
composer/editor.Thebigissueismanagingthetradeoffbetweenmomenttomomentrelevanceinthe
soundtrackandsomesenseofmusicalintegrity.Itispossibletoconstantlyswitchpiecesofmusicbased
ontheaction,butthenthemusicwillloseanysenseofcoherence,flow,andintegrity.Ontheotherhand,
justlettingapieceofmusicplaywithoutregardtotheactionmightendupwithveryinappropriatemusic
atsomepoints.
xvii

Alongwiththeadvancesinhardware,severalPCsoftwaresolutionshavebeenproducedwhichhaveenhanced
gamesound.BeginningwithWindows95,theMicrosoftWindowsplatformcamewithDirectX,aseriesof
multimediaapplicationprogramminginterfaces,thatimprovedthespeedwithwhichsoundandgraphicscards
couldcommunicate.DirectXallowsgameprogrammerstoaccessspecializedhardwarefeatureswithouthavingto
writehardwarespecificcode.
xviii
Inotherwords,theDirectXinterfacebridgessoftwareandhardware,allowingfor
higherquality3Dgraphics,andbettercontrolofsoundmixingandoutput.OnepartofDirectX,DirectMusic,wasa
particularadvanceforgamesmusic.DirectMusicoverhaulstheoldMIDIprotocolsbyofferingtheindustryratified
DLS(DownloadableSoundLevels1)specificationssupportforhardwareaccelerationandMIDI:overonethousand
channels,withbettertimingmechanisms,realtimecontrol.
xix
Putsimply,DirectMusicoffersanupgradetothe
interactivepossibilities,andopensupMIDItothepossibilityofwavetablelikesynthesisandsampling,while
allowingMIDItobeatriggeringmechanismfortiming.
xx
Wavefiles(samples),orsoundfonts,couldbeimported
intoacollectionandmanipulatedinthesamewaythatMIDIcontrollersmanipulatesynthesizedsources,allowing
formuchimprovedinteractivemusic.
xxi

Theinteractivepotentialofgamesmusichasreallyonlyjustbeguntobeexplored.Earliergamessuchasthe
MegaDrivesToejamandEarlwhichbegananexplorationofthepossibilitiesofhavingmusicplayanimportantrole
inthegamehavebeenbuiltuponoverthelastdecade.Inthiscase,atvariousstagesinthegameplayersareasked
tolearnhowtogetfunkybymimickingvariouspercussivegrooves,inaSimonSaysstylechallenge.Itwasnt
longbeforeothergamespoppedupwhichaskeduserstobecomeinvolvedinproducing,mimicking,ordancingto
musicaspartofthegamePlaystationsPaRappatheRapper,Nintendo64sLegendofZelda:OcarinaofTime,
morerecentlytheGamecubesDonkeyKonga,Playstation2sBustaGroove,andofcourse,thewholeDanceDance
Revolutionseriesofdancinggames.AnevenmoreintriguingideawasthebizarregameVibRibbon,releasedin
Japanin2000forthePlaystation,whichallowedtheusertoputinhisorherownmusicCDs,whichwouldthen
influencethegamesgenerationofmapsinvariouslevels.ThegamescanstheusersCDandmakestwoobstacle
coursesforeachsong(oneeasyandonedifficult),sothegameisasvariedasthemusictheplayerchooses.So
now,evennonmusicalgamesarenowbeginningtoexplorethepotentialsofincludinginteractivemusical
elements.Theimplicationsofthisinteractiveaspectarevastintermsofhowwescholarsmayapproachgames
audiointhefuture,butundoubtedlynewmethodologiesforstudyingtheinteractionbetweenalisteneranda
pieceofmusicwillneedtobeformed.

