UNIVERSE IN A NUTSHELL

Institute Elective
Course Code : ES490
An Introduction to
Modern Astrophysics,
Carroll & Ostlie
Fundamental
Astronomy
Karttunen et al.
Reference Books
Astrophysics for
Physicists
Arnab Rai Choudhuri
and/or any other introductory book on astronomy.
Module 4 : Formation of Stars
An HST image of the spiral galaxy NGC 3079
The previous slide is a Hubble Space Telescope (HST) image of a spiral
galaxy in the nearby universe. Our Galaxy might look something like this if
we could take an image of it from outside. In addition to the bright knots of
light in that galaxy, which correspond to stars and star clusters, one can
also see diffuse material spread throughout the disk of the galaxy. In all
galaxies, there is matter present in the space between stars. This matter is
called interstellar medium (ISM).
The ISM in our own Galaxy accounts for ~ 15% of the total visible mass in
the Galaxy. More than 95 % of the total mass of the ISM is in the form of
gas whose primary composition is hydrogen and helium with trace amounts
of heavier elements. The remaining 5% of mass is in the form of dust.
The ISM in our Galaxy (and in other galaxies) exist as a mix of different
densities and temperatures. These are called the phases of the ISM. A phase
refers to a volume of gas at a certain density and temperature. The next two
slides describe these ISM phases.
Different Phases of the ISM
Interstellar Medium in our Galaxy
This composite image is a view of the central 50 pc (~150 light years) of the Galactic center. It
shows the different phases of the ISM in this region of space. The ionized phase of the ISM is
traced in yellow and corresponds to Paschen-alpha emission as seen by the Hubble
Space Telescope, the hot (10
5
10
6
K) plasma traced in the X-ray by the Chandra X-ray
Observatory is shown as the diffuse blue glow and the thermal radiation from warm dust heated by
the radiation from stars is detected in the mid-IR wavelengths by the Spitzer Space Telescope.
Molecular Clouds as Sites of Star Formation
The densest regions of the ISM have particle number densities of
~ 100 - 500 atoms cm
-3
and temperatures of ~ 10 30 K. These
dense regions at very low temperatures are called molecular
clouds. Molecular clouds are giant structures with typical sizes of
50 pc and masses of 10
5
M

