Contents

Articles
Archeria (animal) 1
Bakeneko 2
Biwa 9
Carpolestes simpsoni 16
Castoroides 17
Jorgumo 21
Josephoartigasia monesi 23
Kitsune 25
Nekomata 37
Oni 42
Tengu 48
Ykai 63
References
Article Sources and Contributors 72
Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors 74
Article Licenses
License 76
Archeria (animal)
1
Archeria (animal)
Archeria
Temporal range: Early Permian
Scientific classification
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Subphylum: Vertebrata
Class: Amphibia sensu lato
Superorder: Reptiliomorpha
Order: Anthracosauria
Family: Archeriidae
Genus: Archeria
Case, 1918
Species
A. crassidisca
A. robinsoni
A. victori Stovall, 1948
Archeria was an eel-like anthracosaur which lived in the Early Permian. It was medium-sized aquatic predator with
a length of 2 m (7 ft).
[1]
References
[1] http:/ / www. palaeocritti.com/ by-group/ emblomeri/ archeria
Archeria crassidisca.
Bakeneko
2
Bakeneko
"The Bakeneko of the Sasakibara Family" (
) from the Buson Ykai Emaki by Yosa Buson. It
depicts a cat in Nagoya that would wear a napkin on its head
and dance. In this book, it states that "every night, nekomata
( ) would go out and dance," and unlike the
nekomata which has two tails, this cat has only one tail.
The bakeneko ( , "changed cat") is a type of
Japanese ykai, or supernatural creature. According to its
name, it is a cat that has changed into a ykai. It is often
confused with the nekomata, another cat-like ykai, and the
distinction between the two can often be quite ambiguous.
There are legends of bakeneko in various parts of Japan, but
the tale of the Nabeshima Bakeneko Disturbance in Saga
Prefecture is especially famous (see below).
Origin
The reason that cats are seen as ykai in Japanese mythology
is attributed to many of the characteristics that they possess:
for example, the way the irises of their eyes change shape
depending on the time of day, the way their fur seems to cause
sparks due to static electricity when they are petted (especially
in winter), the way they sometimes lick blood, the way they
can walk without making a sound, their wild nature that remains despite the gentleness they can show at times, the
way they are difficult to control (unlike dogs), the sharpness of their claws and teeth, their nocturnal habits, and their
speed and agility.
[1][2]
There are many ykai animals other than cats in old tales that have similar attributes: the deep tenacity of snakes, the
ability of foxes (kitsune) to shapeshift into women, and the brutality of tanuki in eating humans depicted in the
Kachi-kachi Yama folktale from the Edo period. Cats in particular, however, have acquired a great number of tales
and superstitions surrounding them, due to the unique position they occupy between nature and civilization. As cities
and towns were established and humans began living farther apart from nature, cats came with them. Since cats live
close to humans yet retain their wild essence and air of mystery, stories grew up around them, and gradually the
image of the bakeneko was formed.
One folk belief concerning the bakeneko is that they would lick the oil of oriental lamps,
[3]
and in the Edo period
encyclopedia, the Wakan Sansai Zue, it is said that for a cat to lick this oil is an omen of some strange event about to
occur. People in the early modern period used cheap oils from fish, like sardine oil, in the lamps, and that could
explain why cats would want to lick them. Also, the diet of Japanese people at that time was based mainly on grains
and vegetables, and the leftovers would be fed to the cats. However, since cats are carnivores, such a diet would have
been lacking in protein and fat, and therefore they would have been even more attracted to the oil in the lamps.
Furthermore, the sight of a cat standing up its hind legs to reach the lamp, with its face lit up and eyes round with
anticipation, could have seemed eerie and unnatural, like a ykai.
The mysterious air that cats possess was associated with the image of prostitutes who worked in the Edo period
red-light districts. This was the origin of a popular character in kusazshi (among other publications), the bakeneko
yjo.
Bakeneko
3
Folk legends
As with the nekomata, another cat-like ykai which is said to derive from a cat whose tail split into two when it grew
older, there are folk beliefs across Japan about how aged cats would turn into bakeneko. There are tales of cats raised
for twelve years in Ibaraki Prefecture and Nagano Prefecture, and for thirteen years in Kunigami District, Okinawa
Prefecture, that became bakeneko. In Yamagata District, Hiroshima Prefecture, it is said that a cat raised for seven
years or longer would kill the one that raised it. There are also many regions where when people began raising a cat,
they would decide in advance how many years they would raise it because of this superstition.
[4]
Also, depending on
the area, there are stories in which cats that were killed by humans in a brutal manner would become bakeneko and
curse that human. The stories of bakeneko are not only about aged cats, but are also sometimes stories of revenge
against cruel humans.
[5]
The strange abilities attributed to the bakeneko are various, but include shapeshifting into humans,
[6][7]
wearing a
towel or napkin on the head and dancing,
[8]
speaking human words, cursing humans, manipulating dead people,
possessing humans, lurking in the mountains and taking wolves along with them to attack travelers, and many other
things. As an unusual example, on Aji island, Oshika District, Miyagi Prefecture and in the Oki Islands, Shimane
Prefecture, there is a story of a cat that shapeshifted into a human and wanted to engage in sumo.
However, concerning the legend that cats could speak, it has been pointed out that it may have arisen because
humans would misinterpret the cat's meowing as human language, and for this reason some would say that the cat is
not a type of ykai. In 1992 (Heisei 4), in the Yomiuri newspaper, there was an article that argued that when people
thought they had heard a cat speak, upon listening a second time, they realized that it was simply the cat's meowing
and that it was only coincidence that it resembled a word in human language.
In the Edo period (1603-1867), there was a folk belief that cats with long tails like snakes could bewitch people. Cats
with long tails were disliked, and there was a custom of cutting their tails. It is speculated that this is the reason that
there are so many cats in Japan with short tails nowadays, because natural selection has favored those with short
tails.
[9]
Folk beliefs that cats can cause strange phenomena are not limited to Japan. For example, in Jinhua, Zhejiang, in
China, it is said that a cat, after having been raised for three years by humans, would then start bewitching them.
Because it is said that cats with white tails are especially good at this, there arose the custom of refraining from
raising white cats. Since it is said that their ability to bewitch humans comes from taking in the spiritual energy of
the moon, it is said that when a cat looks up at the moon, whether its tail has been cut or not, it should be killed on
the spot.
[10]
Writings and literature
Nabeshima Bakeneko Disturbance
There is a legend that took place in the time of Nabeshima Mitsushige, the second daimyo of the Saga Domain,
Hizen Province, concerning the bakeneko. Mitsushige's retainer Ryzji Matashichir served as the daimyo's
opponent in the game of go. Ryzji displeased Mitsushige and was put to the sword. Ryzji's mother, while telling
of the sorrows in her heart to the cat that she raised, committed suicide. The cat licked the mother's blood and
became a bakeneko. It would go into the castle and torment Mitsushige every night. Mitsushige's loyal retainer
Komori Hanzaemon finally killed it, and saved the Nabeshima family.
[11]
Historically, the Ryzji clan was older than the Nabeshima clan in Hizen. After Ryzji Takanobu's death, his
assistant Nabeshima Naoshige held the real power, and after the sudden death of Takanobu's grandchild Takafusa,
his father Masaie also committed suicide. Afterwards, since the remnants of the Ryzji clan created disturbances in
the public order near the Saga castle, Naoshige, in order to pacify the spirits of the Ryzji, built Teny-ji (now in
Tafuse, Saga). This has been considered the origin of the disturbance, and it is thought that the bakeneko was an
Bakeneko
4
expression of the Ryzji's grudge in the form of a cat.
[12]
Also, the inheritance of power from the Ryzji clan to
the Nabeshima clan was not an issue, but because of Takanobu's death, and Nabeshima Katsushige's son's sudden
death, some point out that this kaidan (ghost story) arose from a dramatization of this series of events.
[13]
This legend was also turned into a shibai (play) afterwards. In the Kaei period (1848-1854), it was first performed in
Nakamura-za as "Hana Sagano Nekoma Ishibumi Shi" ( ). The "Sagano" in the title is a
place in Tokyo Prefecture, but it was actually a pun on "Saga." This work earned great popularity throughout the
whole country, but due to a complaint from the Saga domain, the performances were quickly stopped. However,
since the machi-bugy(a samurai official of the shogunate) who filed the complaint for the performances to be
stopped was Nabeshima Naotaka of the Nabeshima clan, the gossip about the bakeneko disturbance spread even
more.
[14]
After that, the tale was widely circulated in society in the kdan "Saga no Yozakura" ( ) and the
historical record book "Saga Kaibyden" ( ). In the kdan (a style of traditional oral Japanese
storytelling), because Ryzji's widow told of her sorrow to the cat, it became a bakeneko, and killed and ate Komori
Hanzaemon's mother and wife. It then shapeshifted and appeared in their forms, and cast a curse upon the family. In
the historical record book, this was completely unrelated to the Ryzji event, however, and a foreign type of cat,
which had been abused by Nabeshima's feudal lord Komori Handay, sought revenge and killed and ate the lord's
favorite concubine, shapeshifted into her form, and caused harm to the family. It was It Sda who exterminated it.
In the beginning of the Shwa period (1926-1989), there were kaidan (horror or ghost stories, especially scary
folktales) films such as the "Saga Kaibyden" ( ) and the "Kaidan Saga Yashiki" (
) that became quite popular. Female actors like Takako Irie and Sumiko Suzuki who played the part of the
bakeneko became well known as the "bakeneko actresses."
Other
"Ume no Haru Gojsantsugi" ( ) by Utagawa Kuniyoshi. A
kabuki that was performed in 1835 (Tenpo 6) in Ichimura-za. It depicts a cat that has
shapeshifted into an old woman, a cat wearing a napkin and dancing, and the shadow of a
cat licking a lamp.
Cats as ykai in literature date back to
the Kamakura period (1185-1333). In
the collection of setsuwa (oral tradition
of folktales before the 14th century),
the Kokon Chomonj from this period,
there can be seen statements pointing
out cats that do strange and suspicious
things, saying "these are perhaps ones
that have turned into demons."
[15]
Old
stories about bakeneko from that time
period are often associated with
temples, but it is thought that the
reason for this is that when Buddhism
came to Japan, in order to protect the
sutras (sacred texts) from being chewed on by rats, cats were brought along too.
During the Edo period (1603-1867), tales about bakeneko began to appear in essays and kaidan collections in various
areas. Tales of cats
Bakeneko
5
"Shzan Chomon Kish" by Miyoshi Shzan. Here, a man who
has become suspicious of a cat attempts to kill it because it speaks
in human language.
transforming into humans and talking can be seen in
publications like the "Ten Shosetsu" ( ), the
"Mimibukuro" ( ),
[16]
the "Shin Chomonj" (
), the "Seiban Kaidan Jikki" ( -
),
[17]
and so on. Similarly, tales of dancing cats can be
seen in the "Kasshi Yawa" ( ), and the
"Owari Ryiki" ( ), for example. In the
fourth volume of "Mimibukuro," it states that any cat
anywhere that lives for ten years would begin to speak as
a human,
[18]
and that cats born from the union of a fox
and a cat would begin speaking even before ten years had
passed.
[19]
According to tales of cats that transform, aged
cats would very often shapeshift into old women. The
Edo period was the golden age for kaidan about
bakeneko, and with shibai like the "Nabeshima Bakeneko
Disturbance" being performed, these became even more famous.
In Makidani, Yamasaki, Shis District, Harima Province (now within Shis, Hygo Prefecture), a tale was passed
down about a certain person in Karakawa who was a bakeneko. The same kind of tale was also found in Taniguchi,
Fukusaki village, Jinsai District, of the same province, where it is said that in Kongj-ji a bakeneko who troubled a
villager was killed by someone from the temple. This bakeneko was protected from arrows and bullets by a
chagama's lid and an iron pot. These, like the legend of Susanoo's extermination of Yamata no Orochi, have a
commonality in that the local old families of the area played a role.
During the Meiji period (1868-1912), in 1909 (Meiji 42), in Honjo of Tokyo, there were articles written about cats
that broke into a dance in tenement houses, published in newspapers such as the Sports Hochi, the Yorozu Chh,
and the Yamato Shimbun.
Landmarks
Mytaratennyo - Yahiko-jinja, Niigata Prefecture
The origin of this landmark is in the Bunka period (1804-1818) essay "Kidan Hokkoku Junjki" (
), which contains passages about strange events concerning cats. In this book, giving the
character " " the reading "my," it was written as " .". According to another tale in the
setsuwa of the Hokuriku region, the tale of the yasaburo-baba or mountain witch, a cat killed and ate an old
woman and then became that old woman in her place, but later had a change of heart and became worshipped
as a deity, the Mytaraten. In Hokkaido and the northern u region among other places, similar tales are
passed down throughout the country.
Bakeneko
6
A stone monument Odoriba Station,
Yokohama Municipal Subway engraving
the origin of the station's name
A monument in the entry passageway 4 of Odoriba
station
Neko no Odoriba - Izumi-ku, Yokohamai, Kanagawa Prefecture
It is said that in a certain soy sauce shop long ago, in
Totsuka-juku of the 53 Stations of the Tkaid (now
Totsuka-ku, Yokohama, Kanagawa Prefecture), it
sometimes happened that napkins would disappear in the
night one by one. One night, when the proprietor of the soy
sauce shop went out on a job, he heard some bustling music
from a place where there should have been no people
around. When he looked, there were several cats gathered,
and there in the center was a strange sight: the shopkeeper's
pet cat, wearing a napkin on its head and dancing. So that
explained why his napkins had been going missing.
The place where this cat is said to have danced is called
Odoriba ( , meaning "dancing place"), and it left
behind its name afterwards in places like the Odoriba
intersection, as well as the Odoriba Station in the Yokohama
Municipal Subway. In 1737 (Genbun 2), at the Odoriba
intersection, a memorial tower was built in order to pacify
the spirit of the cat, and the Odoriba station was decorated
all over with the motif of a cat.
Omatsu Daigongen - Kamo Town, Anan, Tokushima Prefecture
This landmark derives from the following legend: In the
early part of the Edo period, the village headman of Kamo
Village (now Kamo Town) borrowed money from a wealthy
man in order to save the village when their crops failed.
Although he repaid the debt, the wealthy man plotted
against him and falsely accused him of not paying. In
despair, the village headman died of an illness. The land
which had been collateral for the debt was then confiscated by the wealthy man. When the village headman's
wife, Omatsu, attempted to complain to the bugy (magistrate)'s office, the bugy gave an unfair judgement
because the wealthy person bribed him. Then when Omatsu tried to complain directly to the daimyo, she failed
again and was executed. The calico cat that Omatsu had raised became a bakeneko, and caused the wealthy
person and the bugy's families to come to ruin.
At Omatsu Daigongen lies the grave of Omatsu, where the loyal wife who put her life on the line for justice is
deified. The calico cat that destroyed Omatsu's foes is also deified, as the "Neko-tsuka" ("cat mound"), and on
the grounds there is a komainu (guardian statue) of a cat which is very unusual.
[20]
Because the legend says
that the cat sought revenge for an unfair judgement, it is supposed to grant favors in matters of competition or
chance, and in testing season, many test-takers would pray for success in school here.
Neko Daimyjin Shi - Shiroishi, Kishima District, Saga Prefecture
This is a landmark that comes from a strange tale concerning the Nabeshima clan, similar to the "Nabeshima
Bakeneko Disturbance." In this story, the bakeneko took the shape of Nabeshima Katsushige's wife and sought
Katsushige's life, but his retainer, Chibu Honuemon, slew it. However, after that the Chibu family was unable
to produce a male heir because of the cat's curse. It is said that the bakeneko was deified at the shrine of
Shrinji (now Shiroishi Town) as a daimyjin. At this shrine, a seven-tailed cat with its fangs bared has been
engraved.
Bakeneko
7
Historically, Hide Isemori of the Hide clan who once ruled Shiroishi, despite having befriended the Nabeshima
clan, was suspected of being kirishitan (Christian), and was brought to ruin. Since the remnants of the Hide
clan resented and fought against the Nabeshima clan at the Shrinji, the secret maneuvers of one party of the
Hide clan were compared to those of a bakeneko, and it is theorized that this became the prototype for the
story of the "Nabeshima Bakeneko Disturbance."
Notes
[1] 1994 125-127
[2] 2005 156-161
[3] 1999 100
[4] 1982 446-457
[5] 1994 252-271
[6] 1994 171-174
[7] 1994 194-207
[8] 1994 214-241
[9] 2000 170-171
[10] 2008 82-97
[11] 1986 670
[12] 1986 694
[13] 2006 116-117
[14] 2008 22-24
[15] 2006 156-168
[16] 1991 359-360
[17] 2005 145-146
[18]
10
[19] 1991 35-36
[20] 2002 150-161
References
(2000). " ". In . . .
ISBN978-4-336-04187-6.
(2006). , ed. ! " # $
. % & ' ( ) * + ,. . ISBN978-4-7959-1987-7.
- (1994). . . / 0. ISBN978-4-7601-1299-9.
1 (1982). 2 3 4 5 . 6 . 7 8. ISBN978-4-04-031100-5.
(2008). " & 9 :". In ; ' < = = * > ? @ .
DISCOVER # A B. KODANSHA Officisil File Magazine. VOL.07. ; .
ISBN978-4-06-370037-4.
C . D E F G . H I J (1999). C , ed. K A L.
. ISBN978-4-336-04139-5.
M N (1991). O P Q R, ed. . D S T U. D S 8.
ISBN978-4-00-302612-0.
V W . X Y (1986). Z , ed. # . 7 8.
ISBN978-4-04-031300-9.
[ (2006). 5 \. U ] T ^. U _ ] ` . ISBN978-4-12-204792-1.
a (2005). b c d e f , ed. b g 2 h i. j k l m n
o p q +. ISBN978-4-343-00341-6.
r s (1994). g 10. t u 0. ISBN978-4-651-50210-6.
Bakeneko
8
v w. x y (2008). " ". In z w { . . | } | ~ < =.
vol.0024. 7 8. ISBN978-4-04-883992-1.
v w (2002). + | +. 7 8. ISBN978-4-04-883760-6.
Casal, U. A. (1959). "The Goblin Fox and Badger and Other Witch Animals of Japan" (http:/ / nirc. nanzan-u. ac.
jp/ publications/ afs/ pdf/ a116. pdf). Folklore Studies (Asian Folklore Studies, Nanzan University) 18: 193. doi:
10.2307/1177429 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 2307/ 1177429). JSTOR 1177429 (http:/ / www. jstor. org/ stable/
1177429).
Mizuki, Shigeru (2003). Mujara 3: Kinki-hen. Japan: Soft Garage. p.108. ISBN4-86133-006-8.
Mizuki, Shigeru (2003). Mujara 2: Chbu-hen. Japan: Soft Garage. pp.88, 117. ISBN4-86133-005-X.
Kiej'e, Nikolas. Japanese Grotesqueries. C. E. Tuttle Co., 1973.
Kaii-Ykai Densh Database (KYDD). Online bibliographical database of supernatural folklore published by the
International Research Center for Japanese Studies.
Morgan S.H. (2000). Bake-neko
External links
Obakemono Project Article on Bakeneko (http:/ / obakemono. com/ obake/ bakeneko/ )
Bakeneko The Changing Cat (http:/ / hyakumonogatari. com/ 2012/ 06/ 03/ bakeneko-the-changing-cat/ ) at
hyakumonogatari.com(English)
Biwa
9
Biwa
Biwa
A selection of biwa in a Japanese museum
Classification Necked bowl lutes
String instruments
Related instruments
Anglique (instrument)
Archlute
Balalaika
Barbat (lute)
Baglamadaki
Balama
Biwa
Bouzouki
Charango
Chitarra Italiana
Daguangxian
n t b
Dombra
Domra
Dutar
Electric pipa
Erhu
Irish bouzouki
Liuqin
Lute
Mandocello
Mandola
Mandolin
Oud
Pandura
Pipa
Rubab
Setar
Sitar
Surbahar
Tambouras
Biwa
10
Tanbur
Tanbur (Turkish)
Tembr
Theorbo
Tiorbino
Tiqin
Topshur
Veena
The biwa ( Help:Installing Japanese character sets) is a Japanese short-necked fretted lute, often used in
narrative storytelling. The biwa is the chosen instrument of Benten, goddess of music, eloquence, poetry, and
education in Buddhism.
It arrived in Japan in two forms. Since that time, the number of biwa types has more than quadrupled. Guilds
supporting biwa players, particularly the biwa hoshi, helped proliferate biwa musical development for hundreds of
years. Biwa hshi performances overlapped with performances by other biwa players many years before heikyoko
and continued until today. This overlap resulted in a rapid evolution of the biwa and its usage and made it one of the
most popular instruments in Japan.
Yet, in spite of its popularity, the Onin War and subsequent Warring States Period disrupted biwa tutelage and
decreased the number of proficient users. With the abolition of Todo in the Meiji period, biwa players lost their
patronage.
Furthermore, reforms stemming from the Meiji Restoration led to massive, rapid industrialization and
modernization. Japan modeled its development on Europe and the US, praising everything Western and condemning
everything native. Traditions identifiably Japanese became associated with terms like backwards or primitive. Such
associations even extended into areas like art and music, and the biwa.
By the late 1940s, the biwa, a thoroughly Japanese tradition, was nearly completely abandoned for Western
instruments; however, thanks to collaborative efforts by Japanese musicians, interest in the biwa is being revived.
Japanese and foreign musicians alike have begun embracing traditional Japanese instruments, particularly the biwa,
in their compositions. While blind biwa singers no longer dominate the biwa, many performers continue to use the
instrument in traditional and modern ways.
History
The biwa came to Japan in the 7th century and it was evolved from the instrument pipa,
[1]
while the pipa itself was
derived from similar instruments in Western Asia. This type of biwa is called the gaku-biwa and was used in gagaku
ensembles and is the most commonly known type. While the route is unclear, another type of biwa found its way to
the Kyushu region, and this thin biwa (called ms-biwa or kjin-biwa) was used in ceremonies and religious rites.
Before long, as the Ritsury state collapsed, the court music musicians were faced with the reconstruction and sought
asylum in Buddhist temples. There they assumed the role of Buddhist monks and encountered the ms-biwa. They
incorporated the convenient aspects of ms-biwa, its small size and portability, into their large and heavy
gaku-biwa, and created the heike-biwa, which, as indicated by its namesake, was used primarily for recitations of
The Tale of the Heike.