12
Bibliography
Gorbman,Claudia.1987.UnheardMelodies:NarrativeFilmMusic.Indiana:BFIPublishing.
Lissa,Zofia,1965.sthetikderFilmmusik.Berlin:Henschelverlag.
Kent,StevenL.2001.TheUltimateHistoryofVideoGames:Thestorybehindthecrazethattouchedourlivesand
changedtheworld.California:RandomHouse.
Sheff,David.1993.GameOver:HowNintendoZappedanAmericanIndustry,CapturedyourDollars,andEnslaved
yourChildren.NewYork:RandomHouse

i
Game soundtracks may be submitted for best song, best instrumental composition for a motion
picture, television or other media, or best soundtrack album.
ii
See for instance, Lissa, 1965: 115-256, or Gorbman, 1987.
iii
The first game to be released under the partnership was Vendetta, which included hip-hop music by
DMX, Scarface, Method Man, etc. Sony Musics Epic Records has previously provided back catalogue
music for Grand Theft Auto, but in this case the music had previously been released, rather than using
the game as a marketing method.
iv
Video Games Sell Music: Electric Artists exposes the power of music in games as a sales channel
Electric Artists press release,
http://www.digitalgamedeveloper.com/2003/02_feb/news/dleas2403.htm. (Accessed 10/10/2004)
v
Kids prefer video games over TV, toys
http://www.cnn.com/2004/TECH/fun.games/10/27/media.videogames.reut/index.html. (Accessed
28/10/2004).
vi
In 2000, the band Golden Shower even won Best Electronic Music Video at the MTV Brazil Video Music
Awards, for their video for a song called Video Computer System, written entirely using Atari VCS
game sounds.
vii
The wireless keyboard, and expansion capability of various modules were problematic, and the
cartridges held less memory than a floppy disk. See History and Memories of the IBM PCjr and Tandy
1000 http://www.oldskool.org/shrines/pcjr_tandy/ (Accessed 10/10/2004).
viii
See also Weske, Jrg, 2002, Digital Sound and Music in Computer Games http://www.tu-
chemnitz.de/phil/hypertexte/gamesound/pcsound-main.html (Accessed 10/10/2004).
ix
Intellivision in HiFi http://www.intellivisionlives.com/retrotopia/hifi.shtml (Accessed 10/10/2004).
x
See Hunter, William, 2000. The Dot Eaters Videogame History
http://www.emuunlim.com/doteaters/play3sta1.htm (Accessed 10/10/2004).
xi
Weske, Jrg, 2002. Digital Sound and Music in Computer Games http://www.tu-
chemnitz.de/phil/hypertexte/gamesound/history-main.html (Accessed 10/10/2004).
xii
The jacket cover to Sheffs book indicates that more US American children could, at that time,
recognize Mario than could recognize Mickey Mouse.
xiii
Leonard, Sean, 2001. Scores of Glory, Fantasy, and Plumbing: The Concise History and Principal
Genres of Video Game Music http://www.seanspace.com/iSphere/scores.htm (Accessed 10/10/2004).
xiv
Gamespy Hall of Fame: Adlib Soundcard
http://www.gamespy.com/legacy/halloffame/adlib_b.shtm (Accessed 10/10/2004).
xv
Much of the information in this paragraph comes from Wing, Eric. 1999. The History of PC Game
MIDI http://www.queststudios.com/quest/midi.html (Accessed 10/10/2004).
xvi
Ibid.
xvii
Lord of the Rings: The Two Towers
http://www.music4games.net/f_twotowers_stormfrontstudios.html



13

xviii
Frequently Asked Questions about Direct X 9.0
http://www.microsoft.com/windows/directx/productinfo/overview/faq.asp (Accessed 10/10/2004).
xix
Hays, Tom, 1998. DirectMusic for the Masses Game Developer Magazine, September 1998.
xx
Ibid.
xxi
Yackley, David, 1999. Microsoft DirectMusic: Creating New Musical Possibilities
http://msdn.microsoft.com/library/default.asp?url=/library/en-us/dnmusic/html/dm_nmp.asp
(Accessed 10/10/2004).