DISEASE MANAGEMENT: BIOLOGICAL CONTROL

Biological control of disease employs natural enemies of pests or pathogens to

eradicate or control their population. This can involve the introduction of exotic species, or
it can be a matter of harnessing whatever form of biological control exists naturally in the
ecosystem in question. The induction of plant resistance using non-pathogenic or
incompatible micro-organisms is also a form of biological control. Some diseases that can
be successfully controlled using biological agents are pathogens of pruning wounds and
other cut surfaces, crown gall, diseases of leaves and flowers, such as powdery mildew,
diseases of fruits and vegetables, such as Botrytis, and fungal pathogens in the soil
(disease suppressive soils.
NATURAL CONTROL
!ll biological communities are complex ecosystems in which the abundance of any
organism is dependent on its food supply, its environment and other organisms. "f a
pathogen is #ept in chec# by the microbial community around it, then biological control has
been achieved. Biological control appears to ta#e place on the plant surface by the activity
of epiphytic microflora. This is then an important consideration when applying chemicals to
plants, since there is a ris# of #illing natural antagonists of pathogens other than the one
being treated.
HOW BIOLOGICAL CONTROL AGENTS WORK
The most common mechanisms for microbial antagonism of plant pathogens are
parasitism, predation, competition, induced resistance and the production of antimicrobial
substances. $ften, several mechanisms act together.
Competition exists between organisms that require the same resource for growth and
survival. %se of the resource by one organism reduces its availability for the other
organism. &ompetition for space or nutrients usually ta#es place between closely related
species. Therefore, it can be effective to treat plants or seeds with a non-pathogenic strain
of a related species that can out-compete the pathogenic organism. "n some cases, the
treating species need not be closely related to the pathogen, as long as it uses the same
resources. 'or example, bacteria and yeasts can reduce fungal spore germination by
competing with the spores for nutrients on the surface of leaves.
Prodution o! in"i#itor$ ompound% & to'in% : (hile micro-organisms can produce
secondary metabolites that have anti-microbial properties when grown in culture, these
chemicals are rarely detected in natural environments. Therefore, antibiotics would need to
be produced in culture and then applied. )owever, antibiotics are easily lost to the
atmosphere and are commonly bro#en down by organisms that are insensitive to them,
and so they are not ideal biological agents against plant pathogens.
*arasitism of one fungus by another (hyperparasitism or mycoparasitism is well
documented and is affected by environmental factors, including nutrient availability.
'ormulations of some parasitic species of fungi are available commercially for the control
of fungal plant pathogens in the soil and on the plant surface. The hyphae of parasitic fungi
penetrate their victim, sometimes with the aid of wall-degrading en+ymes. Bacteria on the
plant surface and in the soil are also #nown to parasitise plant pathogens, such as other
bacteria and fungal spores. Pred(tion of plant pathogens by invertebrates can also
contribute to general biological control. Bacterial feeding nematodes consume large
numbers of bacteria in the soil and some amoebae are #nown to attac# yeasts, small
spores and fungal hyphae, although these organisms are generally non-specific predators
and their relative importance in biological control is not well understood.
"nduced resistance and cross-protection are two mechanisms of plant ,immunity, against a
pathogen. "n the case of ro%%)protetion, an organism present on the plant can protect it
from a pathogen that comes into contact with the plant later. 'or example, symptomless
strains of tobacco mosaic virus can protect tomatoes from virulent strains of the same
virus, rather li#e immunisation in animals. Indued re%i%t(ne is a form of cross-
protection, where the plant is inoculated with inactive pathogens, low doses of pathogens,
pathogen-derived chemicals or with non-pathogen species to stimulate an immune
response. This prepares the plant for an attac# by pathogens, and its defence
mechanisms are already activated when infection occurs. "t provides protection against a
wide rage of pathogens across many plant species.
COMMERCIAL USE O* BIOLOGICAL CONTROL
&ommercial application and grower acceptance of biological control has been slow to
develop, mainly due to the variation in efficacy under the range of environmental
conditions li#ely to occur in the field. This problem can only be overcome by better
understanding the environmental parameters that limit biological control. "n addition to this
problem, there has been relatively little investment in the development of commercially
viable products for biological control, partly due to the cost of developing, testing efficacy
and ris#, registering and mar#eting such a product. The most successful product would be
one that can be applied using existing machinery or methods. Biological control agents are
therefore generally formulated as wettable powders, dusts, granules and aqueous or oil-
based liquid products, with various additives to attain all the desirable attributes.
THE *UTURE O* PATHOGEN CONTROL
(hile it is unli#ely that biological control will completely replace chemical pesticides in the
foreseeable future, we can expect that there will be some decline in the use of chemicals,
particularly in developed countries. Thus far, most approaches have involved the single
antagonist concept, although a biological systems approach, where disease is suppressed
from several angles, might provide a better alternative. Similarly, the use of biological
control agents could be used as one component of an integrated management program to
achieve the best possible results.