Through the next several centuries, players of both traditions intersected frequently and developed new music styles
and new instruments. By the Kamakura period (11851333), the heike-biwa had emerged as a popular instrument.
The heike-biwa could be described as a cross between both the gaku-biwa and ms-biwa. It retained the rounded
shape of the gaku-biwa and was played with a large plectrum like the ms-biwa. The heike biwa was also small,
like the ms-biwa (actually smaller) and was used for similar purposes.
Biwa
11
While the modern satsuma-biwa and chikuzen-biwa both find their origin with the ms-biwa, the Satsuma biwa was
used for moral and mental training by samurai of the Satsuma Domain during the Warring States period, and later in
general performances. The Chikuzen biwa was used by Buddhist monks visiting private residences to perform
memorial services, not only for Buddhist rites, but also for telling entertaining stories and news while accompanying
themselves on the biwa, and this form of storytelling was thought to be spread in this way.
Not much about the biwa seems to have been written about biwas from roughly the 16th century to the mid-19th
century. What is known is that three main streams of biwa emerged during that time: zato (the lowest level of the
state-controlled guild of blind biwa players), shifu (samurai style), and chofu (urban style). These styles emphasized
(biwa-uta) vocalization with biwa accompaniment and formed the foundation for
(edo-uta) styles such as shinnai and kota [Allan Marett 103]. From these styles also emerged the two principal
survivors of the biwa tradition: satsuma-biwa and chikuzen-biwa [Waterhouse 156]. From roughly the Meiji Era
(18681912) until the Pacific War, the satsuma-biwa and chikuzen-biwa were popular across Japan, and, at the
beginning of the Showa Era (19251989), the nishiki-biwa was created and gained popularity. Of the remaining
biwa traditions, only higo-biwa remains a style almost solely performed by blind persons in the post-war era. The
higo-biwa is closely related to the heike-biwa and, similarly, relies on an oral-narrative tradition focusing on wars
and legends.
By the middle of the Meiji period (18681912), improvements had been made on the instruments and easily
understandable songs were composed in quantity. In the beginning of the Taisho period (19121926), the Satsuma
biwa was modified into the Nishiki biwa which was popular among female players at the time. With this the biwa
met a great period of prosperity, and the songs themselves were not just about the Tale of the Heike but songs
connected to the Sino-Japanese War and the Russo-Japanese War such as Takeo Hirose, Hitachimaru, 203 Hill
gained popularity. However, the playing of the biwa nearly became extinct during the Meiji period as Western music
and instruments became popular, until players such as Tsuruta Kinshi and others revitalized the genre with modern
playing styles and collaborations with Western composers.
Types of biwa
There are more than seven types of biwa, chacterized by number of strings, sounds it could produce, type of
plectrum, and their use. As the biwa does not play in tempered tuning, pitches are approximated to the nearest note.
Classic biwa
Gagaku-biwa ( ) - A large and heavy biwa with four strings and four frets used exclusively for
gagaku. It produces distinctive Ichikotsuch ( ) and Hyj ( ). Its plectrum is small and thin, often
rounded, and made from a hard material such as boxwood or ivory. It is not used to accompany singing. Like the
heike biwa, it is played held on its side, similar to a guitar, with the player sitting cross-legged. In gagaku, it is
called gaku-biwa ( ).
Gogen-biwa ( ) - This T'ang variant of biwa can be seen in paintings of court orchestras and was
used in the context of gagaku, however was removed with the reforms and standardizations made to the court
orchestra during the late 10th Century. It is assumed that the performance traditions died out by the 10th or 11th
century (William P. Malm). This is instrument also disappeared in the Chinese court orchestras. Recently, this
instrument, much like the Kugo harp has been revived for historically informed performances and historical
reconstructions. Not to be confused with the five-stringed variants of modern biwa, such as Chikuzen biwa.
Ms-biwa ( ) - A biwa with four strings used to play Buddhist mantra and songs. It is similar in
shape to the chikuzen-biwa, but with a much more narrow body. Its plectrum varies in both size and materials.
The four fret type is tuned to E, B, E and A, and the five fret type is tuned to B, e, f

and f

. The six fret type is

tuned to B

, E

, B

and b

.
Biwa
12
Middle and Edo biwa
Heike-biwa ( ) - A biwa with four strings and five frets used to play Heike Monogatari. Its plectrum
is slightly larger than that of the gagaku-biwa, but the instrument itself is much smaller, comparable to a
chikuzen-biwa in size. It was originally used by traveling biwa minstrels, and its small size lent it to indoor play
and improved portability. Its tuning is A, c, e, a or A, c-sharp, e, a.
Satsuma-biwa ( ) - A biwa with four strings and four frets popularized during the Edo Period in
Satsuma Province (present day Kagoshima) by Shimazu Nisshinsai. Modern biwas used for contemporary
compositions often have five or more frets, and some have a doubled fourth string. The frets of the Satsuma biwa
are raised 4 centimeters from the neck allowing notes to be bent several steps higher, each one producing the
instrument's characteristic sawari, or buzzing drone. Its boxwood plectrum is much wider than others, often
reaching widths of 25 centimeters or more. Its size and construction influences the sound of the instrument as the
curved body is often struck percussively with the plectrum during play. The satsuma-biwa is traditionally made
from Japanese mulberry, although other hard woods such as Japanese zelkova are sometimes used in its
construction. Due to the slow growth of the Japanese mulberry, the wood must be taken from at least a 120 year
old tree and dried for ten years before construction can begin. The strings are made of wound silk. Its tuning is A,
E, A, B, for traditional biwa, G, G, c, g, or G, G, d, g for contemporary compositions, among other tunings, but
these are only examples as the instrument is tuned to match the key of the player's voice. The first and second
strings are generally tuned to the same note, with the 4th (or doubled 4th) string is tuned one octave higher. The
most eminent 20th century satsuma-biwa performer was Tsuruta Kinshi, who developed her own version of the
instrument, which she called the tsuruta-biwa. This biwa often has five strings (although it is essentially a 4-string
instrument as the 5th string is a doubled 4th that are always played together) and five or more frets, and the
construction of the tuning head and frets vary slightly. Ueda Junko and Tanaka Yukio, two of Tsuruta Kinshi's
students, continue the tradition of the modern Satsuma biwa. Carlo Forlivesi's compositions Boethius ( >
) and Nuove Musiche per Biwa ( ) had both been written for performance on
the Satsuma model of the biwa designed by Kinshi Tsuruta and Yukio Tanaka. "These works presents a radical
departure from the compositional languages usually employed for such an instrument. Also, thanks to the
possibility of relying on a level of virtuosity never before attempted in this specific repertory, the composer has
sought the renewal of the acoustic and sthetic profile of the biwa, bringing out the huge potential in the sound
material: attacks and resonance, tempo (conceived not only in the chronometrical but also deliberately
empathetical sense), chords, balance and dialogue (with the occasional use of two biwas in Nuove Musiche per
Biwa), dynamics and colour."
[2]
Plectra for the Chikuzen (left) and Satsuma biwas
Modern biwa
Chikuzen-biwa ( ) - A biwa with four strings and
four frets or five strings and five frets popularized in the Meiji
Period by Tachibana Satosada. Most contemporary performers
use the five string version. Its plectrum is much smaller than
that of the Satsuma biwa, usually about 13 centimeters in width,
although its size, shape, and weight depends on the sex of the
player. The plectrum is usually made from rosewood with
boxwood or ivory tips for plucking the strings. The instrument
itself also varies in size, depending on the player. Male players
use biwas that are slightly wider and/or longer than those used
by females or children. The body of the instrument is never
struck with the plectrum during play, and the five string instrument is played upright, while the four string is
played held on its side. The instrument is tuned to match the key of the singer. An example tuning of the four
Biwa
13
string version is B, e, f

and b, and the five string instrument can be tuned to C, G, C, d and g. For the five string
version, the first and third strings are tuned the same note, the second string down three steps down, the fifth
string an octave higher than the second string, and the fourth string a step down from the fifth. So the previously
mentioned tuning can be tuned down to B

, F, B

, c, d. Asahikai and Tachibanakai are the two major schools of

Chikuzen biwa. Popularly used by female biwa players such as Uehara Mari.
Nishiki-biwa ( ) - A modern biwa with five strings and five frets popularized by Suit Kinj. Its
plectrum is the same as that used for the Satsuma biwa. ts tuning is C, G, c, g, g.
Biwa Style
Generally speaking, biwa is considered one of Japan`s principal traditional instruments, and, as such, it has both
influenced and been influenced by other traditional instruments and compositions throughout its long history in
Japan. The following section will situate the biwa in the context of traditional Japanese music.
General Background on Music in Japan
The general term used for music in Japan is (ongaku). means sound or tone, and means music or
enjoyment. Both characters together technically refer to all forms of music but, more recently, evoke images of
modern (post-Pacific War) ensembles and compositions. Traditional music styles have their own designations.
Hgaku - Japanese Traditional Music
Broken apart, means (home) country and, means music. The characters together are thought to be an
abbreviation of the term , which literally means music of Japan. The term Hogaku is also derived from
, which translates as national music of modern times. It is usually defined as traditional Japanese
Music. Japan`s Ministry of Education classifies Hogaku as a category separate from other traditional forms of music,
such as Gagaku (court music) or Shmy (Buddhist chanting), but most ethnomusicologists view Hogaku, in a broad
sense, as the form from which the others were derived [Sosnoski 34]. Outside of ethnomusicology, however, Hogaku
usually refers to Japanese music from around the 17th to mid 19th Centuries [Sugiura 1]. In Hogaku, musical
instruments usually serve as accompaniments to vocal performances. Song dominates hogaku, and the overwhelming
majority of hogaku compositions are vocal. In this context, the biwa was one of the prominent instruments [Dean
156].
Gagaku Japanese Court Music
Since means elegance, Gagaku literally means elegant music and generally refers to musical instruments and
music theory imported to Japan from China and Korea from 500-600 CE. Gagaku is divided into two main
categories: Old Music and New Music. Old Music refers to music and musical compositions from before the Chinese
Tang Dynasty (618-906), and New Music refers to music and compositions produced during or after Tang, including
music brought from various regions in China and Korea [Randel 339] [The International Shakuhachi Society].
Old and New Music are further divided into (Music of the Left) and (Music of the Right) Categories.
is composed of (music from Tang) and (music from Indo-China). is composed of
(music from Korea).
Gagaku was usually patronized by the imperial court or the shrines and temples. Gagaku ensembles were composed
of string, wind, and percussion instruments, where string and wind instruments were more respected and percussion
instruments were considered lesser instruments. Among the string instruments, the biwa seems to have been the most
important instrument in gagaku orchestral performances [Garfias, Gradual Modifications of the Gagaku Tradition
16].
Shmy Buddhist Chanting
The two characters: and literally mean voice and clear. Shmy is a translation of the Sanskrit word,
sabda-vidya, which means the (linguistic) study of language. Shmy is a kind of chanting of Buddhist scriptures
syllabically or melismatically set to melodic phrasing, usually performed by a male chorus. It is said to have come to
Biwa
14
Japan in the early 9th Century [Randel 270].
While biwa was not used in shmy, the style of biwa singing is closely tied to shmy, especially ms and heike
style biwa singing [Matisoff 36]. Both shmy and ms are rooted in Buddhist rituals and traditions. Before
arriving in Japan, shmy was used in Indian Buddhist. The ms-biwa was also rooted in Indian Buddhism, and the
heike-biwa, as a predecessor to the ms-biwa, was the principle instrument of the biwa hshi, who were blind
Buddhist priests.
Biwa Aesthetics
Generally speaking, biwas have four strings. That being said, modern satsuma and chikuzen biwas might have five
strings. The first string is thickest and the fourth string is thinnest (the second string is the thickest on the
chikuzen-biwa, and the fourth and fifth strings are the same thickness on five-stringed chikuzen and satsuma-biwas)
[Minoru Miki 75]. The varying string thickness creates different timbres when stroked from different directions.
In biwa, tuning is not fixed. General tones and pitches can fluctuate up or down entire steps or microtones [Dean
157]. When singing in a chorus, biwa singers often stagger their entry and often sing through non-synchronized,
heterophony accompaniment [Dean 149]. In solo performances, a biwa performer sings monophonically, with
melismatic emphasis throughout the performance. These monophonic do not follow a set harmony. Instead biwa
singers tend to sing with a flexible pitch without distinguishing soprano, alto, tenor, or bass roles. This singing style
is complemented by the biwa, which biwa players use to produce short glissandi throughout the performance
[Morton Feldman 181]. Biwa singing style tends to be nasal, particularly when singing vowels, the consonant ,
and notes containing g (e.g., , , , , , , , -). Also, biwa performers vary the volume of
their voice between barely audible to very loud (rarely deafening). Since biwa performances were generally for small
groups, singers did not need to project their voices as do opera singers in the Western tradition
Biwa music is based on a pentatonic scale (sometimes referred to as a five-tone or five-note scale), meaning that
each octave contains five notes. This scale sometimes includes supplementary notes, but the core remains pentatonic.
The rhythm in biwa performances allows for a broad flexibility of pulse. Songs are not always metered, although
more modern collaborations are metered. Notes played on the biwa usually begin slow and thin and progress through
gradual accelerations, increasing and decreasing tempo throughout the performance. The texture of biwa singing is
often described as sparse.
The plectrum also contributes to the texture of biwa music. Different sized plectrums produced different textures; for
example, the plectrum used on a moso-biwa was much larger than that used on a gaku-biwa, producing a harsher,
more vigorous sound [Morley 51]. The plectrum is also critical to creating the sawari sound, which is particularly
utilized with satsuma-biwas [Rossing 181]. What the plectrum is made of also changes the texture, with ivory and
plastic plectrums creating a more resilient texture to the wooden plectrum`s twangy hum [Malm 215].
Use in modern music
Biwa usage in Japan has declined greatly since the Heian period. Outside influence, internal pressures, and
socio-political turmoil redefined biwa patronage and biwa image; for example, the Onin War during the Muromachi
period (13381573) and the subsequent Warring States period (15th-17th centuries) disrupted the cycle of tutelage
for heikyoku performers. As a result, younger musicians turned to other instruments and interest in biwa music
decreased. Even the biwa hoshi transitioned to other instruments such as the shamisen (a three stringed lute) [Gish
143].
Interest in the biwa revived during the Edo period (16001868) when Tokugawa Ieyasu unified Japan and
established the Tokugawa Shogunate. Ieyasu favored biwa music and became a major patron. He helped strengthen
biwa guilds (called Todo) by financing them and allowing them special privileges (142). Shamisen players and other
musicians found it financially beneficial to switch to the biwa, and, as they crossed over, they brought new styles.
The Edo period proved to be one of the most prolific and artistically creative periods for the biwa in its long history
Biwa
15
in Japan (143).
In 1868, the Tokugawa Shogunate collapsed, giving way to the Meiji period and the Meiji Restoration. In Meiji, the
samurai class was abolished, and the Todo lost their patronage. Biwa players no longer enjoyed special privileges
and were forced to support themselves. At the beginning of Meiji (1868), it was estimated that there were at least one
hundred traditional court musicians in Tokyo. Yet, by the 1930s, there were only forty-six traditional court musicians
in Tokyo. A quarter of these musicians died in the war. Life in Post-war Japan was difficult, and many musicians
abandoned their music in favor of more sustainable livelihoods [Garfias, Gradual Modifications of the Gagaku
Tradition 18].
While many styles of biwa flourished in the early 1900s (e.g., Kindai-biwa from the 1900s-1930s), the cycle of
tutelage was broken yet again. Currently, there are no direct means of studying biwa in many biwa traditions
[Ferranti, Relations between Music and Text in "Higo Biwa"_ The "Nagashi" Pattern as a Text-MusicSystem 150].
Even higo-biwa players, who were quite popular in the early 20th century, may no longer have a direct means of
studying oral composition, as the bearers of the tradition have either died or are no longer able to play. Kindai biwa
still retains a significant number of professional and amateur practitioners, but zato, heike, and moso-biwa styles
have all but died out [Tokita 83].
As biwa music declined in post-Pacific War Japan, many Japanese composers and musicians found ways to
revitalize interest in it. They recognized that studies in music theory and music composition in Japan almost entirely
consisted in Western theory and instruction. Beginning in the late 1960s, these musicians and composers began to
incorporate Japanese music and Japanese instruments into their compositions; for example, one composer, Toru
Takemitsu, collaborated with Western composers and compositions to include the distinctly Asian biwa. His
well-received compositions such as November Steps, which incorporates biwa heikyoku with Western orchestral
performance, revitalized interest in the biwa and sparked a series of collaborative efforts by other musician in genres
ranging from jpop and enza to shin-hougaku and gendaigaku [Tonai 25].
Other musicians, such as Yamashika Yoshiyuki, who is considered by most ethnomusicologists to be the last of the
biwa hoshi, preserved scores of songs that were almost lost forever. Yamashika, born in the late Meiji, continued the
biwa hoshi tradition until his death in 1996. Beginning in the late sixties to the late eighties, composers and
historians from all over the world visited Yamashika and recorded many of his songs. Up to that time, the biwa hoshi
tradition of songs was completely an oral tradition. When Yamashika died in 1996, the era of the biwa hoshi tutelage
died with him, but the music and genius of that era continues thanks to his recordings [Sanger].
Recordings
Silenziosa Luna - / ALM Records ALCD-76 (2008).
References
[1] biwa from Britannica (http:/ / www. britannica. com/ EBchecked/ topic/ 67310/ biwa)
[2] [2] ALM Records ALCD-76
External links
Introduction to the Hei-kyoku (http:/ / homepage3. nifty. com/ heikebiwa-arao/
HEIKYOKUGAIRONNENGLISH. htm)
Images of Historical reconstruction performances - Includes one image of a woman playing Gogenbiwa (http:/ /
www. japan-music. com/ ivs/ artist/ tempyogafu/ ) (dead link)
Picture of Biwa school about 1900 (http:/ / blog. goo. ne. jp/ blogem/ e/ ac80d4429af4a24dbaa7ea6558a9c46b)
Carpolestes simpsoni
16
Carpolestes simpsoni
Carpolestes simpsoni
Temporal range: Paleocene
Scientific classification
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Mammalia
Order: Plesiadapiformes
Superfamily: Carpolestoidea
Family: Carpolestidae
Genus: Carpolestes
Species: C. simpsoni
Binomial name
Carpolestes simpsoni
Bloch and Gingerich, 1998
Carpolestes simpsoni is an extinct species of Plesiadapiformes, which is one of the earliest primate-like mammals
appearing in the fossil record during the late Paleocene. C. simpsoni had grasping digits but no forward-facing eyes.
Weighing about 100 grams, C. simpsoni appeared adapted for an arboreal habitat. One large, nail-tipped toe opposed
other toes, allowing a firm grip on branches. Like other species of Carpolestes, the dental morphology of C.
simpsoni is specially adapted to eating fruit, seeds, and invertebrates.
References
External links
Mikko's Phylogeny Archive (http:/ / www. fmnh. helsinki. fi/ users/ haaramo/ Metazoa/ Deuterostoma/ Chordata/
Synapsida/ Eutheria/ Plesiadapiformes/ plesiadapiformes. htm)
National Geographic source (http:/ / news. nationalgeographic. com/ news/ 2002/ 11/
1121_021121_PrimateOrigins. html)
Castoroides
17
Castoroides
Giant beavers
Temporal range: Late Pliocene - Late Pleistocene, 30.011Ma
Castoroides ohioensis specimen at Field Museum
Scientific classification
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Mammalia
Order: Rodentia
Family: Castoridae
Subfamily: Castoroidinae
Tribe: Castoroidini
Genus: Castoroides
Foster, 1838
Type species
Castoroides ohioensis
Species
Castoroides leiseyorum
Castoroides ohioensis
Synonyms
Castoroides nebrascensis Barbour, 1931
Burosor efforsorius Starrett, 1956
Castoroides, or giant beaver, is an extinct genus of enormous beavers that lived in North America during the
Pleistocene. C. leiseyorum and its northern sister species Castoroides ohioensis, were the largest beavers to ever
exist.
Castoroides
18
Description
Restoration by Charles R. Knight
The giant beaver looked similar to modern beavers, but as the name
implies, was considerably larger; it grew over 8ft (2.4m) in length
making it the largest rodent in North America during the last ice age
and the largest known beaver. It weighed roughly 60 to 100kg (130 to
220lb), the size of a modern black bear.
Its hind feet were much larger than in modern beavers, but because soft
tissues decay, it is not known whether its tail resembled the tails in
modern beavers, and it can only be assumed that its feet were webbed
like in modern species.
The incisors were 15cm (5.9in) long, and had blunt, rounded tips, in
contrast to the chisel-like tips found in modern beaver cutting teeth.
The molars were well adapted to grinding, and resembled those of capybaras with an S-shaped pattern on the
grinding surfaces.
One of the important anatomical differences between the giant beaver and modern beaver species, besides size, is the
structure of their teeth. Modern beavers have chisel-like incisor teeth for gnawing on wood. The teeth of the giant
beaver are bigger and broader, and grew to about 15 cm (6 in) long. In addition, the tail of the giant beaver must
have been longer but narrower and its hind legs shorter.
Castoroides ohioensis reached a length of up to 2.5m (8ft 2in) and an estimated weight of 60-100kg (130-220lbs);
past estimates went up to 220kg (485lbs). It lived in North America during the Pleistocene epoch and went extinct
at the end of the last Ice Age, 12,000 years ago.
C. leiseyorum also reached close to 2.5m (8ft 2in) and an estimated weight of 60 to 100kg (130 to 220lb).
[1]
Classification
There are two known species:
Castoroides leiseyorum (found in Florida only)
Castoroides ohioensis, synonym Castoroides nebrascensis (found throughout continental United States and
Canada)
These two species of giant beaver (genus Castoroides) are not close relatives to modern beavers (genus Castor).
This genus typifies the extinct subfamily Castoroidinae, which forms a North American lineage beginning with the
Hemingfordian genus Monosaulax, followed by Eucastor, Dipoides, and Procastoroides, to finally culminate and go
extinct with Castoroides.
Castoroides
19
Discovery and species
A cast of C. ohioensis assembled from various
specimens
The first giant beaver fossils were discovered in 1837 in a peat bog in
Ohio, hence its species epithet ohioensis. Nothing is known on whether
the giant beaver built lodges like modern beavers. In Ohio, there have
been claims of a possible giant beaver lodge four feet high and eight
feet in diameter, formed from small saplings. The recent discovery of
clear evidence for lodge building in the related genus Dipoides
indicates that the giant beaver probably also built lodges.