. They are called molecular clouds,

because their low temperatures allow hydrogen atoms to pair up to
form hydrogen molecules (H
2
). The relatively rare atoms of
elements heavier than helium can also form molecules, such as CO,
NH
3
, H
2
O etc along with several tiny solid grains of dust.
It is in giant molecular clouds of the ISM that new stars are born.
There are plenty of observational evidences for this. The next three
slides show one of the nearby well studied star forming region in
our Galaxy, the Orion Nebula (M42). The Orion Molecular Cloud is
at a distance of 450 pc from us and extends about 15
0
in the sky.
Various regions of the Orion nebula are breeding grounds of new
stars.
This is the Trapezium star cluster region in the Orion nebula. Star formation happens well within the
dense cores of molecular clouds. The light from these new born stars are scattered off or absorbed by
foreground dust and gas in the molecular cloud itself. Hence we dont see them in the visible
wavelength image (left panel) taken by HST. The same region when imaged in the near-IR (right panel)
using the NICMOS camera on HST shows at least 3000 low mass stars and at least 10 high mass stars.
This also hints at the sizes of the dust grains in the ISM. Their sizes must be of the order of the
wavelength of visible photons, but less than the wavelength of IR photons.
Another region in the same Orion Nebula imaged in the
visible and in the mid-IR by HST.
Collapse of Molecular Clouds
As a region within a giant molecular cloud starts to collapse (see next
slide) gravitational contraction increases the cloud's thermal energy.
However, the cloud quickly radiates this thermal energy away, preventing
the pressure from building enough to resist gravity. During this early
phase of collapse, the temperature remains below 100 K (the temperature
of the molecular cloud) .
The ongoing collapse increases the cloud's density, making it increasingly
difficult for radiation to escape. Eventually, its central regions grow
completely opaque, trapping much of the thermal energy produced by
gravitational contraction. Because thermal energy can no longer escape
easily, the cloud's internal temperature and pressure rise dramatically.
This rising pressure begins to fight back against the crush of gravity. Since
different regions of the collapsing molecular cloud has different densities
to begin with, the rate of collapse will also be different at the different
regions. The somewhat denser regions will fragment of. These fragements
will collapse faster. Several such fragments in a molecular cloud are shown
in the HST image in the next-to-next slide.
The collapse of a gas cloud is determined by
(a) self-gravity of the cloud
(b) gas pressure
F
grav
> F
gas
What physical conditions in the gas cloud would satisfy
the above condition?
Road to Stardom
The gravitational force which makes a gas cloud contract is the
mutual gravity between all of its particles. It would be
computationally difficult to add up all these forces for a randomly
shaped gas cloud. Therefore spherical symmetry is often assumed,
which simplifies the problem.
Critical Mass for Gravitational Collapse
For a self-gravitating, spherical
distribution of equal mass objects
to be dynamically stable
U = - 2 K
Virial Theorem
|U| < 2K : fizzle out
|U| = 2K : stable
|U| > 2K : contract
Critical condition
for stability
Critical Mass for Gravitational Collapse
dm
r
Gravitational
potential energy of
the point mass due to
the large gas cloud
For a shell of thickness of dr with point masses dm
Gravitational potential energy of this shell due to the large gas cloud
Gravitational potential energy of a gas cloud of radius R
Critical Mass for Gravitational Collapse
Average mass density of the gas cloud
Gravitational potential energy for a spherical cloud of
constant density, with mass M and radius R.
Critical Mass for Gravitational Collapse
Internal KE of the cloud
where is the total number of gas particles
- average mass per particle (also improperly known as the
mean molecular weight)
- mean molecular weight in mass units
Question : What is the typical range of value that can have
in astrophysical contexts?
Critical Mass for Gravitational Collapse
Using virial theorem condition
for collapse
Initial radius of the gas cloud
in terms of its initial mass
density
0
Jeans Mass
This is known as the Jean's mass and the criterion M
cloud
> M
J
for
gravitational collapse is called the Jean's criterion for
gravitational instability (after James H. Jeans of 19th century)
Jeans Mass
In the above expression, T and
0
are the initial
temperature and mass density of the gas cloud. If the
above condition is satisfied, collapse will begin. Once this
happens, the density and the temperature will keep
increasing. Thus, the Jeans criteria is only a boundary
condition for a gas cloud to become gravitationally
unstable and collapse under its own gravity.
Order of Magnitude Jeans Mass
Definition of Jeans Mass :
The minimum mass that a gas cloud of a given density and
temperature should have for the self-gravity of the cloud to
overcome gas pressure.
The maximum mass a gas cloud of given density and temperature
can have without disturbing its hydrostatic equilibrium.
Fragmentation
within collapsing
clouds
A single giant molecular cloud will not monolithically collapse to
form a star. In reality, a molecular cloud will have density