Bio+o,i(+ ontro+
Bio+o,i(+ ontro+ is a method of controlling pests (including insects, mites, weeds and
plant diseases using other living organisms. "t relies on predation, parasitism, herbivory,
or other natural mechanisms, but typically also involves an active human management
role. "t can be an important component of integrated pest management ("*- programs.
There are three basic types of biological pest control strategies. importation (sometimes
called classical biological control, augmentation and conservation.
/atural enemies of insect pests, also #nown as biological control agents, include
predators, parasitoids, and pathogens. Biological control agents of plant diseases are most
often referred to as antagonists. Biological control agents of weeds include herbivores and
plant pathogens.
T$pe% o! #io+o,i(+ pe%t ontro+
There are three basic types of biological pest control strategies. importation (sometimes
called classical biological control, augmentation and conservation.
Import(tion
"mportation (or 0classical biological control0 involves the introduction of a pest,s
natural enemies to a new locale where they do not occur naturally. This is usually done by
government authorities. "n many instances the complex of natural enemies associated with
a pest may be inadequate, a situation that can occur when a pest is accidentally
introduced into a new geographic area, without its associated natural enemies. These
introduced pests are referred to as exotic pests and comprise about 123 of the insect
pests in the %nited States.
The process of importation involves determining the origin of the introduced pest and then
collecting appropriate natural enemies associated with the pest or closely related species.
Selected natural enemies are then passed through a rigorous assessment, testing and
quarantine process, to ensure that they will wor# and that no unwanted organisms (such
as hyperparasitoids are introduced. "f these procedures are passed, the selected natural
enemies are mass produced and then released. 'ollow-up studies are conducted to
determine if the natural enemy becomes successfully established at the site of release,
and to assess the long-term benefit of its presence.
To be most effective at controlling a pest, a biological control agent requires a coloni+ing
ability which will allow it to #eep pace with the spatial and temporal disruption of the
habitat. "ts control of the pest will also be greatest if it has temporal persistence, so that it
can maintain its population even in the temporary absence of the target species, and if it is
an opportunistic forager, enabling it to rapidly exploit a pest population. )owever an agent
with such attributes is li#ely to be non-host specific, which is not ideal when considering its
overall ecological impact, as it may have unintended effects on non-target organisms.
There are many examples of successful importation programs, including.
4oseph /eedham noted a &hinese text dating from 521!6, Records of the Plants
and Trees of the Southern Regions, by )si )an, which describes mandarin oranges
protected by biological pest control techniques that are still in use today.
$ne of the earliest successes in the west was in controlling "cerya purchasi, the
cottony cushion scale, a pest that was devastating the &alifornia citrus industry in
the late 78th century. ! predatory insect 9odolia cardinalis (the :edalia Beetle, and
a parasitoid fly were introduced from !ustralia by &harles :alentine 9iley. (ithin a
few years the cottony cushion scale was completely controlled by these introduced
natural enemies.
6amage from )ypera postica ;yllenhal, the alfalfa weevil, a serious introduced pest
of forage, was substantially reduced by the introduction of several natural enemies.
<2 years after their introduction the population of weevils in the alfalfa area treated
for alfalfa weevil in the /ortheastern %nited States was reduced by => percent.
! small wasp, Trichogramma ostriniae, was introduced from &hina to help control
the ?uropean corn borer (Ostrinia nubilalis, one of the most destructive insects in
/orth !merica, ma#ing it a recent example of a long history of classical biological
control efforts for this ma@or pest.
The population of Aevuana irridescens (the Aevuana moth, a serious coconut pest
in 'i@i, was brought under control by a classical biological control program in the
78<2s.
&lassical biological control is long lasting and inexpensive. $ther than the initial costs of
collection, importation, and rearing, little expense is incurred. (hen a natural enemy is
successfully established it rarely requires additional input and it continues to #ill the pest
with no direct help from humans and at no cost. )owever importation does not always
wor#. "t is usually most effective against exotic pests and less so against native insect
pests. The reasons for failure are not often #nown but may include the release of too few
individuals, poor adaptation of the natural enemy to environmental conditions at the
release location, and lac# of synchrony between the life cycle of the natural enemy and
host pest.
Au,ment(tion
!ugmentation involves the supplemental release of natural enemies, boosting the naturally
occurring population. 9elatively few natural enemies may be released at a critical time of
the season (inoculative release or millions may be released (inundative release. !n
example of inoculative release occurs in greenhouse production of several crops. *eriodic
releases of the parasitoid, ?ncarsia formosa, are used to control greenhouse whitefly, and
the predatory mite *hytoseiulus persimilis is used for control of the two-spotted spider
mite. Aady beetles, lacewings, or parasitoids such as those from the genus Trichogramma
are frequently released in large numbers (inundative release. 9ecommended release
rates for Trichogramma in vegetable or field crops range from >,222 to <22,222 per acre (7
to >2 per square metre per wee# depending on level of pest infestation. Similarly,
entomopathogenic nematodes are released at rates of millions and even billions per acre
for control of certain soil-dwelling insect pests.