Fossils of the giant beaver are concentrated around the midwestern
United States in states near the Great Lakes, particularly Illinois and
Indiana, but specimens are recorded from Alaska and Canada to
Florida. Specimens from Florida have been placed in a subspecies,
Castoroides ohioensis dilophidus, based on differences in premolar and molar features.
Castorides leiseyorum specimens were unearthed in Florida and South Carolina. Mark D. Uhen, Ph.D., George
Mason University dated the latter site (Cooper River) at 1.8 million11,000 years ago. The Florida specimens were
dated by John Alroy, Ph.D. using appearance event ordination for an age of 2.1 million years ago (Mya). Castoroides
leiseyorum was named by S. Morgan and J. A. White in 1995 for the Leisey family, phosphate quarry-owners who
found the first skull.
[2][3]
Specimens were found in Leisey Shell Pit 1A and 3B, Hillsborough County, Florida, in
paleontological sites about 2.1 Mya.
[4][5][6]
Specimens were also found at the Strawberry Hill site, (Cooper River
dredging) Charleston County, South Carolina from about 1.8 Mya to 11,000 years ago.
[7]
Extinction
Mounted skeleton
Fossils of the older species, C. leiseyorum, from Florida are from 1.4
Mya, while fossils of the younger species, C. ohioensis, from Toronto,
Ontario, and the Old Crow Basin, Yukon Territory, are 130,000 years
old, but the giant beaver may have died out about 10,000 years ago,
along with several other American species, such as mammoths,
mastodons, and ice-age horses. Giant beavers were most abundant
south of the Great Lakes in present-day Indiana and Illinois.
The extinction of the giant beaver may have been caused by ecological
restructuring at the end of the Pleistocene. The arrival of humans in the
Americas could have been a factor, but there is no evidence that
humans hunted the giant beaver. It was one of the abundant Pleistocene
megafaunaa wide variety of very large mammals that lived during the Pleistocene.
Castoroides
20
Folklore
Both the native Mi'kmaq people of Canada and the native Pocumtuck people of the Connecticut River Valley of
Massachusetts have related significant myths about giant beavers. The Cree people also have myths about giant
beavers.
Notes
[1] Canadian Museum of Nature (http:/ / nature. ca/ notebooks/ english/ giantbev. htm), Notebooks: Giant Beaver
[2] [2] G. S. Morgan and J. A. White. 1995. Bulletin of the Florida Museum of Natural History 37(13).
[3] Paleobiology Database, Collection 20403 (http:/ / paleodb. org/ cgi-bin/ bridge. pl?action=basicCollectionSearch& collection_no=20403&
is_real_user=1) and 20400 (http:/ / paleodb. org/ cgi-bin/ bridge. pl?action=basicCollectionSearch& collection_no=20400& is_real_user=1).
Location Leisey's Shell Pits 1A and 3B, Hillsborough County, Florida. Authorized and entered by John Alroy on February 18, 1993 and Mark
D. Uhen, Ph.D.
[4] [4] R. C. Hulbert, Jr. and G. S. Morgan. 1989. Papers in Florida Paleontology 2.
[5] [5] Alroy, J., Conjunction among taxonomic distributions and the Miocene mammalian biochronology of the Great Plains. Paleobiology
18(3):326-343.
[6] Alroy, J., Speciation and extinction in the fossil record of North American mammals. Ecological Reviews, 2008.
[7] [7] P. W. Parmalee and R. W. Graham. 2002. Additional records of the giant beaver, Castoroides, from the Mid-South: Alabama, Tennessee, and
South Carolina. Smithsonian Contribution to Paleobiology 93:65-71
References
Ruez, Dennis R, "Early Irvingtonian (Latest Pliocene) Rodents from Inglis 1C, Citrus County, Florida", 2001 The
Society of Vertebrate Paleontology.
Alroy, J., Equilibrial diversity dynamics in North American mammals. pp.232287 in M. L. McKinney and J. A.
Drake (eds.), Biodiversity dynamics: turnover of populations, taxa, and communities. Columbia University Press,
New York.
Jorgumo
21
Jorgumo
Jorgumo (by Toriyama Sekien).
Jorgumo (Japanese Kanji: , Hiragana: - %) is
a type of Ykai, a creature, ghost or goblin of Japanese folklore. According
to some stories, a Jorgumo is a spider that can change its appearance into
that of a seductive woman.
In Japanese Kanji, Jorgumo is written as " " (literally meaning
"binding bride") or " " (literally meaning "whore spider").
Jorgumo can also refer to some species of spiders, but in casual use it can
refer to the Nephila and Argiope spiders. Japanese-speaking entomologists
use the katakana form of Jorgumo ( ) to refer,
exclusively, to the spider species Nephila clavata.
Stories
The Edo period legend has it that a beautiful woman would entice a man
into a quiet shack and begin to play a Biwa, a type of Japanese lute. While
the victim would be distracted by the sound of the instrument, she binds her victim in spider silk threads in order to
devour the unsuspecting person as her next meal.
Magical spider
According to legend, when a spider turns 400 years old, it gains magical powers. Stories of Jorgumo can be found
in Edo period works, such as "Taihei-Hyakumonogatari" ( A ) and "Tonoigusa" ( ). In many
of these stories, Jorgumo changes its appearance into a beautiful woman to ask a samurai to marry her, or takes the
form of a young woman carrying a baby (which may turn out to be a spider's eggsack).
[1]
Drawings, such as the one in Toriyama Sekien's book Gazu Hyakki Yak, depicts Jorgumo as a
half-woman/half-spider surrounded by her spider children.
Waterfall spiderwebs
A Jorgumo is also known as the mistress of the Jren Falls ( ) in Izu, Shizuoka. The legend has it that
a man was resting at the foot of the waterfall when his feet were bound with a vast number of spider threads. To free
himself, he cut the threads and tied them to a stump of a tree, which was pulled from the ground and drawn into the
waters.
After this incident at the Jren waterfall, the villagers became afraid and stopped going to the waterfall. However,
one day, a woodsman logger from out of town, unaware of the story of the Jren Jorgumo, began cutting wood in
the area. After he accidentally dropped his axe into the water, he dove into the pool to find it; then a beautiful woman
appeared and returned the axe, telling him never to tell anyone about her. While the logger kept the promise, he
began to feel anxious about the incident. One day while he was drunk, he told his secret and finally felt at ease. He
then fell into a deep sleep never to awaken again.
[2]
In a variation of the story of the Jren waterfall, the logger falls in love with the woman Jorgumo and starts visiting
the falls every day to see her. But as time passes, he starts growing weaker and weaker. A monk from a neighboring
temple believes the logger has been trapped by the spider, so he and the logger go to the waterfall together, and the
monk reads a Buddhist Stra there. While the monk reads the sutra, spider threads appear from the pool and attempt
to wrap themselves around the logger, but the monk shouts his Buddhist chant and they disappear. Though the logger
soon realizes that the woman was a spider, he cannot forget his love for her. He then asks for help from a Tengu,
Jorgumo
22
master of the Ykai of the mountain, but the Tengu forbids this love. The logger was unwilling to give up his love for
the Jorgumo. While running back to the waterfall he is caught by the silk threads and finally falls into the water,
never to surface again.
[3]
Protection from drowning
There are many stories throughout Japan of a tree stump being pulled into the water in place of the lumberjack from
the previous tale. One such example is that of Kashikobuchi ( ), Sendai. Here, just after the stump is pulled into
the pool, the lumberjack hears a voice saying, "How clever, how clever" ( / Kashikoi, Kashikoi).
For this event, the area came to be called Kashikobuchi, which literally means "clever abyss".
[4]
In Kashikobuchi,
the Jorgumo is worshiped as a goddess who protects people from drowning, and a monument and a small Torii still
stand at the location.
In popular culture
The Hanns Heinz Ewers short story "The Spider" (1919) centers around a mysterious girl whom the protagonist
names Clarimonda. She is an early appearance in Western literature of the concept of a Jorgumo.
In the short story "Magic Dreams" by Ilona Andrews, the main villain is Jorgumo.
Jun'ichir Tanizaki's short story "Tattoo" is about a sadistic tattooist Seikichi who draws a Jorgumo picture on an
innocent maiko's (apprentice geisha) back which somewhat awakens an evil streak in her.
In the Clover Studio/Capcom action-adventure videogame kami, the first boss is a large, female demonic spider
known as the Spider Queen (also Geisha Spider or Prostitute Spider) that is based on this character in Japanese
mythology.
[5]
In Hellboy: Sword of Storms (2006), Hellboy faces a deadly spider-woman who breathes green fire along with
other creatures from Japanese folklore.
Juri Han of Super Street Fighter IV may have had her character design based on a Jorgumo. She is a sensual,
venomous, provocative woman whose nickname is Spider and dons a spider design on her back.
A Jorgumo is featured in the eleventh episode of the first season of Grimm.
The video game Diablo 3 features a seductive demoness named Cydaea, the Maiden of Lust, who is in the form of
a humanoid spider.
In the anime/manga xxxHolic, Watanukis right eye is stolen by the Jorgumo and afterwards eaten by her to
improve her magical powers.
Jorgumo
[6]
were one of the eastern-themed monsters introduced in the Pathfinder RPG's third Bestiary.
In "Digimon Adventure 02" one of the antagonists, Arukenimon (or Arachnemon in the Japanese) is based loosely
off of the Jorogumo. She shape-shifts between a normal, human-looking woman and a spider-woman.
References
[1] v w 2000 190-191
[2] % & ) * +, A
2005 59
[3] # & < - m?
- ~ ? - ` 2005 80
[4] (http:/ / tabidoki. jrnets.co.jp/ e07/ spot/ 17326.html) JR (http:/ / tabidoki. jrnets. co. jp/ localline/
riku-to/ )
[5] [5] Okami Official Complete Works (book).
[6] http:/ / www. d20pfsrd. com/ bestiary/ monster-listings/ monstrous-humanoids/ jorogumo
Jorgumo
23
Further reading
Jorgumo ~ - % ~ part of The Obakemono Project: An Online
Encyclopedia of Ykai and Bakemono (http:/ / www. obakemono. com/ obake/ jorogumo/ )
Josephoartigasia monesi
Josephoartigasia monesi
Temporal range: Pliocene to Early Pleistocene 42Ma
Life restoration of J. monesi
Scientific classification
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Mammalia
Order: Rodentia
Family: Dinomyidae
Genus: Josephoartigasia
Species: J. monesi
Rinderknecht & Blanco, 2008
Binomial name
Josephoartigasia monesi
Rinderknecht & Blanco, 2008
Josephoartigasia monesi, an extinct species of South American caviomorph rodent, is the largest rodent known, and
lived from approximately 4 million BC to 2 million BC during the Pliocene to early Pleistocene.
[1]
The species is
one of two in the Josephoartigasia genus, the other being J. magna. J. monesi is sometimes called the giant
pacarana, after its closest living relative, the pacarana (Dinomys branickii) in the family Dinomyidae. The species
may have weighed a ton, considerably larger than its closest living relative, the pacarana.
Josephoartigasia monesi
24
Description
Reconstruction of J. monesi head
The skull of the holotype is 53cm (21in) long, and the remaining
incisor is more than 30cm (12in) in length. The total estimated body
length is 3m (10ft), with a height of 1.5m (5ft).
Body mass
There is no dispute that J. monesi replaces Phoberomys pattersoni, a
related and somewhat older species that lived in Venezuela during the
Late Miocene, as the largest rodent. However, size comparisons are
difficult because previous estimates of 400 and 700kg (880 and
1,540lb) for P. pattersoni were based on forelimb and hindlimb
elements, which are not present in the J. monesi specimen.
By comparing the skull with various extant species of rodent, the
authors of the original paper estimated a mass between 468 and
2,586kg (1,032 and 5,701lb), with a median estimate of 1,211kg
(2,670lb). A later researcher revisited the numbers and came up with a
more conservative estimate of 350 to 1,534kg (772 to 3,382lb), with a
median of 900kg (2,000lb).
Discovery
J. monesi is known from an almost complete skull, which was recovered from the San Jos Formation on the coast of
Ro de la Plata in Uruguay. Discovered in 1987, but not scientifically described until 2008, the specimen is preserved
in Uruguay's National History and Anthropology Museum.
Paleobiology
The rodent's fearsome front teeth and large size may have been used to fight over females for breeding rights and
may also have helped defend against predators, including carnivorous marsupials, saber-toothed cats, and terror
birds.
The rodent may have lived in an estuarine environment or a delta system with forest communities, and may have
eaten soft vegetation. It has been stated that J. monesi probably fed on aquatic plants and fruits, because its molars
are small and not good for grass or other abrasive (vegetation). Larger mammals also have the advantage of access to
low-quality food resources, such as wood, that smaller species are unable to digest.
References
[1] According to Rinderknecht & Blanco (2008) recent studies indicate that some strata of the San Jos Formation in which the specimen was
found are Pleistocene, instead of Pliocene as was traditionally assumed. In any case, they do give a date range of 42 Mya.
Kitsune
25
Kitsune
Part of the series on
Japanese
mythology and
folklore
Mythic texts and folktales
Kojiki
Nihon Shoki
Fudoki
Kujiki
Kogo Shi
Nihon Ryiki
Otogizshi
Oiwa
Okiku
Urashima Tar
Konjaku Monogatari
Divinities
Izanami
Izanagi
Amaterasu
Susanoo
Ame-no-Uzume
Inari
Kami
Seven Lucky Gods
List of divinities
Legendary creatures and spirits
Oni
Kappa
Tengu
Kitsune
Ykai
Dragon
Yrei
List of creatures
Legendary figures
Abe no Seimei
Benkei
Issun-bshi
Kintar
Momotar
Tamamo-no-Mae
Kitsune
26
Sjb
Mythical and sacred locations
Mt. Hiei
Mt. Fuji
Izumo
Ryg-j
Takamagahara
Yomi
Jigoku
Sacred objects
Amenonuhoko
Kusanagi
Tonbogiri
Three Sacred Treasures
Shint and Buddhism
Bon Festival
Setsubun
Ema
Torii
Shinto shrines
Buddhist temples
Folklorists
Kunio Yanagita
Keigo Seki
Lafcadio Hearn
Shigeru Mizuki
Inoue Enryo
v
t
e
[1]
Kitsune
27
Prince Hanzoku terrorized by a nine-tailed fox.
Print by Utagawa Kuniyoshi, 19th century.
Kitsune (Help:Installing Japanese character sets, IPA:[kitsne](
)) is the Japanese word for fox. Foxes are a common subject of
Japanese folklore; in English, kitsune refers to them in this context.
Stories depict them as intelligent beings and as possessing magical
abilities that increase with their age and wisdom. Foremost among
these is the ability to assume human form. While some folktales speak
of kitsune employing this ability to trick othersas foxes in folklore
often doother stories portray them as faithful guardians, friends,
lovers, and wives.
Foxes and human beings lived close together in ancient Japan; this
companionship gave rise to legends about the creatures. Kitsune have
become closely associated with Inari, a Shinto kami or spirit, and serve
as its messengers. This role has reinforced the fox's supernatural
significance. The more tails a kitsune hasthey may have as many as
ninethe older, wiser, and more powerful it is. Because of their
potential power and influence, some people make offerings to them as
to a deity.
Origins
A nine-tailed fox, from the Qing edition of the
ancient text Shan Hai Jing.
It is widely agreed that many fox myths in Japan can be traced to
China, Korea, or India. Chinese folk tales tell of fox spirits called huli
jing that may have up to nine tails, or Kybi no Kitsune in Japanese,
or H Ly Tinh in Vietnamese. Many of the earliest surviving stories
are recorded in the Konjaku Monogatari, an 11th-century collection
of Chinese, Indian, and Japanese narratives.
[2]
There is debate whether the kitsune myths originated entirely from
foreign sources or are in part an indigenous Japanese concept dating
as far back as the fifth century BC. Japanese folklorist Kiyoshi
Nozaki argues that the Japanese regarded kitsune positively as early
as the 4th century A.D.; the only things imported from China or
Korea were the kitsune's negative attributes.
[3]
He states that,
according to a 16th-century book of records called the Nihon Ryakki,
foxes and human beings lived close together in ancient Japan, and he
contends that indigenous legends about the creatures arose as a result.
[4]
Inari scholar Karen Smyers notes that the
idea of the fox as seductress and the connection of the fox myths to Buddhism were introduced into Japanese
folklore through similar Chinese stories, but she maintains that some fox stories contain elements unique to Japan.
[5]
Kitsune
28
Japan is home to two red fox subspecies: the
Hokkaido fox (Vulpes vulpes schrencki,
pictured), and the Japanese red fox (Vulpes vulpes
japonica).
Etymology
The full etymology is unknown. The oldest known usage of the word is
in the 794 text Shin'yaku Kegonky Ongi Shiki. Other old sources
include Nihon Ryiki (810824) and Wamy Ruijush (c. 934). These
oldest sources are written in Man'ygana which clearly identifies the
historical spelling as ki
1
tune. Following several diachronic
phonological changes, this becomes kitsune.
Many etymological suggestions have been made, though there is no
general agreement:
Mygoki (1268) suggests that it is so called because it is "always
(tsune) yellow (ki)".
Early Kamakura period Mizukagami indicates that it means "came (ki) [ perfective aspect particle tsu] to bedroom
(ne)" due to a legend that a kitsune would change into one's wife and bear children.
Arai Hakuseki in Tga (1717) suggests that ki means "stench", tsu is a possessive particle, and ne is related to inu,
the word for "dog".
Tanikawa Kotosuga in Wakun no Shiori (17771887) suggests that ki means "yellow", tsu is a possessive
particle, and ne is related to neko, the word for cat.
tsuki Fumihiko in Daigenkai (19321935) proposes that kitsu is an onomatopoeia for the animal, and that ne is
an affix or an honorific word meaning a servant of an Inari shrine.
According to Nozaki, the word kitsune was originally onomatopoetic. Kitsu represented a fox's yelp and came to be
the general word for fox. -Ne signifies an affectionate mood, which Nozaki presents as further evidence of an
established, non-imported tradition of benevolent foxes in Japanese folklore. Kitsu is now archaic; in modern
Japanese, a fox's cry is transcribed as kon kon or gon gon.
One of the oldest surviving kitsune tales provides a widely known folk etymology of the word kitsune.
[6]
Unlike
most tales of kitsune who become human and marry human males, this one does not end tragically:
[7][8]
Ono, an inhabitant of Mino (says an ancient Japanese legend of A.D. 545), spent the seasons longing for
his ideal of female beauty. He met her one evening on a vast moor and married her. Simultaneously with
the birth of their son, Ono's dog was delivered of a pup which as it grew up became more and more
hostile to the lady of the moors. She begged her husband to kill it, but he refused. At last one day the
dog attacked her so furiously that she lost courage, resumed vulpine shape, leaped over a fence and fled.
"You may be a fox," Ono called after her, "but you are the mother of my son and I love you. Come back
when you please; you will always be welcome."
So every evening she stole back and slept in his arms.
Because the fox returns to her husband each night as a woman but leaves each morning as a fox, she is called
Kitsune. In classical Japanese, kitsu-ne means come and sleep, and ki-tsune means always comes.
Kitsune
29
Characteristics
Statue of a kitsune at the Inari shrine
adjacent to Tdai-ji Buddhist temple
in Nara
Kitsune are believed to possess superior intelligence, long life, and magical
powers. They are a type of ykai, or spiritual entity, and the word kitsune is often
translated as fox spirit. However, this does not mean that kitsune are ghosts, nor
that they are fundamentally different from regular foxes. Because the word spirit
is used to reflect a state of knowledge or enlightenment, all long-lived foxes gain
supernatural abilities.
There are two common classifications of kitsune. The zenko (
Help:Installing Japanese character sets, literally good foxes) are benevolent,
celestial foxes associated with the god Inari; they are sometimes simply called
Inari foxes. On the other hand, the yako ( Help:Installing Japanese character
sets, literally field foxes, also called nogitsune) tend to be mischievous or even
malicious.
[9]
Local traditions add further types.
[10]
For example, a ninko is an
invisible fox spirit that human beings can only perceive when it possesses them.
Another tradition classifies kitsune into one of thirteen types defined by which
supernatural abilities the kitsune possesses.
Physically, kitsune are noted for having as many as nine tails.
[11]
Generally, a greater number of tails indicates an
older and more powerful fox; in fact, some folktales say that a fox will only grow additional tails after it has lived
100 years. One, five, seven, and nine tails are the most common numbers in folk stories. When a kitsune gains its
ninth tail, its fur becomes white or gold. These kybi no kitsune ( Help:Installing Japanese character
sets, nine-tailed foxes) gain the abilities to see and hear anything happening anywhere in the world. Other tales
attribute them infinite wisdom (omniscience).
[12]
This obake karuta (monster card) from
the early 19th century depicts a kitsune.
The associated game involves matching
clues from folklore to pictures of specific
creatures.
Kitsune
30
Shapeshifting
"Fox women" by Bertha Lum:
kitsune as women
A kitsune may take on human form, an ability learned when it reaches a certain
ageusually 100 years, although some tales say 50.
[]
As a common prerequisite
for the transformation, the fox must place reeds, a broad leaf, or a skull over its
head.
[13]
Common forms assumed by kitsune include beautiful women, young
girls, or elderly men. These shapes are not limited by the fox's age or gender, and
a kitsune can duplicate the appearance of a specific person.
[14]
Foxes are
particularly renowned for impersonating beautiful women. Common belief in
medieval Japan was that any woman encountered alone, especially at dusk or
night, could be a fox.
[15]
Kitsune-gao or fox-faced refers to human females who
have a narrow face with close-set eyes, thin eyebrows, and high cheekbones.
Traditionally, this facial structure is considered attractive, and some tales ascribe
it to foxes in human form.
[16]
Variants on the theme have the kitsune retain other
foxlike traits, such as a coating of fine hair, a fox-shaped shadow, or a reflection
that shows its true form.
[17]
In some stories, kitsune have difficulty hiding their tails when they take human
form; looking for the tail, perhaps when the fox gets drunk or careless, is a common method of discerning the
creature's true nature.
[18]
A particularly devout individual may in some cases even be able to see through a fox's
disguise merely by perceiving them.
[19]
Kitsune may also be exposed while in human form by their fear and hatred
of dogs, and some become so rattled by their presence that they revert to the form of a fox and flee.