inhomogeneities within. The more dense regions will collapse faster,
which leads to fragmentation within the cloud. Some of these
individual fragements within a molecular cloud only result in stars. A
giant molecular cloud region like the Orion Nebula will have tens of
thousands of stars forming inside it.
In the above treatment of star formation external effects which can
disturb or aid stability such as rotation of the gas cloud, turbulence
within the gas cloud and magnetic fields in the gas cloud are all
neglected.
Back in the 19th century, it was suggested that the source of
energy in a star is the gravitational collapse of the gas cloud.
The slow conversion of gravitational potential energy into
thermal energy is what illuminates the star. In the collapse
proecess there comes a time when the gravitational energy
released through compressive heating cannot escape
(increasing density increases the opacity of the cloud to
radiation) the system in the form of radiation. This leads to a
gradual rise in the temperature of the collapsing fragment
causing it to radiate like a black body.
This suggestion, though true during a brief early phase
(proto-star phase), is not valid for the full life time of the star.
The reason is explained in next slide.
Glowing Without Fusing
Energy from Gravitational Collapse
Kelvin - Helmholtz timescale
Total gravitational energy of a
gas cloud /star
Characteristic time for which
release of gravitational energy can
keep the star luminous
This time scale for the Sun does not even agree with geological time scales.
Therefore, gravitational collapse in itself cannot be the sole reason for why stars
are shining. But nonetheless, they are important. During the collapse of a cloud,
much before the onset of nuclear fusion, temperatures will increase (due to the
conversion of gravitational energy into heat) to T ~ 10
3
K and the gas cloud will
start radiating at infra-red wavelengths. The warm clump of gas cloud becomes a
proto-star. The next slide gives some examples of protostars in our Galaxy.
Proto-star is a phase in a stars life before the onset of
nuclear fusion. The proto-star glow comes from the
slow conversion of gravitational energy into thermal
energy. The temperature of the cloud keeps increasing
because the increase in density makes the cloud opaque
to easy escape of thermal radiation.
Many proto-stars are observed embedded in molecular
clouds. The best examples are found in the Orion
Molecular Cloud complex (see next two slides)
Glowing Without Fusing
Protostars in Orion Nebula
For more, visit : http://www.spacetelescope.org/news/heic0917/
A Star is Born
Onset of hydrogen fusion in the core.
The time from the start of collapse to the
formation of a star from a gas cloud is
~ 10
7
yrs.
START: Molecular cloud, ~ 10
-20
g cm
-3
, T ~ 20 K
END: Stars core, ~ 160 g cm
-3
, T ~ 10
6
K
Decrease in volume by a factor of 10
26
!!
Do all collapsing clouds (satisfying the
Jeans criteria) end up as stars?
Low End of the Mass Limit for Stars
Gravity tries to force more than one electron into the same
quantum energy state : electron degeneracy pressure as
resistance to this compression
Pressure and temperature decouple from ideal gas behavior
As gas is compressed, the uncertainty
in the position of electrons decreases.
Uncertainty in momentum increases.
Electrons travel at Heisenberg speed.
Pressure due to Heisenberg speed >
thermal pressure : degenerate matter
Low End of the Mass Limit for Stars
The low end of the mass for stars is obtained from estimating the
minimum mass for the collapsing protostar to avoid electron
degeneracy pressure ?
To avoid electron degeneracy pressure the separation between
electrons should be at least one de Broglie wavelength
This sets a constrain on the density in the core.
(an upper limit on the density of the core)
Low End of the Mass Limit for Stars
The average KE of electrons in the core,
Average velocity of electrons,
Momentum of those electrons,
Low End of the Mass Limit for Stars
de Broglie wavelength of the electrons,
Mean density in the core = mean mass / mean volume,
The plasma will become degenerate when,
(choosing a cubic sample volume)
Low End of the Mass Limit for Stars
Condition to avoid
electron degeneracy in
the core
What is the lower limit on the mass
corresponding to this lower limit on density?
Low End of the Mass Limit for Stars
Average KE of particles (protons
+ electrons) inside a star
Typical internal temperature inside a
star (an average value)
Gravitational PE of a spherical cloud of
gas of constant density,
Applying Virial Theorem,
Low End of the Mass Limit for Stars
The thermal KE of particles inside the star
,
and substituting R with average mass density inside the star
Low End of the Mass Limit for Stars
Writing the previous equation exclusively for the core of the star,
because core is where the density is highest and core is where electron
degeneracy pressure would hence manifest
(T
c
~ 10 T,
c
~ 100 x average mass density)
Substituting for
c
the limiting core density
Low End of the Mass Limit for Stars
More detailed computations give
Brown Dwarfs
Distinction Between Brown Dwarfs & Gaseous Planets
How to define a star ?
Stable luminosity output for an astronomically long
period of time (hydrogen fusion) -
BDs and planets do not qualify.
Luminosity through nuclear fusion
BDs qualify, planets do not.
Brown Dwarfs closer to the 0.08 M