One folk story illustrating these imperfections in the kitsune's human shape concerns Koan, a historical person
credited with wisdom and magical powers of divination. According to the story, he was staying at the home of one of
his devotees when he scalded his foot entering a bath because the water had been drawn too hot. Then, "in his pain,
he ran out of the bathroom naked. When the people of the household saw him, they were astonished to see that Koan
had fur covering much of his body, along with a fox's tail. Then Koan transformed in front of them, becoming an
elderly fox and running away."
[20]
Other supernatural abilities commonly attributed to the kitsune include possession, mouths or tails that generate fire
or lightning (known as kitsunebi), willful manifestation in the dreams of others, flight, invisibility, and the creation
of illusions so elaborate as to be almost indistinguishable from reality. Some tales speak of kitsune with even greater
powers, able to bend time and space, drive people mad, or take fantastic shapes such as a tree of incredible height or
a second moon in the sky.
[21][22]
Other kitsune have characteristics reminiscent of vampires or succubi and feed on
the life or spirit of human beings, generally through sexual contact.
[23]
Kitsune
31
Inari and its fox spirits help the
blacksmith Munechika forge the
blade kogitsune-maru (Little Fox) at
the end of the 10th century. The
legend is the subject of the noh
drama Sanj Kokaji.
Kitsunetsuki
Kitsunetsuki ( or ; also written kitsune-tsuki) literally means
the state of being possessed by a fox. The victim is always a young woman,
whom the fox enters beneath her fingernails or through her breasts.
[24]
In some
cases, the victims' facial expressions are said to change in such a way that they
resemble those of a fox. Japanese tradition holds that fox possession can cause
illiterate victims to temporarily gain the ability to read.
[25]
Though foxes in
folklore can possess a person of their own will, Kitsunetsuki is often attributed to
the malign intents of hereditary fox employers, or tsukimono-suji.
[26]
Folklorist Lafcadio Hearn describes the condition in the first volume of his
Glimpses of Unfamiliar Japan:
Strange is the madness of those into whom demon foxes enter.
Sometimes they run naked shouting through the streets. Sometimes
they lie down and froth at the mouth, and yelp as a fox yelps. And
on some part of the body of the possessed a moving lump appears
under the skin, which seems to have a life of its own. Prick it with a
needle, and it glides instantly to another place. By no grasp can it be
so tightly compressed by a strong hand that it will not slip from under the fingers. Possessed folk are
also said to speak and write languages of which they were totally ignorant prior to possession. They eat
only what foxes are believed to like tofu, aburag, azukimeshi, etc. and they eat a great deal,
alleging that not they, but the possessing foxes, are hungry.
[27]
He goes on to note that, once freed from the possession, the victim will never again be able to eat tofu, azukimeshi,
or other foods favored by foxes:
Exorcism, often performed at an Inari shrine, may induce a fox to leave its host.
[28]
In the past, when
such gentle measures failed or a priest was not available, victims of kitsunetsuki were beaten or badly
burned in hopes of forcing the fox to leave. Entire families were ostracized by their communities after a
member of the family was thought to be possessed.
In Japan, kitsunetsuki was noted as a disease as early as the Heian period and remained a common diagnosis for
mental illness until the early 20th century.
[29][30]
Possession was the explanation for the abnormal behavior
displayed by the afflicted individuals. In the late 19th century, Dr. Shunichi Shimamura noted that physical diseases
that caused fever were often considered kitsunetsuki.
[31]
The belief has lost favor, but stories of fox possession still
occur, such as allegations that members of the Aum Shinrikyo cult had been possessed.
[32]
In medicine, kitsunetsuki is a culture-bound syndrome unique to Japanese culture. Those who suffer from the
condition believe they are possessed by a fox.
[33]
Symptoms include cravings for rice or sweet red beans,
listlessness, restlessness, and aversion to eye contact. Kitsunetsuki is similar to but distinct from clinical
lycanthropy.
[34]
Kitsune
32
Hoshi no tama
"Kitsunebi on New Year's Night
under the Enoki Tree near ji" in the
One Hundred Famous Views of Edo
by Hiroshige. Each fox has a
kitsunebi floating close to their face.
Depictions of kitsune or their possessed victims may feature round or
onion-shaped white balls known as hoshi no tama ( &
Help:Installing Japanese character sets, star balls). Tales describe these as
glowing with kitsunebi.
[35]
Some stories identify them as magical jewels or
pearls.
[36]
When not in human form or possessing a human, a kitsune keeps the
ball in its mouth or carries it on its tail. Jewels are a common symbol of Inari,
and representations of sacred Inari foxes without them are rare.
[37]
One belief is that when a kitsune changes shape, its hoshi no tama holds a portion
of its magical power. Another tradition is that the pearl represents the kitsune's
soul; the kitsune will die if separated from it for long. Those who obtain the ball
may be able to extract a promise from the kitsune to help them in exchange for its
return.
[38]
For example, a 12th-century tale describes a man using a fox's hoshi
no tama to secure a favor:
"Confound you!" snapped the fox. "Give me back my ball!" The
man ignored its pleas till finally it said tearfully, "All right, you've
got the ball, but you don't know how to keep it. It won't be any good
to you. For me, it's a terrible loss. I tell you, if you don't give it back,
I'll be your enemy forever. If you do give it back though, I'll stick to you like a protector god."
The fox later saves his life by leading him past a band of armed robbers.
[39]
Portrayal
Inari appears to a warrior,
accompanied by a kitsune. This
portrayal of Inari shows the influence
of Dakiniten concepts from
Buddhism. Print by Utagawa
Kuniyoshi.
Servants of Inari
Kitsune are associated with Inari, the Shinto deity of rice.
[40]
This association has
reinforced the fox's supernatural significance.
[41]
Originally, kitsune were Inari's
messengers, but the line between the two is now blurred so that Inari itself may
be depicted as a fox. Likewise, entire shrines are dedicated to kitsune, where
devotees can leave offerings. Fox spirits are said to be particularly fond of a fried
sliced tofu called aburage, which is accordingly found in the noodle-based dishes
kitsune udon and kitsune soba. Similarly, Inari-zushi is a type of sushi named for
Inari that consists of rice-filled pouches of fried tofu.
[42]
There is speculation
among folklorists as to whether another Shinto fox deity existed in the past.
Foxes have long been worshipped as kami.
[43]
Inari's kitsune are white, a color of good omen. They possess the power to ward
off evil, and they sometimes serve as guardian spirits. In addition to protecting
Inari shrines, they are petitioned to intervene on behalf of the locals and
particularly to aid against troublesome nogitsune, those spirit foxes who do not
serve Inari. Black foxes and nine-tailed foxes are likewise considered good
omens.
According to beliefs derived from fusui (feng shui), the fox's power over evil is such that a mere statue of a fox can
dispel the evil kimon, or energy, that flows from the northeast. Many Inari shrines, such as the famous Fushimi Inari
shrine in Kyoto, feature such statues, sometimes large numbers of them.
Kitsune
33
Kitsune are connected to the Buddhist religion through the Dakiniten, goddesses conflated with Inari's female aspect.
Dakiniten is depicted as a female boddhisattva wielding a sword and riding a flying white fox.
[44]
Tricksters
The Fushimi Inari shrine in Kyoto
features numerous kitsune statues.
Kitsune are often presented as tricksters, with motives that vary from mischief to
malevolence. Stories tell of kitsune playing tricks on overly proud samurai,
greedy merchants, and boastful commoners, while the crueler ones abuse poor
tradesmen and farmers or devout Buddhist monks. Their victims are usually men;
women are possessed instead. For example, kitsune are thought to employ their
kitsunebi to lead travelers astray in the manner of a will o' the wisp.
[45][46]
Another tactic is for the kitsune to confuse its target with illusions or visions.
Other common goals of trickster kitsune include seduction, theft of food,
humiliation of the prideful, or vengeance for a perceived slight.
A traditional game called kitsune-ken (fox-fist) references the kitsune's powers
over human beings. The game is similar to rock, paper, scissors, but the three
hand positions signify a fox, a hunter, and a village headman. The headman beats
the hunter, whom he outranks; the hunter beats the fox, whom he shoots; the fox
beats the headman, whom he bewitches.
[47][48]
This ambiguous portrayal, coupled with their reputation for vengefulness, leads people to try to discover a
troublesome fox's motives. In one case, the 16th-century leader Toyotomi Hideyoshi wrote a letter to the kami Inari:
To Inari Daimyojin,
My lord, I have the honor to inform you that one of the foxes under your jurisdiction has bewitched one
of my servants, causing her and others a great deal of trouble. I have to request that you make minute
inquiries into the matter, and endeavor to find out the reason of your subject misbehaving in this way,
and let me know the result.
If it turns out that the fox has no adequate reason to give for his behavior, you are to arrest and punish
him at once. If you hesitate to take action in this matter I shall issue orders for the destruction of every
fox in the land. Any other particulars that you may wish to be informed of in reference to what has
occurred, you can learn from the high priest of Yoshida.
[49]
Tamamo-no-Mae, a legendary
kitsune featured in noh and kyogen
plays. Print by Yoshitoshi.
Kitsune keep their promises and strive to repay any favor. Occasionally a kitsune
attaches itself to a person or household, where they can cause all sorts of
mischief. In one story from the 12th century, only the homeowner's threat to
exterminate the foxes convinces them to behave. The kitsune patriarch appears in
the man's dreams:
"My father lived here before me, sir, and by now I have many
children and grandchildren. They get into a lot of mischief, I'm
afraid, and I'm always after them to stop, but they never listen. And
now, sir, you're understandably fed up with us. I gather that you're
going to kill us all. But I just want you to know, sir, how sorry I am
that this is our last night of life. Won't you pardon us, one more
time? If we ever make trouble again, then of course you must act as
you think best. But the young ones, sir I'm sure they'll understand
when I explain to them why you're so upset. We'll do everything we
can to protect you from now on, if only you'll forgive us, and we'll
be sure to let you know when anything good is going to happen!"
[50]
Kitsune
34
Other kitsune use their magic for the benefit of their companion or hosts as long as the human beings treat them with
respect. As ykai, however, kitsune do not share human morality, and a kitsune who has adopted a house in this
manner may, for example, bring its host money or items that it has stolen from the neighbors. Accordingly, common
households thought to harbor kitsune are treated with suspicion.
[51]
Oddly, samurai families were often reputed to
share similar arrangements with kitsune, but these foxes were considered zenko and the use of their magic a sign of
prestige.
[52]
Abandoned homes were common haunts for kitsune. One 12th-century story tells of a minister moving
into an old mansion only to discover a family of foxes living there. They first try to scare him away, then claim that
the house "has been ours for many years, and . . . we wish to register a vigorous protest." The man refuses, and the
foxes resign themselves to moving to an abandoned lot nearby.
[53]
Tales distinguish kitsune gifts from kitsune payments. If a kitsune offers a payment or reward that includes money or
material wealth, part or all of the sum will consist of old paper, leaves, twigs, stones, or similar valueless items under
a magical illusion.
[54][55]
True kitsune gifts are usually intangibles, such as protection, knowledge, or long life.
The kitsune Kuzunoha casts a fox's
shadow even in human form.
Kuzunoha is a popular figure in
folklore and the subject of kabuki
plays. Print by Utagawa Kuniyoshi.
Wives and lovers
Kitsune are commonly portrayed as lovers, usually in stories involving a young
human male and a kitsune who takes the form of a human woman.
[56]
The
kitsune may be a seductress, but these stories are more often romantic in
nature.
[57]
Typically, the young man unknowingly marries the fox, who proves a
devoted wife. The man eventually discovers the fox's true nature, and the
fox-wife is forced to leave him. In some cases, the husband wakes as if from a
dream, filthy, disoriented, and far from home. He must then return to confront his
abandoned family in shame.
Many stories tell of fox-wives bearing children. When such progeny are human,
they possess special physical or supernatural qualities that often pass to their own
children. The astrologer-magician Abe no Seimei was reputed to have inherited
such extraordinary powers.
[58]
Other stories tell of kitsune marrying one another. Rain falling from a clear
sky a sunshower is called kitsune no yomeiri or the kitsune's wedding, in
reference to a folktale describing a wedding ceremony between the creatures
being held during such conditions.
[59]
The event is considered a good omen, but the kitsune will seek revenge on any
uninvited guests,
[60]
as is depicted in Akira Kurosawa's film Dreams.
Stephen Turnbull, in "Nagashino 1575", relates the tale of the Takeda clan's involvement with a fox-woman. The
warlord Takeda Shingen, in 1544, defeated in battle a lesser local warlord named Suwa Yorishige and drove him to
suicide after a "humiliating and spurious" peace conference, after which Shingen forced marriage on Suwa
Yorishige's beautiful 14-year-old daughter Lady KoiShingen's own niece. Shingen, Turnbull writes, "was so
obsessed with the girl that his superstitious followers became alarmed and believed her to be an incarnation of the
white fox-spirit of the Suwa Shrine, who had bewitched him in order to gain revenge." When their son Takeda
Katsuyori proved to be a disastrous leader and led the clan to their devastating defeat at the battle of Nagashino,
Turnbull writes, "wise old heads nodded, remembering the unhappy circumstances of his birth and his magical
mother".
Kitsune
35
In popular culture
Embedded in Japanese folklore as they are, kitsune appear in numerous Japanese works. Noh, kyogen, bunraku, and
kabuki plays derived from folk tales feature them,
[61][62]
as do contemporary works such as anime, manga and video
games. Western authors of fiction have begun to make use of the kitsune legends.
[63]
Although these portrayals vary
considerably, kitsune are generally depicted in accordance with folk stories, as wise, cunning, and powerful beings.
Notes
[1] http:/ / en. wikipedia. org/ w/ index. php?title=Template:Japanese_mythology_and_folklore& action=edit
[2] Goff, Janet. "Foxes in Japanese culture: beautiful or beastly?" Japan Quarterly 44:2 (AprilJune 1997).
[3] Nozaki, Kiyoshi. Kitsune Japan's Fox of Mystery, Romance, and Humor. Tokyo: The Hokuseid Press, 1961. 5
[4] Nozaki. Kitsune. 3
[5] , pp.127128 (http:/ / books. google.com/ books?id=uaC-7pnqdtEC& hl=en& pg=PA127#v=onepage& q& f=false)
[6] , p.89 (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=f46OerF-91EC& hl=en& pg=PA89#v=onepage& q& f=false)
[7] Goff. "Foxes". Japan Quarterly 44:2
[8] , p.72 (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=uaC-7pnqdtEC& hl=en& pg=PA72#v=onepage& q& f=false)
[9] Ykai no hon written by Prof. Abe Masaji & Prof. Ishikawa Junichiro
[10] Hearn, Lafcadio. Glimpses of Unfamiliar Japan. Project Gutenberg e-text edition (http:/ / www. gutenberg. org/ etext/ 8130), 2005. 154
[11] , p.129 (http:/ / books. google.com/ books?id=uaC-7pnqdtEC& hl=en& pg=PA129#v=onepage& q& f=false)
[12] Hearn. Glimpses. 159
[13] Nozaki. Kitsune. 2526
[14] Hall. Half Human. 145
[15] [15] Tyler xlix.
[16] Nozaki. Kitsune. 95, 206
[17] Hearn.Glimpses. 155
[18] Ashkenazy, Michael. Handbook of Japanese Mythology. Santa Barbara, California: ABC-Clio, 2003. 148
[19] Heine, Steven. Shifting Shape, Shaping Text: Philosophy and Folklore in the Fox Koan. Honolulu: University of Hawai'i Press, 1999. 153
[20] Hall. Half Human. 144
[21] Hearn. Glimpses. 156157
[22] Nozaki. Kitsune. 3637
[23] Nozaki. Kitsune. 26, 221
[24] Nozaki. Kitsune. 59
[25] Nozaki. Kitsune. 216
[26] https:/ / eee.uci.edu/ clients/ sbklein/ GHOSTS/ articles/ CatalpaBow-WitchAnimals. pdf
[27] Hearn. Glimpses. 158
[28] , p.90 (http:/ / books. google.com/ books?id=uaC-7pnqdtEC& hl=en& pg=PA90#v=onepage& q& f=false)
[29] Nozaki. Kitsune. 211
[30] Hearn. Glimpses. 165
[31] Nozaki. Kitsune. 214215
[32] Miyake-Downey, Jean. "Ten Thousand Things." Kyoto Journal 63 (http:/ / www. kyotojournal. org/ 10,000things/ 039. html). Retrieved on
December 13, 2006.
[33] Haviland, William A. Cultural Anthropology, 10th ed. New York: Wadsworth Publishing Co., 2002. 144145
[34] Yonebayashi, T. "Kitsunetsuki (Possession by Foxes)". Transcultural Psychiatry 1:2 (1964). 9597
[35] Nozaki. Kitsune. 183
[36] Nozaki. Kitsune. 169170
[37] , pp.112114 (http:/ / books.google. com/ books?id=uaC-7pnqdtEC& hl=en& pg=PA112#v=onepage& q& f=false)
[38] Hall. Half Human. 149
[39] Tyler 299300.
[40] , p.76 (http:/ / books. google.com/ books?id=uaC-7pnqdtEC& hl=en& pg=PA76#v=onepage& q& f=false)
[41] Hearn. Glimpses. 153
[42] , p.96 (http:/ / books. google.com/ books?id=uaC-7pnqdtEC& hl=en& pg=PA96#v=onepage& q& f=false)
[43] , p.77, 81 (http:/ / books.google. com/ books?id=uaC-7pnqdtEC& hl=en& pg=PA77#v=onepage& q& f=false)
[44] , pp.8285 (http:/ / books. google.com/ books?id=uaC-7pnqdtEC& hl=en& pg=PA82#v=onepage& q& f=false)
[45] Addiss, Stephen. Japanese Ghosts & Demons: Art of the Supernatural. New York: G. Braziller, 1985. 137
[46] Hall. Half Human. 142
[47] Nozaki. Kitsune. 230
[48] , p.98 (http:/ / books. google.com/ books?id=uaC-7pnqdtEC& hl=en& pg=PA98#v=onepage& q& f=false)
Kitsune
36
[49] Hall. Half Human. 137; the Yoshida priest in question was Yoshida Kanemi (15351610), then head priest at the Yoshida Shrine in Kyoto.
[50] Tyler 1145.
[51] Hearn. Glimpses. 159161
[52] Hall. Half Human. 148
[53] Tyler 1224.
[54] Nozaki. Kitsune. 195
[55] , pp.103105 (http:/ / books.google. com/ books?id=uaC-7pnqdtEC& hl=en& pg=PA103#v=onepage& q& f=false)
[56] , p.90 (http:/ / books. google.com/ books?id=f46OerF-91EC& hl=en& pg=PA90#v=onepage& q& f=false)
[57] Hearn. Glimpses. 157
[58] Ashkenazy. Handbook. 150
[59] Addiss. Ghosts & Demons. 132
[60] Vaux, Bert. "Sunshower summary" (http:/ / www.linguistlist. org/ issues/ 9/ 9-1795. html). LINGUIST List 9.1795 (Dec. 1998). A
compilation of terms for sun showers from various cultures and languages. Retrieved on December 13, 2006.
[61] Hearn. Glimpses. 162163
[62] Nozaki. Kitsune. 109124
[63] e.g., Kij Johnson's The Fox Woman (http:/ / books.google. com/ books?id=Z0S6-KNcd6wC& dq=kij+ johnson+ fox+ woman&
printsec=frontcover& source=bn& hl=en& ei=Iz0JTKXECoG8lQfz_aDcDg& sa=X& oi=book_result& ct=result& resnum=4&
ved=0CCcQ6AEwAw#v=onepage& q& f=false) and Mercedes Lackey's Spirits White as Lightning (http:/ / books. google. com/
books?id=ispqCirVSvQC& pg=PT91& dq=kitsune+ mercedes+ lackey& cd=1#v=onepage& q& f=false)
References
Addiss, Stephen. Japanese Ghosts & Demons: Art of the Supernatural. New York: G. Braziller, 1985.
(pp.132137) ISBN 0-8076-1126-3
Ashkenazy, Michael. Handbook of Japanese Mythology. Santa Barbara, California: ABC-Clio, 2003. ISBN
1-57607-467-6
Bathgate, Michael. The Fox's Craft in Japanese Religion and Folklore: Shapeshifters, Transformations, and
Duplicities. New York: Routledge, 2004. ISBN 0-415-96821-6
Hearn, Lafcadio. Glimpses of Unfamiliar Japan. Project Gutenberg e-text edition (http:/ / www. gutenberg. org/
etext/ 8130), 2005. Retrieved on November 20, 2006.
Hamel, Frank (2003). Human Animals (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=f46OerF-91EC& hl=en&
printsec=frontcover#v=onepage& q& f=false). Kessinger Publishing. ISBN0766167003.
Heine, Steven. Shifting Shape, Shaping Text: Philosophy and Folklore in the Fox Koan. Honolulu: University of
Hawai'i Press, 1999. ISBN 0-8248-2150-5
Johnson, T.W. "Far Eastern Fox Lore". Asian Folklore Studies 33:1 (1974)
Nozaki, Kiyoshi. Kitsun Japan's Fox of Mystery, Romance, and Humor (http:/ / www. delathehooda. com/
kitsune/ kitsunepdf. zip). Tokyo: The Hokuseid Press. 1961.
Schumacher, Mark (September 1995). "Oinari" (http:/ / www. onmarkproductions. com/ html/ oinari. shtml). A to
Z Photo Dictionary of Japanese Buddhist & Shinto Deities. Retrieved 2006-12-14.
Smyers, Karen Ann (1999). The fox and the jewel: shared and private meanings in contemporary Japanese inari
worship (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=uaC-7pnqdtEC& hl=en& printsec=frontcover#v=onepage& q&
f=false). University of Hawaii Press. ISBN0824821025.
Turnbull, Stephen. (2000). Nagashino 1575. Osprey Publishing. ISBN 1-84176-250-4.
Tyler, Royall. (1987). Japanese Tales. New York: Pantheon Books. ISBN 0-394-75656-8
Kitsune
37
External links
The Kitsune Page (http:/ / www. coyotes. org/ kitsune/ kitsune. html)
Foxtrot's Guide to Kitsune Lore (http:/ / www. cyberus. ca/ ~foxtrot/ kitsune/ index. htm)
Kitsune.org folklore (http:/ / www. kitsune. org/ )
Kitsune, Kumiho, Huli Jing, Fox Fox spirits in Asia, and Asian fox spirits in the West (http:/ / academia.
issendai. com/ fox-index. shtml) An extensive bibliography of fox-spirit books.
Portal of Transformation: Kitsune in Folklore and Mythology (http:/ / www. jh-author. com/ kitsune. htm)
IDEAS Undergraduate On-Line Journal (http:/ / ideas. union. edu/ articles. php?action=read& id=25)
Gods of Japan page on the fox spirit (http:/ / www. onmarkproductions. com/ html/ oinari. shtml)
Kitsune: Coyote of the Orient (http:/ / ranea. org/ watts/ writing/ kitsune. html)
Nekomata
"Nekomata ( Help:Installing Japanese
character sets)" from the Hyakkai Zukan by
Sawaki Suushi
Nekomata ( , ) are a ykai of cats told about in folklore as
well as classical kaidan, essays, etc. There are two very different types,
the beast that lives in the mountains, and the ones raised domestically
that grow old and transform.
[1]
Nekomata
38
Nekomata in mountains
"Nekomata to Ifu Koto (
Help:Installing Japanese character sets)" from
the "Tonoigusa" by Ansei Agita. A scene of a
hunter shooting at a nekomata (down left)
shapeshifted into his own mother.
In China, they are told in stories even older than in Japan from the Sui
Dynasty like in or that told of mysterious cats, but in
Japan, in the Meigetsuki by Fujiwara no Teika in the early Kamakura
period, in the beginning of Tenpuku (1233), August 2, in Nanto (now
Nara Prefecture), there is a statement that a nekomata ( ) ate and
killed several people in one night. This is the first appearance of the
nekomata in literature, and the nekomata was talked about as a beast in
the mountains. However, in the "Meigetsuki," concerning their
appearance, it was written, "they have eyes like a cat, and have a large
body like a dog," there are many who raise the question of whether or
not it really is a monster of a cat,
[2]
and since there are statements that
people suffer an illness called the "nekomata disease (
Help:Installing Japanese character sets)," there is the interpretation
that it is actually a beast that has caught the rabies.
[3]
Also, in the essay
Tsurezuregusa from the late Kamakura period (around 1331), it was
written, "in the mountain recesses, there are those called nekomata, and
people say that they eat humans... ( %
Help:Installing Japanese character sets)."
[4]
Even the kaidan collections, the "Tonoigusa ( Help:Installing Japanese character sets)" and the "Sorori
Monogatari ( Help:Installing Japanese character sets)," nekomata conceal themselves in the
mountain recesses, and there are stories where deep in the mountains they would appear shapeshifted into humans,
and in folk religion there are many stories of nekomata in mountainous regions. The nekomata of the mountains have
a tendency to be larger in later literature, and in the "Shin Chomonj ( Help:Installing Japanese
character sets)," nekomata captured in the mountains of the Kii Province are as large as a wild boar, and in "Wakun
no Shiori ( Help:Installing Japanese character sets)" from 1775 (Anei 4), from the statement that their
roaring voice echos throughout the mountain, they can be seen to be as big as a lion or a leopard. In "Gis (
Help:Installing Japanese character sets)" from 1809 (Bunka 6), a nekomata that held a dog in its mouth had a span
of 9 shaku and 5 sn (about 2.8 meters).
In the Etch Province (now Toyama Prefecture), in Aizu, at the Nekomatayama said to be where nekomata would
eat and kill humans (now Fukushima Prefecture), nekomata that shapeshift into humans and fool people, like Mount
Nekomadake, sometimes have their legends be named after the name of the mountain. Concerning Nekomatayama,
it can be seen that not following folklore at all, there actually are large cats living in the mountain that attack
humans.
Nekomata that domestic cats turn into
At the same time, in the Kokon Chomonj from the Kamakura period, in the story called Kanky Hin (
Help:Installing Japanese character sets), an old cat raised in a precipitous mountain villa held in its mouth a secret
treasure, a protective sword, and ran away, and people chased after it, but it disguised its appearance right then, and
it left behind that the pet cat became a monster, but in the aforementioned "Tsurezuregusa," this is also a nekomata,
and it talks about how other than the nekomata that conceal themselves in the mountains, there are also the pet cats
that grow old, transform, and eat and abduct people.
In the Edo period and afterwards, it has become generally thought that cats raised domestically would turn into
nekomata as they grow old, and the aforementioned nekomata of the mountains have come to be interpreted as cats
that have run away and came to live in the mountains. Because of that, a folk belief emerged in each area of Japan
Nekomata
39
that cats are not to be raised for many months and years.
In the "Ansai Zuihitsu ( Help:Installing Japanese character sets)" by the court ceremonial Sadatake Ise,
the statement "a cat that is several years of age will come to have two tails, and become the ykai called nekomata"
can be seen. Also, the mid-Edo period scholar Arai Hakuseki stated, "old cats become 'nekomata' and bewilder
people," and indicating it was common sense at that time to think that cats become nekomata, and even the
Kawaraban of the Edo period reported on this strange phenomenon.
In the book Yamato Kaiiki (# , engl. "Mysterious stories from Japan"), written by an unknown author
in 1708, a story speaks about a haunted house of a rich samurai. The inhabitants of this house witness several
poltergeist-activities and the samurai invites countless shamans, priests and evokers in attempt to make the
happenings come to an end. But none of them is able to find the source of the terror. One day one of the most loyal
servants observes his master's very old cat carrying a shikigami with the imprinted name of the samurai in its mouth.
Immediately the servant fires a sacred arrow, hitting the cat in its head. When the cat is lying dead on the floor, all
inhabitants can see that the cat has two tails and therefore had become a nekomata. With the death of the demon-cat
the poltergeist-activities end. Similar eerie stories about encounters with nekomata appear in books such as Taihei
Hyakumonogatari ( A , engl. "Collection of 100 fairy tales"), written by Yusuke ( , or Ysa) in
1723 and in the book R Chabanashi ( , "Tea-time gossip of old ladies"), written by Misaka Daiyata
( # ) in 1742.
It is generally said that the "mata" () of "nekomata" comes from how they have two tails, but from the view of
folkloristics, this is seen as questionable, and since they transform as they grow older, the theory that it is the "mata"
meaning "repetition," or as previously stated, since they were once thought to be a beast in the mountains, there is
the theory that it comes from "mata" () meaning monkeys, with the meaning that they are like monkeys that can
freely come and go between trees in the mountains at will. There is also the theory that it comes from the way in
which cats that grow old shed the skin off their backs and hang downwards, making it seem like they have two tails.
Cats are often associated with death in Japan, and this particular spirit is often blamed. Far darker and malevolent
than most bakeneko, the nekomata is said to have powers of necromancy, and upon raising the dead, will control
them with ritualistic dances - gesturing with paw and tail. These ykai are associated with strange fires and other
unexplainable occurrences. The older, and the more badly treated a cat has been before its transformation, the more
power the nekomata is said to have. To gain revenge against those who have wronged it, the spirit may haunt
humans with visitations from their dead relatives. Like bakeneko, some tales state how these demons have taken on
human appearance - but have usually appeared as older women, behaving badly in public and bringing gloom and
malevolence wherever they travelled. Sometimes the tails of kittens were cut off as a precaution as it was thought
that if their tails could not fork, they could not become nekomata
From this discernment and strange characteristics, nekomata have been considered devilish ones from time
immemorial. Due to fears and folk beliefs such as the dead resurrecting at a funeral, or that seven generations would
be cursed as a result of killing a cat, it is thought that the legend of the nekomata was born. Also, in folk beliefs cats
and the dead are related. As carnivores, cats have a sharp sense of detecting the smell of rotting, and so it was
believed that they had a trait of approaching corpses; with this folk belief sometimes the kasha, a ykai that steals the
corpses of the dead, are seen to be the same as the nekomata.
Also in Japan there are cat ykai called the bakeneko, but since nekomata are certainly the ykai of transformed cats,
sometimes nekomata are confused with bakeneko.
Furtheremore, in Canada, there have been photographs taken of cats with 2 tails.
Nekomata
40
Ykai depictions
Nekomata ( Help:Installing Japanese
character sets) from the Gazu Hyakki Yagy by
Sekien Toriyama
In the Edo period, many in style of illustrated reference books, ykai
emaki, have been made, and nekomata are frequently the subject of
these ykai depictions. In the Hyakkai Zukan published in 1737
(Gembun 2), there was a depiction of a nekomata taking on the
appearance of a human female playing a shamisen, but since shamisen
in the Edo period were frequently made by using the skins of cats, the
nekomata played the shamisen and sang a sad song about its own
species, and has been interpreted as a kind of irony etc.
[5]
Concerning
the fact that they wear geisha clothing, there is the viewpoint they are
related due to the fact that geisha were once called "cats (neko)" (refer
to first image).
Also, in the "Gazu Hyakki Yagy" published in 1776 (An'ei 5) (refer to
image on right), with a depiction of a cat on the left with its head
coming out of a shji, a cat on the right with a handkerchief on its head
and its forepaw on the veranda, and a cat in the middle also wearing a
handkerchief and standing on two legs, and thus as a cat that has not
had enough experience and thus as difficulty standing on two legs, a
cat that has grown older and has become able to stand on two legs, it
can be seen to be depicting the process by which a normal cat grows older and tramsforms into a nekomata. Also, in
the Bigelow collection of the Museum of Fine Arts, Boston (the ukiyo-e collection), in the "Hyakki Yagy Emaki,"
since pretty much the same composition of nekomata has been depicted, some have pointed out a relation between
them.
Senri
In China there is a cat ykai called "senri ( )" (where means "leopard cat"). This is where leopard cats that
grow old gain a divine spiritual power, and they would shapeshift into a beautiful man or woman and suck the spirit
out of humans.
There is the theory that the legends of nekomata of Japan come from tales of the senri.
Nekomata in modern subculture
Nekomata are popular motifs in manga and anime today. A well known fictitious nekomata of modern times is
"Kirara" from the novel and anime series InuYasha, written by Takahashi Rumiko. Kirara appears there as a cuddly
little kitten with two tails when calm, but she rapidly transforms into a giant, flying saber-toothed tiger, when
provoked or whenever her friend 'Sango' asks the cat to do so to help in times of need.
A nekomata is also seen in Ao No Exorcist with the character Kuro aka 'Blackie'. It is known for being a docile, sad
cat who is waiting for his master to return. However, hearing the guards talk about his master's death, he becomes
furious, unable to believe their words. He turns into his demon form, causing chaos until his master's son, Rin, settles
him down.
Nekomata
41
Notes
[1] (2000) 170-171
[2] (1994) 127-128
[3] (1986) 696
[4] D (1992) 36-66
[5] (2005) 155
References
(1986). Z , ed. # . 7 8.
ISBN978-4-04-031300-9.
- (1994). . . / 0. ISBN978-4-7601-1299-9.
(2000). . , ed. . .
ISBN978-4-336-04187-6.
D (1992). " ". . .
ISBN978-4-806-72339-4.
a (2005). b c d e f , ed. b g 2 h i. j k l m n
o p q +. ISBN978-4-343-00341-6.
Patrick Drazen: A Gathering of Spirits: Japan's Ghost Story Tradition: from Folklore and Kabuki to Anime and
Manga. iUniverse, New York 2011, ISBN 1-4620-2942-6, page 114.
Elli Kohen: World history and myths of cats. Edwin Mellen Press, Lewiston 2003, ISBN 0-7734-6778-5, page
4851.
Carl Van Vechten: The Tiger In The House. Kessinger Publishing, Whitefish 2004 (Reprint), ISBN
1-4179-6744-7, page 96.
External links
web-informations about Nekomata at obakemono.com (http:/ / www. obakemono. com/ obake/ nekomata/ )
(English)
Nekomata The Split-Tailed Cat (http:/ / hyakumonogatari. com/ 2012/ 04/ 21/ nekomata-the-split-tailed-cat/ ) at
hyakumonogatari.com(English)
Oni
42
Oni
Part of the series on
Japanese
mythology and
folklore
Mythic texts and folktales
Kojiki
Nihon Shoki
Fudoki
Kujiki
Kogo Shi
Nihon Ryiki
Otogizshi
Oiwa
Okiku
Urashima Tar
Konjaku Monogatari
Divinities
Izanami
Izanagi
Amaterasu
Susanoo
Ame-no-Uzume
Inari
Kami
Seven Lucky Gods
List of divinities
Legendary creatures and spirits
Oni
Kappa
Tengu
Kitsune
Ykai
Dragon
Yrei
List of creatures
Legendary figures
Abe no Seimei
Benkei
Issun-bshi
Kintar
Momotar
Tamamo-no-Mae
Oni
43
Sjb
Mythical and sacred locations
Mt. Hiei
Mt. Fuji
Izumo
Ryg-j
Takamagahara
Yomi
Jigoku
Sacred objects
Amenonuhoko
Kusanagi
Tonbogiri
Three Sacred Treasures
Shint and Buddhism
Bon Festival
Setsubun
Ema
Torii
Shinto shrines
Buddhist temples
Folklorists
Kunio Yanagita
Keigo Seki
Lafcadio Hearn
Shigeru Mizuki
Inoue Enryo
v
t
e
[1]
Oni
44
Oni in pilgrim's clothing. Tokugawa
period. Hanging scroll, ink and color
on paper. 59.2 cm x 22.1 cm
Oni (Help:Installing Japanese character sets) are a kind of ykai from
Japanese folklore, variously translated as demons, devils, ogres or trolls. They
are popular characters in Japanese art, literature and theatre.
Depictions of oni vary widely but usually portray them as hideous, gigantic
ogre-like creatures with sharp claws, wild hair, and two long horns growing from
their heads. They are humanoid for the most part, but occasionally, they are
shown with unnatural features such as odd numbers of eyes or extra fingers and
toes. Their skin may be any number of colors, but red and blue are particularly
common.
They are often depicted wearing tiger-skin loincloths and carrying iron clubs,
called kanab ( Help:Installing Japanese character sets). This image leads
to the expression "oni with an iron club" (
oni-ni-kanabHelp:Installing Japanese character sets), that is, to be invincible
or undefeatable. It can also be used in the sense of "strong beyond strong", or
having one's natural quality enhanced or supplemented by the use of some tool.
Origins
The word "oni" is sometimes speculated to be derived from on, the on'yomi
reading of a character (!) meaning to hide or conceal, as oni were originally
invisible spirits or gods which caused disasters, disease, and other unpleasant
things. These nebulous beings could also take on a variety of forms to deceive
(and often devour) humans. Thus the Chinese character (Mandarin Pinyin:
gu; Jyutping: gwai
2
) meaning "ghost" came to be used for these formless
creatures.
The invisible oni eventually became anthropomorphized and took on its modern, ogre-like form, partly via
syncretism with creatures imported by Buddhism, such as the Indian rakshasa and yaksha, the hungry ghosts called
gaki, and the devilish underlings of Enma- who punish sinners in Jigoku (Hell).They share many similarities with
the Arabian Jinn.
Oni
45
Demon Gate
Oni depicted in Konjaku Gazu Zoku Hyakki by
Toriyama Sekien
A statue of a red oni wielding a kanab.
Another source for the oni's image is a concept from China and
Onmyd. The northeast direction was once termed the kimon ( ",
"demon gate"), and was considered an unlucky direction through which
evil spirits passed. Based on the assignment of the twelve zodiac
animals to the cardinal directions, the kimon was also known as the
ushitora (# $), or "Ox Tiger" direction, and the oni's bovine horns
and cat-like fangs, claws, and tiger-skin loincloth developed as a visual
depiction of this term.
Temples are often built facing that direction, and Japanese buildings
sometimes have L-shaped indentions at the northeast to ward oni away.
Enryakuji, on Mount Hiei northeast of the center of Kyoto, and
Kaneiji, in that direction from Edo Castle, are examples. The Japanese
capital itself moved northeast from Nagaoka to Kyoto in the 8th
century.Wikipedia:Please clarify
Traditional culture
Some villages hold yearly ceremonies to drive away oni, particularly at
the beginning of Spring. During the Setsubun festival, people throw
soybeans outside their homes and shout "Oni wa soto! Fuku wa uchi!"
(" % & ' &"Help:Installing Japanese character sets,
" Oni go out! Blessings come in!"). Monkey statues are also thought to
guard against oni, since the Japanese word for monkey, saru, is a
homophone for the word for "leaving". Folklore has it that holly can be
used to guard against Oni. In Japanese versions of the game tag, the
player who is "it" is instead called the "oni".
In more recent times, oni have lost some of their original
wickedness
[citation needed]
and sometimes take on a more protective
function. Men in oni costumes often lead Japanese parades to ward off
any bad luck, for example. Japanese buildings sometimes include
oni-faced roof tiles called onigawara ( (Help:Installing Japanese
character sets), which are thought to ward away bad luck, much like
gargoyles in Western tradition.
Oni are prominently featured in the Japanese children's story
Momotaro (Peach Boy), and the book The Funny Little Woman.
Many Japanese idioms and proverbs also make reference to oni. For example, the expression oya ni ninu ko wa oni
no ko () * + Help:Installing Japanese character sets) means literally "a child that does not
resemble its parents is the child of an oni," but it is used idiomatically to refer to the fact that all children naturally
take after their parents, and in the odd case that a child appears not to do so, it might be because the child's true
biological parents are not the ones who are raising the child. Depending on the context in which it is used, it can
have connotations of "children who do not act like their parents are not true human beings," and may be used by a
parent to chastise a misbehaving child. Variants of this expression include oya ni ninu ko wa onigo () * +
Help:Installing Japanese character sets) and oya ni ninu ko wa onikko () * +
Help:Installing Japanese character sets). It is also well known in Japan a game named kakure oni (!
Oni
46
Help:Installing Japanese character sets), or more commonly kakurenbo, that means chase the demon and it is the
same as the hide-and-seek game that children in western countries play.
Popular Culture
In Rumiko Takahashi's Urusei Yatsura, the female lead, Lum Invader, is an oni alien depicted wearing a
tiger-skin bikini; as a matter of fact, the entire alien race to which she belongs is fashioned after the classical
concept of oni.
Chie Shinohara's manga Ao no Fuuin uses oni as a main theme when the female protagonist is a descendant of a
beautiful oni queen who wants to resurrect her kind.
Takahashi's Ranma 1/2 features a story in which one of the characters, Kasumi Tendo, is possessed by an oni,
causing her to behave in uncharacteristically "evil" (yet humorous) ways.
The Touhou Project series of shoot-'em-up games has a character named Suika Ibuki, an oni with a massive gourd
on her back capable of producing an endless amount of sake; legend has it that no one has seen her sober in her
700 year life. A later game in the series marked the appearance of Yuugi Hoshiguma, Suika's oni associate from a
group of four incredibly powerful oni that they both belong to, called the "Four Devas of the Mountains." Yuugi,
despite being as great a drinker as Suika while being just as cheerful, is even less of a lightweight than Suika,
being able to enter into a fight without seeming intoxicated or even spilling any of the sake in her sake dish.
The Bleach character Love Aikawa has an Oni-themed mask. Also, his Zanpakuto's released form is a large
spiked kanab.
In the Japanese release of The Legend of Zelda: Majora's Mask, the Fierce Deity incarnation of Link is referred to
as Oni Link.
In the Mortal Kombat universe, the denizens of the Netherrealm (the series' equivalent of hell) are called Oni
(though they represent a drastic deviation from the Japanese concept, being primitive ape-like demons), and the
oni character Drahmin's right arm is replaced by a metal club. Another Oni fighter of the series is Moloch.
In Dragon Ball and Dragon Ball Z, an Oni called King Yemma runs the Check-In Station in Other World, where
he decides which souls go to Heaven and which to Hell. The Check-In Station and Hell are also staffed by many
other oni, many of which hold iron clubs.
In the Digimon series, there is a level Champion digimon called Ogremon, which is a classical interpretation of
the Japanese Oni. Hyogamon and Fugamon (two variations of Ogremon, representing ice and wind respectively)
are also Oni.
The Onis are featured in Season 4 of Jackie Chan Adventures. Tarakudo (voiced by Miguel Ferrer) is the King of
the Onis.
In Hellboy: Sword of Storms, Hellboy fought a giant Oni. Before the final blow can be struck with the Sword of
Storms, the Oni fades away so that Hellboy can break the Sword of Storms on the statue releasing the brothers
Thunder and Lightning.
Kamen Rider Hibiki, a Japanese tokusatsu series, uses Oni (which is what the Kamen Riders here are referred as)
as a main theme of the series. It tells the story about ancient battle between the Oni and the Makamou. In another
popular tokusatsu, the Ultra series, it is not uncommon for Oni to appear and do battle with an Ultraman.
Hyakujuu Sentai Gaoranger, Ogre Tribe Org is the main antagonist to fight the Gaorangers and Power Animals.
In The Venture Brothers season two episode "I Know Why the Caged Bird Kills", Dr. Venture is haunted by a
floating Oni which has followed him from Japan. Venture and Doctor Byron Orpheus, a necromancer, attempt to
banish the spirit using "tempest tongs" but the effort fails. Venture then attempts to trap the oni in the trunk of his
car, at which point the demon possesses the automobile. The Oni attempts to lead Venture to Myra Brandish,
Venture's former bodyguard and love who has kidnapped his sons. At the conclusion of the episode, the Oni
Oni
47
leaves with Dr. Henry Killinger, for whom the spirit has been working throughout the episode.
In the video game Muramasa: The Demon Blade, Oni are one of the various enemies the main characters battle.
Meisuke "Nube" Nueno of the manga/anime Jigoku Sensei Nube has an Oni residing in his left hand, which he
uses to exorcise and defeat demons.
In Pokemon, Electabuzz, Sawk, and Throh have characteristics of Onis.
In Rumiko Takahashi's manga InuYasha, Oni are common Yokai in the series.
The Smile PreCure! character Red-oni is a villain based on the onis that appear in mythology.
In Wizard101, the Onis are depicted as Indian Elephant-headed humanoids.
In Sonic Lost World, the Deadly Six can be reference to Oni.
In the video game "Little King's Story", the "Onii" is based on the Japanese Oni.
In the Indie RPG-horror computer game "Ao Oni", the antagonist of the game is a blue Oni.
In Teen Wolf Season 3, the Oni are depicted as shadow warriors.
In the video game "Hungry Oni", the player-controlled protagonist is a mischievous red Oni.
In the video game "Shounen Kininden Tsumuji", in the final area of the game there are 3 different colored Oni.
References
Notes
Bibliography
Mizuki, Shigeru (2003). Mujara 3: Kinki-hen. Japan: Soft Garage. p.29. ASIN 4861330068 (http:/ / www.
amazon. com/ dp/ 4861330068).