mass limit reach T

c
~ 0.5 x 10
6
K
- Deuterium fusion (2
nd
step in PP I) for a short time.
Brown Dwarf
mass range
Putting things in perspective.
Brown dwarf 2M1207 (centre) and the
fainter object seen near it, at an angular
distance of 778 milliarcsec is most likely
a massive gaseous planet (first direct
image of a planet)
Brown Dwarf or Exoplanet? This
photo shows the VLT NACO image, taken in
the Ks-band, of the star GQ Lupi. The feeble
point of light to the right of the star is the
newly found cold companion. It is 250 times
fainter than the star itself and is at a distance
of 100 AU from the star. No direct estimate of
mass.
Brown Dwarf OR Planet : A Thin Line
Stars are massive hydrogen bombs,
then why do they not EXPLODE ?
SAFETY VALVE !!
The Safety Valve in Stars
Gravitational force on the
elemental ring of gas from the
mass enclosed within r.
Gravitational pressure
exerted by the ring on
the layer just beneath it
The Safety Valve in Stars
Forces opposing gravity
(a) Gas Pressure
(b) Radiation Pressure
(Thomson Scattering of photons with electrons)
+
The Safety Valve in Stars
The ring will remain in dynamic equilibrium if
Pressure gradient in the ring = Pressure due to gravity
Equation of Hydrostatic Equilibrium
Hydrostatic Equilibrium In Stars
For a star to be mechanically stable, the equation for hydrostatic
equilibrium has to be satisfied at every point inside the star. Any
violation of this condition would result in motions within the star.
The elemental mass ring that we considered in the derivation
would either sink (if gravity overpowers gas and radiation
pressures) or would float up due to buoyancy (if gas and radiation
pressures overpower gravity).
The pressure on the LHS of the above equation will be primarily
kinetic gas pressure (for low mass stars), will be dominantly
radiation pressure (for high mass stars) and can be degeneracy
pressure for compact objects like white dwarfs (to be discussed
later in the course).
The Safety Valve in Stars
Increased rate
of fusion
Gas pressure
increases (P T)
Core will expand lifting the
above layers. Star is out of
hydrostatic equilibrium
Internal KE of the gas
decreases
Temperature
drops
Rate of fusion
decreases
Temperature
goes up
Hydrostatic equilibrium
Additional Information :
Whenever we write
we are assuming that the star is spherically symmetric (the 4r
2
term).
Sun rotates on its axis. Other stars would do the same and we know that
rotating bodies that are made of fluids tend to flatten at the poles and
bulge out at the equator. Will not a stars rotation cause large scale
deviations from a spherical morphology? How valid is the spherical
symmetry assumption?
For most stars, except for the very rapidly rotating ones, the rotational
energy is insignificant compared to the gravitational binding energy (i.e.,
gravitational potential energy).
where for Sun a rotation
period of ~ 27 days
corresponding to an angular
velocity of
Spherical morphology is a reasonable assumption for stars.
Upper Limit for the Mass of the Stars
Upper limit is set by the maximum radiative luminosity
a star can have without upsetting its hydrostatic
equilibrium.
Matter can be held within the
star only if -
the radiation pressure on free
electrons is weaker than the
gravitational force acting on
the more heavier protons.
proton
electron
Photons scatter off electrons (Thomson scattering, an elastic collision) transferring
momentum (momentum being a vector quantity, change of direction is described as a change
in momentum). This forms the radiation pressure pushing matter away from the center. The
cross-section for Thomson scattering is much less for protons. But gravitational force is
more for protons. Protons get dragged inwards by the self-gravity of the star. The electrons
and protons are coupled through Coulomb coupling. Hence we treat each one as a loosely
bound pair.
We alter the question from the maximum
mass limit for the star to the maximum
luminosity a star of given mass can have
without losing its hydrostatic stability.
Maximum Luminosity of a Stable Star
Flux at a distance of r from the center of the
star, where r is a distance close to the surface of
the star
Flux from the star in terms of the photon
momentum per unit time per unit area
(momentum flux)
The rate at which the momentum is transferred
from photons to electrons because of the
momentum flux : radiation force
where
T
is the Thomson cross-section for scattering between photons and electrons
The above expression leads to the concept of Eddington
Luminosity, which is the maximum luminosity a star of given
mass can have without losing its stability against radiation
driven stellar winds (i.e., radiation pressure). In more simple
terms, it is the maximum rate at which energy can come out of
an object of mass M without the object blowing itself apart in the
process
Maximum Luminosity of a Stable Star
What we learn from the Eddington Luminosity derivation is that no matter
how efficient the process of energy generation be inside a star, the produced
energy cannot be released at a rate faster than the Eddington luminosity while
keeping the star in a steady state. Stars which are radiating close to their
Eddington luminosity will be driven out of hydrostatic equilibrium leading to
significant mass loss (mass loss rates of ~ 10
-3
- 10
-6
M

yr
-1
) through stellar
winds. Over time, the star itself will evaporate off.
It is estimated that stars with mass greater than ~ 100 M

will not have
sufficient gravitational binding energy to hold-on to their surface layers
against radiation pressures. Such really massive stars will generate energy
through nuclear fusion at a very high rate. The energy produced has to be
radiated out of the star (cannot be stored inside). The rate of energy radiation
(i.e., the stars luminosity) will exceed its Eddington limit. This train of
thought is the basis for an upper limit for the mass of stable stars. This is NOT
a well defined theoretical limit, but has good observational backing. Very few
stars are observed in our Galaxy with masses as high as this for the reason that
such stars will not be stable over long time scales. An example is Eta Carina.
Visit http://messier.seds.org/xtra/ngc/etacar.html for more on the Eta Carina binary
system.
Eddington Luminosity
and finally