Shiryshitsu Oni Kan (http:/ / www. waw. ne. jp/ youkai/ 9802/ trad. DBindex. html)
External links
Article on Oni at The Obakemono Project (http:/ / www. obakemono. com/ obake/ oni)
Tengu
48
Tengu
Part of the series on
Japanese
mythology and
folklore
Mythic texts and folktales
Kojiki
Nihon Shoki
Fudoki
Kujiki
Kogo Shi
Nihon Ryiki
Otogizshi
Oiwa
Okiku
Urashima Tar
Konjaku Monogatari
Divinities
Izanami
Izanagi
Amaterasu
Susanoo
Ame-no-Uzume
Inari
Kami
Seven Lucky Gods
List of divinities
Legendary creatures and spirits
Oni
Kappa
Tengu
Kitsune
Ykai
Dragon
Yrei
List of creatures
Legendary figures
Abe no Seimei
Benkei
Issun-bshi
Kintar
Momotar
Tamamo-no-Mae
Tengu
49
Sjb
Mythical and sacred locations
Mt. Hiei
Mt. Fuji
Izumo
Ryg-j
Takamagahara
Yomi
Jigoku
Sacred objects
Amenonuhoko
Kusanagi
Tonbogiri
Three Sacred Treasures
Shint and Buddhism
Bon Festival
Setsubun
Ema
Torii
Shinto shrines
Buddhist temples
Folklorists
Kunio Yanagita
Keigo Seki
Lafcadio Hearn
Shigeru Mizuki
Inoue Enryo
v
t
e
[1]
Tengu and a Buddhist monk, by Kawanabe Kysai. The tengu wears
the cap and pom-pommed sash of a follower of Shugend.
Tengu ( ,Help:Installing Japanese character sets,
"heavenly dog") are a type of legendary creature found
in Japanese folk religion and are also considered a type
of Shinto god (kami) or ykai (supernatural beings).
Although they take their name from a dog-like Chinese
demon (Tiangou), the tengu were originally thought to
take the forms of birds of prey, and they are
traditionally depicted with both human and avian
characteristics. The earliest tengu were pictured with
beaks, but this feature has often been humanized as an
unnaturally long nose, which today is widely
considered the tengu's defining characteristic in the
popular imagination.
Buddhism long held that the tengu were disruptive
demons and harbingers of war. Their image gradually
Tengu
50
Mask of Tengu
softened, however, into one of protective, if still
dangerous, spirits of the mountains and forests. Tengu
are associated with the ascetic practice known as
Shugend, and they are usually depicted in the
distinctive garb of its followers, the yamabushi.
Image
Kobayakawa Takakage debating with the tengu
of Mount Hiko, by Tsukioka Yoshitoshi. The
tengu's nose protrudes just enough to differentiate
him from an ordinary yamabushi.
The tengu in art appears in a large number of shapes, but it usually falls
somewhere between a large, monstrous bird and a wholly
anthropomorphized being, often with a red face or an unusually large
or long nose. Early depictions of tengu show them as kite-like beings
who can take a human-like form, often retaining avian wings, head or
beak. The tengu's long nose seems to have been conceived in the 14th
century, likely as a humanization of the original bird's bill.
[1]
The
tengu's long noses ally them with the Shinto deity Sarutahiko, who is
described in the Japanese historical text, the Nihon Shoki, with a
similar proboscis measuring seven hand-spans in length.
[2]
In village
festivals the two figures are often portrayed with identical red,
phallic-nosed mask designs.
[3]
Some of the earliest representations of tengu appear in Japanese picture
scrolls, such as the Tenguzshi Emaki ( , -
Help:Installing Japanese character sets), painted c. 1296, which
parodies high-ranking priests by endowing them the hawk-like beaks
of tengu demons.
[4]
Tengu are often pictured as taking the shape of
some sort of priest. Beginning in the 13th century, tengu came to be
associated in particular with the yamabushi, the mountain ascetics who
practice Shugend.
[5]
The association soon found its way into Japanese
art, where tengu are most frequently depicted in the yamabushi's
distinctive costume, which includes a small black cap (. / tokinHelp:Installing Japanese character sets) and a
pom-pommed sash (0 1 2 yuigesaHelp:Installing Japanese character sets).
[6]
Due to their priestly aesthetic, they
are often shown wielding the Shakujo, a distinct staff used by Buddhist monks.
Tengu are commonly depicted holding magical ha-uchiwa (3 4 5 "feather fan"Help:Installing Japanese character
sets), fans made of feathers. In folk tales, these fans sometimes have the ability to grow or shrink a person's nose, but
usually they are attributed the power to stir up great winds. Various other strange accessories may be associated with
tengu, such as a type of tall, one-toothed geta sandal often called tengu-geta.
[7]
Tengu
51
Origins
Tengu as a kite-like monster, from Toriyama
Sekien's Gazu Hyakki Yak
The term tengu and the characters used to write it are borrowed from
the name of a fierce demon from Chinese folklore called tingo.
Chinese literature assigns this creature a variety of descriptions, but
most often it is a fierce and anthropophagous canine monster that
resembles a shooting star or comet. It makes a noise like thunder and
brings war wherever it falls. One account from the Sh Y J (6
, "A Collection of Bizarre Stories"), written in 1791, describes a
dog-like tingo with a sharp beak and an upright posture, but usually
tingo bear little resemblance to their Japanese counterparts.
[8]
The 23rd chapter of the Nihon Shoki, written in 720, is generally held
to contain the first recorded mention of tengu in Japan. In this account
a large shooting star appears and is identified by a Buddhist priest as a
"heavenly dog", and much like the tingo of China, the star precedes
a military uprising. Although the Chinese characters for tengu are used
in the text, accompanying phonetic furigana characters give the reading
as amatsukitsune (heavenly fox). M.W. de Visser speculated that the
early Japanese tengu may represent a conglomeration of two Chinese
spirits: the tingo and the fox spirits called huli jing.
[9]
How the tengu was transformed from a dog-meteor into a bird-man is not clear. Some Japanese scholars have
supported the theory that the tengu's image derives from that of the Hindu eagle deity Garuda, who was pluralized in
Buddhist scripture as one of the major races of non-human beings. Like the tengu, the garuda are often portrayed in
a human-like form with wings and a bird's beak. The name tengu seems to be written in place of that of the garuda in
a Japanese sutra called the Emmy Jiz-ky (7 8 9 :), but this was likely written in the Edo period, long after
the tengu's image was established. At least one early story in the Konjaku Monogatari describes a tengu carrying off
a dragon, which is reminiscent of the garuda's feud with the nga serpents. In other respects, however, the tengu's
original behavior differs markedly from that of the garuda, which is generally friendly towards Buddhism. De Visser
has speculated that the tengu may be descended from an ancient Shinto bird-demon which was syncretized with both
the garuda and the tingo when Buddhism arrived in Japan. However, he found little evidence to support this
idea.
[10]
A later version of the Kujiki, an ancient Japanese historical text, writes the name of Amanozako, a monstrous female
deity born from the god Susanoo's spat-out ferocity, with characters meaning tengu deity ( , j). The book
describes Amanozako as a raging creature capable of flight, with the body of a human, the head of a beast, a long
nose, long ears, and long teeth that can chew through swords. An 18th-century book called the Tengu Meigik (
, ; < Help:Installing Japanese character sets) suggests that this goddess may be the true predecessor of the
tengu, but the date and authenticity of the Kujiki, and of that edition in particular, remain disputed.
[11]
Tengu
52
Evil spirits and angry ghosts
Iga no Tsubone confronts the tormented spirit of
Sasaki no Kiyotaka, by Yoshitoshi. Sasaki's ghost
appears with the wings and claws of a tengu.
The Konjaku Monogatari, a collection of stories published in the late
Heian Period, contains some of the earliest tales of tengu, already
characterized as they would be for centuries to come. These tengu are
the troublesome opponents of Buddhism, who mislead the pious with
false images of the Buddha, carry off monks and drop them in remote
places, possess women in an attempt to seduce holy men, rob temples,
and endow those who worship them with unholy power. They often
disguise themselves as priests or nuns, but their true form seems to be
that of a kite.
[12]
Throughout the 12th and 13th centuries, accounts continued of tengu
attempting to cause trouble in the world. They were now established as
the ghosts of angry, vain, or heretical priests who had fallen on the
"tengu-realm" ( , =, tengud). They began to possess people,
especially women and girls, and speak through their mouths
(kitsunetsuki). Still the enemies of Buddhism, the demons also turned
their attention to the royal family. The Kojidan tells of an Empress who
was possessed, and the kagami reports that Emperor Sanj was made
blind by a tengu, the ghost of a priest who resented the throne.
[13]
One notorious tengu from the 12th century was himself the ghost of an
emperor. The Hgen Monogatari tells the story of Emperor Sutoku, who was forced by his father to abandon the
throne. When he later raised the Hgen Rebellion to take back the country from Emperor Go-Shirakawa, he was
defeated and exiled to Sanuki Province on Shikoku. According to legend he died in torment, having sworn to haunt
the nation of Japan as a great demon, and thus became a fearsome tengu with long nails and eyes like a kite's.
[14]
In stories from the 13th century, tengu began to abduct young boys as well as the priests they had always targeted.
The boys were often returned, while the priests would be found tied to the tops of trees or other high places. All of
the tengu's victims, however, would come back in a state of near death or madness, sometimes after having been
tricked into eating animal dung.
The tengu of this period were often conceived of as the ghosts of the arrogant, and as a result the creatures have
become strongly associated with vanity and pride. Today the Japanese expression tengu ni naru, literally, "becoming
a tengu", is still used to describe a conceited person.
[15]
Great and small demons
In the Genpei Jsuiki, written in the late Kamakura period, a god appears to Go-Shirakawa and gives a detailed
account of tengu ghosts. He says that they fall onto the tengu road because, as Buddhists, they cannot go to Hell, yet
as people with bad principles, they also cannot go to Heaven. He describes the appearance of different types of
tengu: the ghosts of priests, nuns, ordinary men, and ordinary women, all of whom in life possessed excessive pride.
The god introduces the notion that not all tengu are equal; knowledgeable men become daitengu (# ,, great
tenguHelp:Installing Japanese character sets), but ignorant ones become kotengu ( ,, small
tenguHelp:Installing Japanese character sets).
[16]
The philosopher Hayashi Razan lists the greatest of these daitengu as Sjb of Kurama, Tarb of Atago, and
Jirb of Hira.
[17]
The demons of Kurama and Atago are among the most famous tengu.
Tengu
53
Crow Tengu, late Edo period (28x25x58cm)
Akiba Sanjakub Daigongen near the portal of
the Hase-Temple (Hasedera), Nara Prefecture
A section of the Tengu Meigik, later quoted by Inoue Enry, lists the
daitengu in this order:
Sjb ( > ?Help:Installing Japanese character sets) of Mount
Kurama
Tarb ( ?Help:Installing Japanese character sets) of Mount
Atago
Jirb (y ?Help:Installing Japanese character sets) of the
Hira Mountains
Sanjakub ( @ ?Help:Installing Japanese character sets) of
Mount Akiba
Ryhb (AB ?Help:Installing Japanese character sets) of
Mount Kmy
Buzenb (C ?Help:Installing Japanese character sets) of
Mount Hiko
Hkib (D E ?Help:Installing Japanese character sets) of
Daisen (mountain)
Mygib (F< ?Help:Installing Japanese character sets) of
Mount Ueno (Ueno Park)
Sankib ( ?Help:Installing Japanese character sets) of
Itsukushima
Zenkib ( ?Help:Installing Japanese character sets) of
Mount mine
Ktenb ( ?Help:Installing Japanese character sets) of
Katsuragi
Tsukuba-hin ( S Help:Installing Japanese character sets)
of Hitachi Province
Daranib (G H ?Help:Installing Japanese character sets) of
Mount Fuji
Naigubu (I JHelp:Installing Japanese character sets) of
Mount Takao
Sagamib (K L ?Help:Installing Japanese character sets) of
Shiramine
Sabur ( Help:Installing Japanese character sets) of Mount
Iizuna
Ajari (M N OHelp:Installing Japanese character sets) of Higo
Province
[18]
Daitengu are often pictured in a more human-like form than their underlings, and due to their long noses, they may
also called hanatakatengu (P ,, tall-nosed tenguHelp:Installing Japanese character sets). Kotengu may
conversely be depicted as more bird-like. They are sometimes called Karasu-Tengu (Q ,, crow
tenguHelp:Installing Japanese character sets), or koppa- or konoha-tengu ( R ,, R ,foliage
tenguHelp:Installing Japanese character sets).
[19]
Inoue Enry described two kinds of tengu in his Tenguron: the
great daitengu, and the small, bird-like konoha-tengu who live in Cryptomeria trees. The konoha-tengu are noted in
a book from 1746 called the Shokoku Rijin Dan ( G Help:Installing Japanese character sets), as
bird-like creatures with wings two meters across which were seen catching fish in the i River, but this name rarely
appears in literature otherwise.
[20]
Tengu
54
Creatures that do not fit the classic bird or yamabushi image are sometimes called tengu. For example, tengu in the
guise of wood-spirits may be called guhin (occasionally written kuhin) (, S dog guestsHelp:Installing Japanese
character sets), but this word can also refer to tengu with canine mouths or other features. The people of Kchi
Prefecture on Shikoku believe in a creature called shibaten or shibatengu () T p, U ,, lawn
tenguHelp:Installing Japanese character sets), but this is a small childlike being who loves sum wrestling and
sometimes dwells in the water, and is generally considered one of the many kinds of kappa.
[21]
Another
water-dwelling tengu is the kawatengu ( ,, river tenguHelp:Installing Japanese character sets) of the Greater
Tokyo Area. This creature is rarely seen, but it is believed to create strange fireballs and be a nuisance to
fishermen.
[22]
Protective spirits and deities
A tengu mikoshi (portable shrine) in the city of
Beppu, ita Prefecture, on Kysh.
The Shasekish, a book of Buddhist parables from the Kamakura
period, makes a point of distinguishing between good and bad tengu.
The book explains that the former are in command of the latter and are
the protectors, not opponents, of Buddhism - although the flaw of pride
or ambition has caused them to fall onto the demon road, they remain
the same basically good, dharma-abiding persons they were in life.
[23]
The tengu's unpleasant image continued to erode in the 17th century.
Some stories now presented them as much less malicious, protecting
and blessing Buddhist institutions rather than menacing them or setting
them on fire. According to a legend in the 18th-century Kaidan
Toshiotoko ( V W XHelp:Installing Japanese character sets),
a tengu took the form of a yamabushi and faithfully served the abbot of
a Zen monastery until the man guessed his attendant's true form. The
tengu's wings and huge nose then reappeared. The tengu requested a
piece of wisdom from his master and left, but he continued, unseen, to
provide the monastery with miraculous aid.
[24]
Tengu
55
A Yamabushi Tengu ( Y
,Help:Installing Japanese character
sets)
In the 18th and 19th centuries, tengu came to be feared as the vigilant protectors
of certain forests. In the 1764 collection of strange stories Sanshu Kidan (
Help:Installing Japanese character sets), a tale tells of a man who wanders
into a deep valley while gathering leaves, only to be faced with a sudden and
ferocious hailstorm. A group of peasants later tell him that he was in the valley
where the guhin live, and anyone who takes a single leaf from that place will
surely die. In the Szan Chomon Kish (Z Help:Installing
Japanese character sets), written in 1849, the author describes the customs of the
wood-cutters of Mino Province, who used a sort of rice cake called kuhin-mochi
to placate the tengu, who would otherwise perpetrate all sorts of mischief. In
other provinces a special kind of fish called okoze was offered to the tengu by
woodsmen and hunters, in exchange for a successful day's work.
[25]
The people
of Ishikawa Prefecture have until recently believed that the tengu loathe
mackerel, and have used this fish as a charm against kidnappings and hauntings
by the mischievous spirits.
[26]
Tengu are worshipped as beneficial kami (gods or revered spirits) in various
Japanese religious cults. For example, the tengu Sabur of Izuna is worshipped
on that mountain and various others as Izuna Gongen ([ \ ] , incarnation
of IzunaHelp:Installing Japanese character sets), one of the primary deities in the Izuna Shugen cult, which also has
ties to fox sorcery and the Dakini of Tantric Buddhism. Izuna Gongen is depicted as a beaked, winged figure with
snakes wrapped around his limbs, surrounded by a halo of flame, riding on the back of a fox and brandishing a
sword. Worshippers of tengu on other sacred mountains have adopted similar images for their deities, such as
Sanjakub ( @ ?Help:Installing Japanese character sets) or Akiba Gongen (^ R ] Help:Installing
Japanese character sets) of Akiba and Dry Gongen (= _ ] Help:Installing Japanese character sets) of Saij-ji
Temple in Odawara.
[27]
Tengu
56
In popular folk tales
The folk hero Kintar upsets a nest of
small tengu.
Tengu appear frequently in the orally-transmitted tales collected by Japanese
folklorists. As these stories are often humorous, they tend to portray tengu as
ridiculous creatures who are easily tricked or confused by humans. Some
common folk tales in which tengu appear include:
"The Tengu's Magic Cloak" ( , ! r Tengu no
KakureminoHelp:Installing Japanese character sets): A boy looks through an
ordinary piece of bamboo and pretends he can see distant places. A tengu,
overwhelmed by curiosity, offers to trade it for a magic straw cloak that
renders the wearer invisible. Having duped the tengu, the boy continues his
mischief while wearing the cloak. Another version of this story tells of an
ugly old man who tricks a tengu into giving him his magical cloak and
causes mayhem for his fellow villagers. The story ends with the tengu
regaining the coat through a game of riddle exchange and punishes the man
by turning him into a wolf.
[28]
"The Old Man's Lump Removed" (` a b Kobu-tori
JiisanHelp:Installing Japanese character sets): An old man has a lump or
tumor on his face. In the mountains he encounters a band of tengu making
merry and joins their dancing. He pleases them so much that they want him
to join them the next night, and offer a gift for him. In addition, they take the
lump off his face, thinking that he will want it back and therefore have to join
them the next night. An unpleasant neighbor, who also has a lump, hears of
the old man's good fortune and attempts to repeat it, and steal the gift. The
tengu, however, simply give him the first lump in addition to his own,
because they are disgusted by his bad dancing, and because he tried to steal
the gift.
[29]
"The Tengu's Fan" ( , 3 4 5 Tengu no HauchiwaHelp:Installing Japanese character sets) A scoundrel
obtains a tengu's magic fan, which can shrink or grow noses. He secretly uses this item to grotesquely extend the
nose of a rich man's daughter, and then shrinks it again in exchange for her hand in marriage. Later he
accidentally fans himself while he dozes, and his nose grows so long it reaches heaven, resulting in painful
misfortune for him.
[30]
"The Tengu's Gourd" ( , c d "Tengu no Hytan"Help:Installing Japanese character sets): A gambler
meets a tengu, who asks him what he is most frightened of. The gambler lies, claiming that he is terrified of gold
or mochi. The tengu answers truthfully that he is frightened of a kind of plant or some other mundane item. The
tengu, thinking he is playing a cruel trick, then causes money or rice cakes to rain down on the gambler. The
gambler is of course delighted and proceeds to scare the tengu away with the thing he fears most. The gambler
then obtains the tengu's magic gourd (or another treasured item) that was left behind.
[31]
"The Tengu, and the Woodcutter": A tengu bothers a woodcutter, showing off his supernatural abilities by
guessing everything the man is thinking. The woodcutter swings his axe, and a splinter of wood hits the tengu on
the nose. The tengu flees in terror, exclaiming that humans are dangerous creatures who can do things without
thinking about them.
[32]
Tengu
57
Tengu Around The World
The Kauai Museum in Hawaii (http:/ / www. kauaimuseum. org/ ) has an example of a tengu mask on display. The
legend for the mask states, Unpainted, carved mask of a tengu, demon, in a contemporary styleThe natural wood
grain decorates this contemporary carving of a tengu mask. It is based on a long tradition of mask carvings used in
festivals throughout Japan. The edge of the mask is stamped 1985 and it appears to be a travelers souvenir. There
are metal loops on the back sides of the mask with a heavy cord attached.
The Kauai Museums tengu mask is adult sized and could be worn using the cord that is attached. It is
curved to fit ones face, with holes for eyes, nostrils, and mouth. The mask is carved from blonde
colored wood, likely a soft-wood for ease of carving, and evidently fashioned from a single block of
wood with no evidence of gluing or splicing. It is made from a piece of wood cut from the side of a tree
where there was a limb growing out of the trunk. The vertical grain of the wood is evident, along with
typical natural discolorations in the wood. Since the mask is unpainted, the smooth sanded texture of the
wood can be seen. The direction of the grain of the wood is vertical in line with the face. The wood of
the nose is grained as you would expect a branch extending from the trunk of the tree to be, along its
rather long shaft.
The top of the mask has individual sections above the eyes that stand out from the head as heavy protruding
eyebrows. The eyebrow area is in sections and appears as a type of unibrow across the full face. There is a small
circle in the middle of each eyebrow section immediately over the eyes with vertical lines extending toward the top
of the mask. The sockets for the eyes are deep set, almond shaped, with round holes in the center through which the
wearer can see.
Tengu Mask, Kauai Museum
The nose is the most outstanding and significant feature of the mask,
extending six to eight inches and slightly curving up toward the
bulbous end. The nostril holes immediately below the shaft are
significant, with grooves above them extending several inches along
the nose and grooves below each nostril leading to a rather long but
thin upper lip that is curled in a pie crust-like wavy pattern, almost
appearing as the hint of a smile. The prominent cheekbones are almost
unnoticed in the shadow of the nose but help exaggerate the depth of
the eye sockets. The ears are flat to the head, and rather long. The teeth
are large, strong, and square, except for the incisors above and below,
which are interlocking fangs. Below the nose, the mouth is strong, the
chin short but firm, and indicates a leaders jaw set with strong determination. The mouth is filled with strong, square
teeth, and includes upper and lower incisor fangs. If decorated traditionally, the mask would be painted a shade of
red in keeping with the examples of other tengu masks. The use of hair varies among examples and can range from
carved and painted hair, to hair that is fastened to and extending from the top of the mask, to no hair at all, leaving
only the wearers hair to contribute to the persona. Facial hair can be none or any combination of carved and painted
or fastened moustache and beard. The mask from the museum shows no head or facial hair.
Tengu
58
Martial arts
Crow-Tengu (karasu-tengu) supervising a competition
with small bows. Printed in Ykyu hidensho (Secret
Tradition of the Small Bow), 1687
Ushiwaka-maru training with the tengu of Mount Kurama, by Kunitsuna Utagawa.
This subject is very common in ukiyo-e.
During the 14th century, the tengu began to
trouble the world outside of the Buddhist
clergy, and like their ominous ancestors the
tingo, the tengu became creatures
associated with war.
[33]
Legends eventually
ascribed to them great knowledge in the art
of skilled combat.
This reputation seems to have its origins in a
legend surrounding the famous warrior
Minamoto no Yoshitsune. When Yoshitsune
was a young boy going by the name of
Ushiwaka-maru, his father, Yoshitomo, was
assassinated by the Taira clan. Taira no
Kiyomori, head of the Taira, allowed the
child to survive on the grounds that he be
exiled to the temple on Mount Kurama and
become a monk. But one day in the
Sj-ga-dani Valley, Ushiwaka encountered
the mountain's tengu, Sjb. This spirit
taught the boy the art of swordsmanship so
that he might bring vengeance on the
Taira.
[34]
Originally the actions of this tengu were
portrayed as another attempt by demons to
throw the world into chaos and war, but as Yoshitsune's renown as a legendary warrior increased, his monstrous
teacher came to be depicted in a much more sympathetic and honorable light. In one of the most famous renditions
of the story, the Noh play Kurama Tengu, Ushiwaka is the only person from his temple who does not give up an
outing in disgust at the sight of a strange yamabushi. Sjb thus befriends the boy and teaches him out of sympathy
for his plight.
[35]
Two stories from the 19th century continue this theme: In the Szan Chomon Kish, a boy is carried off by a tengu
and spends three years with the creature. He comes home with a magic gun that never misses a shot. A story from
Inaba Province, related
Tengu
59
Japan's regent Hj Tokimune, who showed down the
Mongols, fights off tengu
by Inoue Enry, tells of a girl with poor manual dexterity who is
suddenly possessed by a tengu. The spirit wishes to rekindle the
declining art of swordsmanship in the world. Soon a young
samurai appears to whom the tengu has appeared in a dream, and
the possessed girl instructs him as an expert swordsman.
[36]
Some
rumors surrounding the ninja indicate that they were also
instructed by the tengu.
Modern fiction
Profoundly entrenched in the Japanese imagination for centuries,
tengu continue to be popular subjects in modern fiction, both in
Japan and increasingly in other countries. They often appear
among the many characters and creatures featured in Japanese
cinema, animation, comics, and video games.
One of the most famous modern fictional Tengu is the Tengu named Haruka, from the Japanese animation/manga
comic Tactics. Haruka takes the form of a tall young man with crow-like wings and an unusually large nose for a
manga.
Within the storyline for Garoyles-Bad Guys, the only published comic book spinoff of the Disney Gargoyles TV
series so far, the gargoyles of Japan as with the Ishimura Clan, a larger clan than Goliath's Manhattan Clan are
universally called "tengu" in Japan.
In the 2009 movie RoboGeisha the higher-ranking Geisha soldiers are called "Tengun" and wear red long-nosed
masks modeled after the human form of the tengu. "Tengu Milk" is one of their attacks.
In the 2009 video game Mini Ninjas Tengu appear as friendly Non-player characters.
In Ninja Sentai Kakuranger, Mighty Morphin Power Rangers: The Movie, Mighty Morphin Power Rangers season 3,
and Mighty Morphin Alien Rangers, the Tengu appears as a monster of the day/week (Kakuranger and Alien
Rangers "adapted into Professor Longnose"), a queen Tengu monster which was a cut monster from the movie but
appears in its Game Boy adaption as a boss, and as minions in the movie, season 3 of MMPR & the 10 episode Alien
Ranger arc. In the movie, they are called the "Tengu Warriors". The suits for the Tengu Warriors are reused in the
show and called the "Tenga Warriors". A Tengu-like monster known as Hit Tengu appears as a monster of the day in
an episode of Tensou Sentai Goseiger (known as No-Joke in its American adaptation Power Rangers Megaforce).
In the series Urusei Yatsura, one of Lum's many rivals for Ataru's affection was the princess of Tengu, Kurama.
In the Pokmon series, there is an evolutionary family based on the Tengu: Seedot, Nuzleaf and Shiftry; they are
known for cruel pranks and long noses.
Digimon has its own version of Karasu-tengu, which is the Karatenmon.
In the anime Shinzo, the Bird Enterran named Lord Caris has a Tengu-like appearance.
In the manga/anime One Piece, Usopp has a Tengu-like appearance. He is known for his trickery and using plants as
weapons.
Tengu
60
Graham Masterton's horror novel Tengu tells of a conspiracy by a secret Japanese society to avenge the American
bombing of Hiroshima by producing invincible warriors possessed by the Tengu. It includes details of some of the
mythology and rituals surrounding the Tengu. This novel in turn inspired the Necromantia song 'Circle of Burned
Doves'.
Many video games reference Tengu in some way. It has been a creature long-found in NetHack and Angband (which
is primarily based on the works of J. R. R. Tolkien, but has borrowed creatures from many different genres). In the
game it is an evil demon capable of teleporting itself next to your character or teleporting your character next to it. It
is also found as a playable bird-like race in Dungeon Crawl Stone Soup.
In Super Mario Bros. 2, there is an enemy named Tweeter based on a Tengu.
An enemy based after the Tengu can be found in the 2006 game Okami. However this version is actually a bird or
similar creature, which sports the Tengu-based mask.
The games Mega Man 8 and Mega Man and Bass also feature the boss character Tengu Man as one of Dr. Wily's
creations. He is a very cocky and overconfident Robot Master, wielding the Tornado Hold (Mega Man 8) and the
Tengu Blade (Mega Man and Bass). His appearance is based on the traditional red-faced mask with a long nose.
Dan Hibiki's father, Gou Hibiki in the Street Fighter series is red faced and has a long nose.
Also, in the SNES game EarthBound, there is an enemy called Tangoo, named Sir Tengu in Japan. Gekikro is the
monsters which based on Tengu from the Spectrobes series.
In Eve Online, the Tengu is the name of the Caldari strategic cruiser, and in Metal Gear Solid 2: Sons of Liberty, in
the Plant chapter of Arsenal Gear, you fight soldiers called "Tengus".
In the djin soft game series Touhou Project, Inubashiri Momiji, Himekaidou Hatate, and Shameimaru Aya are
stated to be tengu, although with their cute appearances and lack of typical Tengu features (such as long noses), they
are primarily based on mythical tengu in behavior and function. Notably, while Hatate and Aya are crow based
Tengu, Momiji is a "wolf" tengu, possibly referencing the canine (Tiangou) name source.
In SNK vs. Capcom: SVC Chaos, the boss character "Serious Mr. Karate" wears a Tengu mask. This is a reference to
the final boss in the original Art of Fighting, Mr. Karate (real name Takuma Sakazaki), who wore the Tengu mask.
In Red Alert 3 and Red Alert 3 Uprising, there is a unit called Mecha Tengu, an anti-infantry mech the can transform
into an interceptor aircraft.
In Dead or Alive 2 the final boss is a Tengu. The Tengu is an unlockable character in Dead or Alive 4.
In the Japanese version of the video game, Zombie Nation, the player character is a giant levitating Tengu mask.
A Tengu also appeared on the TV series Randy Cunningham: 9th Grade Ninja in the episode "Evil Spirit Week".
Madara Uchiha's complete Susanno, from Naruto Shippuden, resembles a tengu
In the Manga Black Bird by Sakurakouji Kanoko, the main character lover is the clan leader of Tengu
In the Manga Rosario+Vampire, the character Haiji Miyamoto's true form is that of a Crow-Tengu.
In the anime, Nurarihyon No Mago, the character Karasu-Tengu and his children are loyal members of the Nura
Clan. They would fly and alert the leaders of any danger. Karasu-Tengu and his children are crow tengus, as thus
their name, Karasu. It is also known that Karasu-Tengu is an advisor and friend to the leader of the Nura clan,
Nurarihyon.
In the game Ragnarok, a monster called Tengu.
[37]
Paizo's role-playing game, Pathfinder,
[38]
and Wizards of the Coast's RPG, Dungeons and Dragons 3.5 edition,
[39]
have a race, Tengu.
Tengu
61
Notes
Utagawa Kuniyoshi, Elephant
catching a flying tengu
[1] de Visser, pp. 61. The kite referred to here is tobi or tonbi (e), the Japanese black-eared kite
(Milvus migrans lineatus).
[2] Encyclopedia of Shinto:Sarutahiko (http:/ / eos.kokugakuin. ac. jp/ modules/ xwords/ entry.
php?entryID=137)
[3] Moriarty p. 109. See also: Japanese language blog post on tengu and Sarutahiko (http:/ / blog.
hix05.com/ blog/ 2006/ 11/ post_35.html).
[4] Fister p. 105. See images from this scroll here (http:/ / www. nezu-muse. or. jp/ syuuzou/ kaiga/
10363.1.html) and here (http:/ / www. nezu-muse.or.jp/ syuuzou/ kaiga/ 10363. 2. html).
[5] [5] de Visser, pp. 55-57.
[6] Fister, p. 103. For images of the yamabushi's costume look here (http:/ / www. d6. dion. ne. jp/
~zenkou/ yamabusi/ yamabusi.htm).
[7] [7] Mizuki 2001, p. 122.
[8] [8] de Visser, pp. 27-30.
[9] [9] de Visser, pp. 34-35.
[10] [10] de Visser, pp. 87-90.
[11] [11] de Visser, pp. 43-44; Mizuki, Mujara 4, p.7.
[12] [12] de Visser, pp. 38-43.
[13] de Visser, pp. 45-47. This tengu-ghost eventually appeared and admitted to riding on the
emperor's back with his wings clasped over the man's eyes.
[14] [14] de Visser, pp. 48-49.
[15] [15] Mizuki 2001.
[16] [16] de Visser, pp. 51-53.
[17] [17] de Visser, pp. 71.
[18] de Visser, p. 82; most kanji and some name corrections retrieved from here (http:/ / www1.
bbweb-arena. com/ baron/ tengu.html).
[19] [19] Mizuki 2001
[20] de Visser, p. 84; Mizuki 2003, p. 70. The term konoha-tengu is often mentioned in English texts
as a synonym for daitengu, but this appears to be a widely-repeated mistake which is not
corroborated by Japanese-language sources.
[21] [21] Mizuki, Mujara 4, p. 94
[22] Mizuki, Mujara 1, p. 38; [[Kaii-Ykai Densh Database (http:/ / www. nichibun. ac. jp/ cgi-bin/
YoukaiDB/ kwaiiList. cgi?Name=$B%+ %o%F%s%0(B& Pref=& Area=)]: Kawatengu]
[23] [23] de Visser, pp. 58-60.
[24] [24] de Visser, pp. 72-76.
[25] de Visser, pp. 76-79. The okoze fish is known to science as Anema inerme, the mottled stargazer.
[26] [26] Folklore texts cited in the Kaii*Ykai Densh Database:
Ueda Eikichi, 1937: (http:/ / www. nichibun.ac.jp/ YoukaiCard/ 0510001. shtml), (http:/ / www. nichibun. ac. jp/ YoukaiCard/ 0510002.
shtml)
Ogura Manabu, 1972: (http:/ / www.nichibun. ac.jp/ YoukaiCard/ 2470027. shtml), (http:/ / www. nichibun. ac. jp/ YoukaiCard/
2470011. shtml)
Ch Daigaku Minzoku Kenkykai (Chuo University Folklore Research Society), 1986: (http:/ / www. nichibun. ac. jp/ YoukaiCard/
1070360. shtml)
[27] de Visser (Fox and Badger) p. 107109. See also: Encyclopedia of Shinto: Izuna Gongen (http:/ / eos. kokugakuin. ac. jp/ modules/ xwords/
entry. php?entryID=193) and Encyclopedia of Shinto: Akiha Shink (http:/ / eos. kokugakuin. ac. jp/ modules/ xwords/ entry.
php?entryID=762), and Saijoji, a.k.a. Doryo-son (http:/ / www. asahi-net. or. jp/ ~qm9t-kndu/ saijoji. htm).
[28] Seki p. 170. Online version here (http:/ / web-japan.org/ kidsweb/ folk/ tengu/ tengu. html).
[29] Seki p. 128-129. Online version here (http:/ / homepage2. nifty. com/ p-sona/ english/ kagawa-E. html). Oni often take the place of the tengu
in this story.
[30] Seki p. 171. A version of this story has been popularized in English as "The Badger and the Magic Fan".( ISBN 0-399-21945-5 (http:/ / en.
wikipedia. org/ w/ index.php?title=Special:Booksources& isbn=0399219455))
[31] Seki p. 172. Online version here (http:/ / www.geocities. co. jp/ HeartLand-Gaien/ 7211/ kudos8/ tengu. html).
[32] Seki p. 54. This story often involves other mountain spirits, such as the yama-uba. A version specifically involving a tengu is recorded in
Japanese here (http:/ / www. nichibun. ac.jp/ YoukaiCard/ 0950002. shtml).
[33] [33] de Visser, pp. 67.
[34] [34] de Visser, pp. 47-48.
Tengu
62
[35] Outlined in Japanese here (http:/ / www. noh-kyogen. com/ story/ ka/ kuramatengu. html). For another example see the picture scroll Tengu
no Dairi here (http:/ / dbs.humi. keio.ac. jp/ naraehon/ ehon/ index2-e. asp?ID=KL044& FRAME=False), in which the tengu of Mount
Kurama is working with a Buddha (who was once Yoshitsune's father) to overthrow the Taira clan. This indicates that the tengu is now
involved in a righteous cause rather than an act of wickedness.
[36] [36] de Visser, p. 79.
[37] http:/ / ratemyserver. net/ index.php?page=mob_db& mob_id=1405
[38] http:/ / paizo. com/ pathfinderRPG/ prd/ advancedRaceGuide/ featuredRaces/ tengus. html#_tengu
[39] http:/ / www.dandwiki. com/ wiki/ Tengu_(3.5e_Race)
References
Primary sources
de Visser, M. W. (1908). "The Tengu". Transactions of the Asiatic Society of Japan (Z. P. Maruya & Co.) 34 (2):
2599.
Fister, Pat (1985). "Tengu, the Mountain Goblin". In Stephen Addiss. Japanese Ghosts and Demons. New York:
George Braziller, Inc. pp.103112. ISBN0-8076-1126-3.
Mizuki, Shigeru (2001). Mizuki Shigeru No Nihon Ykai Meguri. Japan: JTB. pp.122123. ISBN4-533-03956-1.
Seki, Keigo (1966). "Types of Japanese Folktales". Asian Folklore Studies (Asian Folklore Studies, Nanzan
University.) 25: 1220. doi: 10.2307/1177478 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 2307/ 1177478). JSTOR 1177478 (http:/ /
www. jstor. org/ stable/ 1177478).
Supplementary sources
de Visser, M. W. (1908). "The Fox and the Badger in Japanese Folklore". Transactions of the Asiatic Society of
Japan (Z. P. Maruya & Co.) 36 (3): 107116.
Mizuki, Shigeru (2003). Mujara 1: Kant, Hokkaid, Okinawa-hen. Japan: Soft Garage. ISBN4-86133-004-1.
Mizuki, Shigeru (2003). Mujara 2: Chbu-hen. Japan: Soft Garage. ISBN4-86133-005-X.
Mizuki, Shigeru (2004). Mujara 4: Chgoku/Shikoku-hen. Japan: Soft Garage. ISBN4-86133-016-5.
Moriarty, Elizabeth (1972). "The Communitarian Aspect of Shinto Matsuri". Asian Folklore Studies (Asian
Folklore Studies, Nanzan University) 31 (2): 91140. doi: 10.2307/1177490 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 2307/
1177490). JSTOR 1177490 (http:/ / www. jstor. org/ stable/ 1177490).
Knutsen, Roald (2011). Tengu - The shamanic and esoteric origins of japanese martial arts. Kent: Global Oriental.
ISBN978-1-906876-22-7.
External links
The Tengu (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?vid=OCLC32862935& id=zj6GffKNYHkC& pg=RA27-PA15&
vq=tengu& dq=tengu& as_brr=1) by M. W. de Visser, courtesy of Google Books (http:/ / books. google. com).
Tengu: the Slayer of Vanity (http:/ / www. onmarkproductions. com/ html/ tengu. shtml)
Metropolis - Big in Japan: Tengu (http:/ / metropolis. co. jp/ biginjapan/ 364/ biginjapaninc. htm)
The Tengu Race in the online role-playing game Guild Wars (http:/ / wiki. guildwars. com/ wiki/ Tengu)
Tengu statues (http:/ / tonymcnicol. com/ 2008/ 11/ 06/ takao-tokyos-mystical-mountain/ )
Mount Takao, a Tengu's living place in Tokyo (http:/ / cooljapanonline. com/ tokyo_stories/ 06-takao/ )
Ykai
63
Ykai
Part of the series on
Japanese
mythology and
folklore
Mythic texts and folktales
Kojiki
Nihon Shoki
Fudoki
Kujiki
Kogo Shi
Nihon Ryiki
Otogizshi
Oiwa
Okiku
Urashima Tar
Konjaku Monogatari
Divinities
Izanami
Izanagi
Amaterasu
Susanoo
Ame-no-Uzume
Inari
Kami
Seven Lucky Gods
List of divinities
Legendary creatures and spirits
Oni
Kappa
Tengu
Kitsune
Ykai
Dragon
Yrei
List of creatures
Legendary figures
Abe no Seimei
Benkei
Issun-bshi
Kintar
Momotar
Tamamo-no-Mae
Ykai
64
Sjb
Mythical and sacred locations
Mt. Hiei
Mt. Fuji
Izumo
Ryg-j
Takamagahara
Yomi
Jigoku
Sacred objects
Amenonuhoko
Kusanagi
Tonbogiri
Three Sacred Treasures
Shint and Buddhism
Bon Festival
Setsubun
Ema
Torii
Shinto shrines
Buddhist temples
Folklorists
Kunio Yanagita
Keigo Seki
Lafcadio Hearn
Shigeru Mizuki
Inoue Enryo
v
t
e
[1]
Ykai
65
Ukiyo-e print of ykai, by Aotoshi
Matsui
Ykai ( Help:Installing Japanese character sets, ghost, phantom, strange
apparition) are a class of supernatural monsters in Japanese folklore. The
word ykai is made up of the kanji for "bewitching; attractive; calamity" and
"apparition; mystery; suspicious".
[1]
They can also be called ayakashi
(Help:Installing Japanese character sets), mononoke (
Help:Installing Japanese character sets), or mamono ( Help:Installing
Japanese character sets). Ykai range eclectically from the malevolent to the
mischievous, or occasionally bring good fortune to those who encounter them.
Often they possess animal features (such as the Kappa, which is similar to a
turtle, or the Tengu which has wings), other times they can appear mostly
human, some look like inanimate objects and others have no discernible
shape. Ykai usually have a spiritual supernatural power, with shapeshifting
being one of the most common. Ykai that have the ability to shapeshift are
called obake.
Japanese folklorists and historians use ykai as "supernatural or
unaccountable phenomena to their informants". In the Edo period, many
artists, such as Toriyama Sekien, created ykai inspired by folklore or their
own ideas, and in the present, several ykai created by them (e.g. Kameosa
and Amikiri, see below) are wrongly considered as being of legendary origin.
Types
There are a wide variety of ykai in Japanese folklore. In general, ykai is a
broad term, and can be used to encompass virtually all monsters and
supernatural beings, even including creatures from European folklore on
occasion (e.g., the English bugbear is often included in Japanese folklore to the point that some mistakenly believe it
originates from said folklore).
Animals
Ukiyo-e print of ykai, by Kawanabe Kysai
Many indigenous Japanese animals are thought to have magical
qualities. Most of these are henge ( Help:Installing Japanese
character sets), which are shapeshifters (o-bake, bake-mono
[2]
) that
often appear in human form, mostly women. Some of the better known
animal ykai include the following:
Tanuki (raccoon dogs)
Kitsune (foxes)
Hebi (snakes)
Mujina (badgers)
Bakeneko (cats)
Tsuchigumo and jorgumo (spiders)
Inugami (dogs)
Ykai
66
Oni
One of the most well-known aspects of Japanese folklore is the oni, which is a sort of mountain-dwelling ogre,
usually depicted with red, blue, brown or black skin, two horns on its head, a wide mouth filled with fangs, and
wearing nothing but a tigerskin loincloth. It often carries an iron kanabo or a giant sword. Oni are mostly depicted as
evil, but can occasionally be the embodiment of an ambivalent natural force. They are, like many obake, associated
with the direction northeast.
Tengu
A goblin from Japanese mythology that has several supernatural powers and skills in martial arts, the tengu were
originally extremely dangerous demons and enemies of Buddhism, but over centuries, their behavior changed from
spirits of the damned to active defenders of Dharma.
Tsukumogami
Tsukumogami are an entire class of ykai and obake, comprising ordinary household items that have come to life on
the one-hundredth anniversary of their birthday. This virtually unlimited classification includes:
Bakezri (straw sandals)
Biwa-bokuboku (a lute)
Burabura (a paper lantern)
Karakasa (old umbrellas)
Kameosa (old sake jars)
Morinji-no-kama (tea kettles)
Mokumokuren (paper screens with eyes)
Human transformations
Ukiyo-e print of ykai, by Kawanabe Kysai
There are a large number of ykai who were originally ordinary human
beings, transformed into something horrific and grotesque usually
during an extremely emotional state. Women suffering from intense
jealousy, for example, were thought to transform into the female oni
represented by hannya masks. Other examples of human
transformations or humanoid ykai are:
Rokuro-kubi (humans able to elongate their necks during the night)
Ohaguro-bettari (a figure, usually female, that turns to reveal a face
with only a blackened mouth)
Futakuchi-onna (a woman with a voracious extra mouth on the back
of her head)
Dorotab (the risen corpse of a farmer, who haunts his abused land)
Other
Some ykai are extremely specific in their habits, for instance:
Azuki Arai (a ykai who is always found washing azuki beans).
Akaname (only found in dirty bathrooms and spends its time licking the filth left by the untidy owners).
Ashiarai Yashiki (A gargantuan foot that appears in rooms and demands the terrified home owner wash it)
Tofu Kozo (a small monk who carries a plate with a block of tofu).
Ykai
67
History
Ancient and middle ages
First century: there is a book from what is now China titled f with the statement "the spectre (yokai) was
in the imperial court for a long time. The king asked Tui for the reason. He answered that there was great anxiety
and he gave a recommendation to empty the imperial room" (g h U i j k l
m n n o j # p q r s), thus using " k" to mean "phenomenon that surpasses human
knowledge."
"Hyakki Yagyo Emaki" Artist unknown, Muromachi Period
Houki 8 (772): in the Shoku Nihongi,
there is the statement "shinto purification
is performed because yokai appear very
often in the imperial court, (# t
U &
)," using the word
"yokai" to mean not anything in
particular, but strange phenomena in
general.
Middle of the Heian era
(794-1185/1192): In The Pillow Book by
Sei Shnagon, there is the statement "there are tenacious mononoke ( u v w % x
)" as well as a statement by Murasaki Shikibu that "the mononoke have become quite dreadful (w%
r )," which are the first appearances of the word "mononoke."
Koubu 3 (1370): In the Taiheiki, in the fifth volume, there is the statement, "Sagami no Nyudo was not at all
frightened by yokai."
Ykai
68
Edo period
"Various Yokai Flying out of Wicker Clothes Hamper"
from the "Omoi Tsuzura" ( % y z { ),
Yoshitoshi
Tenmei 8 (1788): Publication of the Bakemono chakutocho by
Masayoshi Kitao. This was a kibyoshi diagram book of yokai,
but it was prefaced with the statement "it can be said that the
so-called yokai in our society is a representation of our feelings
that arise from fear" ( s | }
| ~ - s }
} & r %), and already in
this era, while yokai were being researched, it indicated that
there were people who questioned whether yokai really existed
or not.
It was in this era that the technology of the printing press and
publication was first started to be widely used, that a publishing
culture developed, and was frequently a subject of kibyoshi
[3]
and other publications.
As a result, kashi-hon shops that handled such books spread and
became widely used, making the general public's impression of
each yokai fixed, spreading throughout all of Japan. For
example, before the Edo period, there were plenty of
interpretations about what the yokai that were classified as
"kappa," but because of books and publishing, the notion of
"kappa" became anchored to what is now the modern notion of
kappa. Also, including other kinds of publications, other than
yokai born from folk legend, there were also many newly
created yokai that were created through puns or word plays, and the Gazu Hyakki Hagyo by Sekien Toriyama is one
example of that. Also, when the Hyakumonogatari Kaidankai became popular in the Edo period, it is thought that
one reason for the appearance of new yokai was that since there was demand for the story-tellers to tell about yokai
that were not yet known to society, there were cases where individuals simply made up new yokai, and it is known
that the kasa-obake and the tfu-koz are examples of these.
They are also frequently depicted in ukiyo-e, and there are artists that have drawn famous yokai like Utagawa
Kuniyoshi, Yoshitoshi, Kawanabe Kysai, and Katsushiga Hokusai, and there are also Hyakki Yagy books made by
artists of the Kan school.
In this period, toys and games like karuta, sugoroku, pogs frequently used yokai as characters. Thus, with the
development of a publishing culture, yokai depictions that were treasured in temples and shrines were able to
become something more familiar to people, and it is thought that this is the reason that even though yokai were
originally things to be feared, they have then became characters that people feel close to.
Ykai
69
"Shinigami"
[4]

Meiji and afterwards

With the Meiji Restoration, Western ideas and translated western
publications began to make an impact, and western tales were
particularly sought after. Things like binbogami, yakubyogami, and
shinigami were talked about, and shinigami were even depicted in
classical rakugo, and even though the shinigami were misunderstood as a
kind of Japanese yokai or kami, they actually became well-known among
the populace through a rakugo called "Shinigami" in San'ytei Ench,
which was made with reference to the Grimm fairy tale "Godfather
Death" and the Italian opera "Crispino." In this way, mysterious
phenomena became known among the Japanese populace, and while
being misunderstood as Japanese yokai, or modern "western yokai," has
had a considerable history in Japan.
At the same time, classical Japanese culture was looked down upon, and
there are examples of songs, dances, and books of legends being burned.
Scientific thinking was considered superior, while yokai and other
superstitions tended to be denounced, but from the end of the Edo period
until the Showa and Heisei periods, the publications by folkloricists of the time and the respect placed upon folklore
played an undeniable role in preventing the disappearance of Japanese folk culture.
Modern times
From modern times until the present, since yokai are introduced in various kinds of media, they have become
well-known among the old, young, men and women. The kamishibai from before the war, and the manga industry, as
well as the kashi-hon shops that continued to exist until around Showa 40 (the 1970s), as well as television
contributed to the public knowledge and familiarity with yokai. Nowadays, yokai plays a role in attracting tourism
revitalizing local regions, like the places depicted in the Tono Monogatari like Tono, Iwate, Iwate Prefecture and the
Tottori Prefecture, which is Shigeru Mizuki's place of birth. In Kyoto, there is a store called Yokaido, which is a
renovated machiya (traditional Kyoto-style house), and the owner gives a guided yokai tour of Kyoto.
In this way, Yokai are told about in legends in various forms, but traditional oral story telling by the elders and the
older people is rare, and regionally unique situations and background in oral story telling are not easily conveyed.
For example, the classical yokai represented by tsukumogami can only be felt as something realistic by living close
to nature, such as with tanuki (Japanese racoon dogs), foxes and weasels. Furthermore, in the suburbs, and other
regions, even when living in a primary-sector environment, there are tools that are no longer seen, such as the
inkstone, the kama (a large cooking pot), or the tsurube (a bucket used for getting water from a well), and there exist
yokai that are reminiscent of old lifestyles such as the azukiarai and the dorotabo. As a result, even for those born in
the first decade of the Showa period (1925-1935), except for some who were evacuated to the countryside, they
would feel that those things that become yokai are "not familiar" are "not very undersandable." For example, in
classical rakugo, even though people understand the words and what they refer to, they are not able to imagine it as
something that could be realistic. Thus, the modernization of society has had a negative effect on the place of yokai
in classical Japanese culture.
On the other hand, the yokai introduced through mass media are not limited to only those that come from classical
sources like folklore, and just like in the Edo period, new fictional yokai continuee to be invented, such as scary
school stories and other urban legends like kuchisake-onna and Hanako-san, giving birth to new yokai. From 1975
onwards, starting with the popularity of kuchisake-onna, these urban legends began to be referred to in mass media
as "modern yokai." This terminology was also used in recent publications dealing with urban legends, and the
Ykai
70
researcher on yokai, Bintar Yamaguchi, used this especially frequently.
During the 1970s, many books were published that introduced yokai through encyclopaedias, illustrated reference
books, and dictionaries as a part of children's horror books, but along with the yokai that come from classics like
folklore, kaidan, and essays, it has been pointed out by modern research that there are some mixed in that do not
come from classics, but were newly created. Some well-known examples of these are the gashadokuro and the
jubokko. For example, Arifumi Sato is known to be a creator of modern yokai, and Shigeru Mizuki, a manga artist
for yokai, in writings concerning research about yokai, pointed out that newly created yokai do exist, and Mizuki
himself, through GeGeGe no Kitaro, created about 30 new yokai. There has been much criticism that this mixing of
classical yokai with newly created yokai is making light of tradition and legends. However, since there have already
been those from the Edo period like Sekien Toriyama who created many new yokai, there is also the opinion that it is
unreasonable to criticize modern creations without doing the same for classical creations too. Furthermore, there is a
favorable view that says that introducing various yokai characters through these books nurtured creativity and
emotional development of young readers of the time.
In media
Various kinds of ykai are encountered in folklore and folklore-inspired art and literature.
Famous Works and Authors
Lafcadio Hearn's collection of Japanese ghost stories entitled Kwaidan: Stories and Studies of Strange Things
includes stories of yrei and ykai such as Yuki-onna, and is one of the first Western publications of its kind. In
Japan, ykai are particularly prevalent in manga, anime and Japanese horror. Shigeru Mizuki, the manga creator of
such series as GeGeGe no Kitaro and Kappa no Sanpei, keeps ykai in the popular imagination. Drawn and
Quarterly has published some of his works dealing with yokai such as Kitaro and NonNonBa in English. The same
goes for Shiibashi Hiroshi, the manga creator of Nurarihyon no Mago and Nurarihyon no Mago: Sennen Makyou.
Ykai have continued to be a common theme in modern works of fiction. They served as the stars in the 1960s Yokai
Monsters film series, which was loosely remade in 2005 as Takashi Miike's The Great Yokai War. They often play
major roles in Japanese fiction.
Synonyms to ykai
Instead of ykai, sometimes the word mononoke (written ) is used. It carries the meanings of "monster",
"ghost" or "spirit", and the literal meaning is "the spirit of a thing" or "strange thing".
[5]
This word is used to blame
any unexplainable event on, and both inanimate objects and spirits of humans and other creatures can be called
mononoke. Several anime have dealt with mononoke, perhaps most famously Princess Mononoke (where the
spelling of the word is simplified as % ).
Ykai
71
References
[1] Youkai Kanji (http:/ / jisho.org/ kanji/ details/ ) and Youkai Definition (http:/ / jisho. org/ words?jap=youkai& eng=& dict=edict) via
Denshi Jisho at jisho.org Retrieved 22 July 2013.
[2] [2] Kenkyusha's New Japanese-English Dictionary, ISBN 4-7674-2015-6
[3] } - p s #
%
[4] Le Petit Journal 7 j -
[5] Toyama, Ryoko: "FAQ What does 'Mononoke Hime' mean?." (http:/ / www. nausicaa. net/ miyazaki/ mh/ faq. html#translation)
Nausicaa.net. Retrieved 2012-08-16.
Further reading
Ballaster, R. (2005). Fables Of The East, Oxford University Press.
Hearn, L. (2005). Kwaidan: Stories and Studies of Strange Things, Tuttle Publishing.
Phillip, N. (2000). Annotated Myths & Legends, Covent Garden Books.
Tyler, R. (2002). Japanese Tales (Pantheon Fairy Tale & Folklore Library), Random House.
Yoda, H. and Alt, M. (2012). Yokai Attack!, Tuttle Publishing, ISBN 978-4-8053-1219-3.
Meyer, M. (2012). The Night Parade of One Hundred Demons, ISBN 978-0-9852-1840-9.
(German) Fujimoto, Nicole. " Ykai und das Spiel mit Fiktion in der edozeitlichen Bildheftliteratur (http:/ / www.
uni-hamburg. de/ oag/ noag/ noag2008_5. pdf)" ( Archive (http:/ / www. webcitation. org/ 6Kwch5p2s)).
Nachrichten der Gesellschaft fr Natur- und Vlkerkunde Ostasiens (NOAG), University of Hamburg. Volume
78, Issues 183184 (2008). p.93-104.
External links
Youkai and Kaidan (http:/ / www. k-i-a. or. jp/ kokusai/ jigyou/ english-lesson/ ts-report/ r-report. pdf) (PDF file)
The Obakemono Project (http:/ / www. obakemono. com/ )
Tales of Ghostly Japan (http:/ / www. seekjapan. jp/ article-2/ 766/ Tales+ of+ Ghostly+ Japan)
Hyakumonogatari.com (http:/ / hyakumonogatari. com/ category/ yokai-stories/ ) Translated yokai stories from
Hyakumonogatari.com
The Ooishi Hyoroku Monogatari Picture Scroll (http:/ / www. rekihaku. ac. jp/ e-rekihaku/ 106/ index. html)
Database of images of Strange Phenomena and Yokai (Monstrous Beings) (http:/ / www. nichibun. ac. jp/
graphicversion/ dbase/ yokaigazou_e. html)
Yokai.com (http:/ / yokai. com) an illustrated database of ykai and ghosts
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Tengu Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=598435035 Contributors: Alansohn, AmandaHugandkiss101, Amcaja, Anonymous from the 21st century, Antimeria, Apuglisi,
Astronautics, Augurar, Beached Oil Tanker, BobKawanaka, Buzda, CKarnstein, CambridgeBayWeather, Can't sleep, clown will eat me, Chris the speller, Ciphers, Cnilep, Codename Lisa, DTOx,
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Utcursch, Vasi uk, Voltlds, Vuvuzela2010, W Michel, Whiteguru, Wyatt915, Yajaec, Yeahsoo, Yrithinnd, Yuka Tatara, K, 234 anonymous edits
Article Sources and Contributors
73
Ykai Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=597486400 Contributors: 1945soyuz, Aeridore, Alexlange, Alsandro, Amcaja, AnY FOUR!, Andycjp, AnmaFinotera, Apostrophe,
Arctic Kangaroo, Astrubi, Beland, Billinghurst, Boffob, Boneyard90, Brain, Butsuri, Buzda, Canterbury Tail, Cattus, CayenneGaramonde, Chineks, Ciphers, Cnilep, Cold Season, Colonies Chris,
Coneill74, Coralmizu, Critical.solvent, Curb Chain, Darkmorpher, DaveJS, DocWatson42, Dorudgar, Drbreznjev, Dream of Nyx, Dshallard, Duende-Poetry, Dulcem, East718, Eequor, Elkester,
Emerl13, Emperor, Emperorbma, Encephalon, Enigma189, Ethereal Cheese, Exairetos, Excavator, Finite, Fram, Freederick, Fyrius, GSYH, Gaius Cornelius, GalanM, Ganryuu, Gene Nygaard,
GirasoleDE, Good Olfactory, Grzegorz Wysocki, HelenKMarks, Hijiri88, HorseloverFat, Ian.thomson, Ireid23, Ixfd64, J'onn J'onzz, JHunterJ, Jack Carrington, Jecowa, JeffyJeffyMan2004,
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Turlington, Tyciol, Unknown Dragon, Urutapu, WhisperToMe, Wik, WikiMan225, Xanzzibar, Yas, Zahakiel, Zahid Abdassabur, , 277 anonymous edits
Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors
74
Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors
file:Archeria_BW.jpg Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Archeria_BW.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported Contributors: Nobu Tamura
(http://spinops.blogspot.com)
Image:Archeria2DB.jpg Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Archeria2DB.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Contributors: Creator:Dmitry Bogdanov
File:Buson Bakeneko.jpg Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Buson_Bakeneko.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Yosa Buson ( , Japanese, *1716,
1784))
File:Kuniyoshi Ume no haru gojusantsugi.jpg Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Kuniyoshi_Ume_no_haru_gojusantsugi.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors:
Utagawa Kuniyoshi ( K, Japanese, *1798, 1861)
File:Sozan Bakeneko.jpg Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Sozan_Bakeneko.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Miyoshi Shzan ( Z , Japansese,
1850)
File:odoribaeki.jpg Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Odoribaeki.jpg License: GNU Free Documentation License Contributors: ja:user: ~
File:Yokohama subway-Odoriba-monument.JPG Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Yokohama_subway-Odoriba-monument.JPG License: unknown Contributors:
Niyute
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File:Biwa plectra.jpg Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Biwa_plectra.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Obakedake. Original uploader was Obakedake at
en.wikipedia
file:CarpolestesCL.png Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:CarpolestesCL.png License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0 Contributors: Sisyphos23
file:Giant-beaver-fieldmuseum.jpg Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Giant-beaver-fieldmuseum.jpg License: GNU Free Documentation License Contributors:
User:Southpaw, User:Stevenj
File:Castoroides Knight.jpg Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Castoroides_Knight.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Charles R. Knight
File:Giant beaver (cast) - Indiana State Museum - DSC00401.JPG Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Giant_beaver_(cast)_-_Indiana_State_Museum_-_DSC00401.JPG
License: Public Domain Contributors: Daderot
File:Skeleton of Castoroides ohioensis.jpg Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Skeleton_of_Castoroides_ohioensis.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike
3.0 Contributors: User:Momotarou2012
Image:SekienJorogumo.jpg Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:SekienJorogumo.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Kotengu, Osarusan, Tobosha, Trelio
file:Josephoartigasia BW.jpg Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Josephoartigasia_BW.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Contributors: Nobu Tamura
File:Red Pencil Icon.png Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Red_Pencil_Icon.png License: Creative Commons Zero Contributors: User:Peter coxhead
File:Josephoartigasia monesi.jpg Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Josephoartigasia_monesi.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.5 Contributors:
Andres Rinderknecht & Ernesto Blanco
Image:Amaterasu_cave_wide.jpg Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Amaterasu_cave_wide.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Amcaja, Editor at Large,
Gryffindor, Melanom, OceanSound, 2 anonymous edits
File:Prince Hanzoku terrorised by a nine- tailed fox.jpg Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Prince_Hanzoku_terrorised_by_a_nine-_tailed_fox.jpg License: Public
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File:Speaker Icon.svg Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Speaker_Icon.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: Blast, G.Hagedorn, Jianhui67, Mobius, Tehdog, 3
anonymous edits
File:NineTailsFox.JPG Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:NineTailsFox.JPG License: Public Domain Contributors: Finavon, Guss, Jbarta, Kintetsubuffalo, Miuki, Nyo,
Popolon, Vmenkov, Wheeke, William Avery
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Association
File:Fox0290.jpg Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Fox0290.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Fg2
File:Obake Karuta 3-01.jpg Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Obake_Karuta_3-01.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Amcaja, Binabik155, MikeDockery, Nnh,
Tobosha
File:Bertha Boynton Lum, Fox women, 1908.jpg Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Bertha_Boynton_Lum,_Fox_women,_1908.jpg License: unknown Contributors:
User:trialsanderrors
File:Blacksmith Munechika, helped by a fox spirit, forging the blade Ko-Gitsune Maru, by Ogata Gekk.jpg Source:
https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Blacksmith_Munechika,_helped_by_a_fox_spirit,_forging_the_blade_Ko-Gitsune_Maru,_by_Ogata_Gekk.jpg License: Public Domain
Contributors: Rama Ogata Gekk (1859-1920)
File:Hiroshige-100-views-of-edo-fox-fires.jpg Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Hiroshige-100-views-of-edo-fox-fires.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Bamse,
Dan8700, Gwern, Hsarrazin, Racconish, Shakko, Tak1701d, Tenmei, Tokorokoko, 2 anonymous edits
File:A man confronted with an apparition of the Fox goddess.jpg Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:A_man_confronted_with_an_apparition_of_the_Fox_goddess.jpg
License: Public Domain Contributors: Amcaja, Petrusbarbygere, Red devil 666, $
File:Fushimi Inari mini torii.jpg Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Fushimi_Inari_mini_torii.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution 2.0 Contributors: Dodo,
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File:Tamamo-no-mae-woodblock.jpg Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Tamamo-no-mae-woodblock.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Taichi, 1 anonymous
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File:Kuniyoshi Kuzunoha.jpg Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Kuniyoshi_Kuzunoha.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Amcaja, Catfisheye, Jnn, OceanSound,
WTCA, 1 anonymous edits
File:Suuhi Nekomata.jpg Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Suuhi_Nekomata.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Sawaki Suushi ( h, Japanase, *1707,
1772)
File:Tonoigusa Nekomata.jpg Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Tonoigusa_Nekomata.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Ogita Ansei ( , Japanese)
File:SekienNekomata.jpg Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:SekienNekomata.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Kintetsubuffalo, Kotengu, Osarusan, Ras67,
Senator2029, Tobosha, Trelio
File:Oni in pilgrim's clothing.jpg Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Oni_in_pilgrim's_clothing.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Amcaja, Binabik155,
Catfisheye, OceanSound, Wst, 1 anonymous edits
File:SekienOni.jpg Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:SekienOni.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Toriyama Sekien ( , Japanese, *1712, 1788)
File:Oni.jpg Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Oni.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Amcaja, Worldantiques, 1 anonymous edits
Image:KyosaiTenguBonze.jpg Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:KyosaiTenguBonze.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Kareha, Kintetsubuffalo, Kotengu
Image: , PB060289.jpg Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File: , PB060289.jpg License: Creative Commons
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Image:Yoshitoshi Kobayakawa Takakage.jpg Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Yoshitoshi_Kobayakawa_Takakage.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Amcaja,
Jnn, Lx 121
Image:SekienTengu.jpg Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:SekienTengu.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Ashiaraiyashiki, Bensin, Kotengu, Osarusan, Ras67,
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Image:Yoshitoshi Mount Yoshino Midnight Moon.jpg Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Yoshitoshi_Mount_Yoshino_Midnight_Moon.jpg License: Public Domain
Contributors: Amcaja, BrokenSphere, Catfisheye, Longhairadmirer, 1 anonymous edits
Image:Karasu-Tengu-Statue.jpg Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Karasu-Tengu-Statue.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Contributors: WolfgangMichel
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Image:Sanjakubo-Hasedera-Japan.jpg Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Sanjakubo-Hasedera-Japan.jpg License: Creative Commons Zero Contributors:
WolfgangMichel
Image:Tengu shrine in Beppu.JPG Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Tengu_shrine_in_Beppu.JPG License: GNU Free Documentation License Contributors: Amcaja
Image:Tengu.jpg Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Tengu.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.5 Contributors: Hamasaki gion higashi, Patstuart,
Sakuradojo, Xesco
Image:KunimaruKintaroTengu.jpg Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:KunimaruKintaroTengu.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Utagawa Kunimaru (
)
File:Tengu Hawaii July 2012.JPG Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Tengu_Hawaii_July_2012.JPG License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0
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Image:Yokyuhidensho-1687.jpg Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Yokyuhidensho-1687.jpg License: Creative Commons Zero Contributors: WolfgangMichel
Image:KunitsunaTengu.jpg Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:KunitsunaTengu.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Hamasaki gion higashi, Kotengu, Lx 121
Image:YoshitoshiTakatokiTengu.jpg Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:YoshitoshiTakatokiTengu.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Kotengu
Image:Elephant catching a flying tengu.jpg Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Elephant_catching_a_flying_tengu.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Amcaja,
JMCC1, Petrusbarbygere, Shakko
File:yokai3.jpg Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Yokai3.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Infrogmation, Nikkimaria
File:Kyosai, Yokai image.jpg Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Kyosai,_Yokai_image.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Amcaja, Kareha
File:Kyosai, Yokai image 2.jpg Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Kyosai,_Yokai_image_2.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Amcaja, Kareha
File:Hyakki-Yagyo-Emaki Tsukumogami 1.jpg Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Hyakki-Yagyo-Emaki_Tsukumogami_1.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors:
Magicgarden, 2 anonymous edits
File:Yoshitoshi The Heavy Basket.jpg Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Yoshitoshi_The_Heavy_Basket.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Amcaja, Jnn
File:Cholera.jpg Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Cholera.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Bohme, DL5MDA, Folcrum, Kramer Associates, Monaneko, Pmx,
Shyam, Wolfmann, 4 anonymous edits
License
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License
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