The spraying of octopamine analogues (such as 5-'-& has been suggested as a way to
boost the effectiveness of augmentation.Bcitation neededC $ctopamine, regarded as the
invertebrate counterpart of dopamine plays a role in activating the insects, flight-or-fight
response. The idea behind using octopamine analogues to augment biological control is
that natural enemies will be more effective in their eradication of the pest, since the pest
will be behaving in an unnatural way because its flight-or-fight mechanism has been
activated.Bclarification neededC $ctopamine analogues are purported to have two desirable
characteristics for this type of application. (7 they affect insects at very low dosages (<
they do not have a physiological effect in humans (or other vertebrates.Bdubious
discussC
Con%er-(tion
The conservation of existing natural enemies in an environment is the third method of
biological pest control. /atural enemies are already adapted to the habitat and to the
target pest, and their conservation can be simple and cost-effective. Aacewings, lady
beetles, hover fly larvae, and parasiti+ed aphid mummies are almost always present in
aphid colonies.
! turnaround flowerpot, filled with straw to attract 6ermaptera-species
&ropping systems can be modified to favor the natural enemies, a practice sometimes
referred to as habitat manipulation. *roviding a suitable habitat, such as a shelterbelt,
hedgerow, or beetle ban# where beneficial insects can live and reproduce, can help
ensure the survival of populations of natural enemies. /ectar-rich plants that bloom for
long periods are especially good, as many beneficials are nectivorous during the adult
stage, but parasitic or predatory as larvae. ! good example of this is the soldier beetle
which is frequently found on flowers as an adult, but whose larvae eat aphids, caterpillars,
grasshopper eggs, and other beetles. "n &alifornia prune trees are sometimes planted in
grape vineyards to provide an improved overwintering habitat or refuge for a #ey grape
pest parasitoid. The prune trees harbor an alternate host for the parasitoid, which could
previously overwinter only at great distances from most vineyards.
The provisioning of artificial shelters in the form of wooden cas#ets, boxes or flowerpots is
sometimes underta#en, particularly in gardens, to ma#e a cropped area more attractive to
natural enemies. 'or example, the stimulation of the natural predator 6ermaptera is done
in gardens by hanging upside-down flowerpots filled with straw or wood wool.
&onservation strategies such as mixed plantings and the provision of flowering borders
can be more difficult to accommodate in large-scale crop production. There may also be
some conflict with pest control for the large producer, because of the difficulty of targeting
the pest species, also refuges may be utilised by the pest insects as well as by natural
enemies. Some plants that are attractive to natural enemies may also be hosts for certain
plant diseases, especially plant viruses that could be vectored by insect pests to the crop.
/aturally occurring biological controls are often susceptible to the same pesticides used to
target their pest hosts.
Bio+o,i(+ ontro+ (,ent%
Pred(tor%
*redators are mainly free-living species that directly consume a large number of prey
during their whole lifetime.
Aadybugs, and in particular their larvae which are active between -ay and 4uly in the
northern hemisphere, are voracious predators of aphids, and will also consume mites,
scale insects and small caterpillars.
The larvae of many hoverfly species principally feed upon greenfly, one larva devouring up
to fifty a day, or 7222 in its lifetime. They also eat fruit tree spider mites and small
caterpillars. !dults feed on nectar and pollen, which they require for egg production.
*redatory *olistes wasp loo#ing for bollworms or other caterpillars on a cotton plant
6ragonflies are important predators of mosquitoes, both in the water, where the dragonfly
naiads eat mosquito larvae, and in the air, where adult dragonflies capture and eat adult
mosquitoes. &ommunity-wide mosquito control programs that spray adult mosquitoes also
#ill dragonflies, thus reducing an important biocontrol agent.
*hasmarhabditis hermaphrodita is a microscopic nematode that #ills slugs, thereafter
feeding and reproducing inside. The nematode is applied by watering onto moist soil, and
gives protection for up to six wee#s in optimum conditions.
$ther useful garden predators include lacewings, pirate bugs, rove and ground beetles,
aphid midge, centipedes, spiders, predatory mites, as well as larger fauna such as frogs,
toads, li+ards, hedgehogs, slow-worms and birds. &ats and rat terriers #ill field mice, rats,
4une bugs, and birds. 6achshunds are bred specifically to fit inside tunnels underground to
#ill badgers.
-ore examples.
*hytoseiulus persimilis (against spider mites
!mblyseius californicus (against spider mites
!mblyseius cucumeris (against spider mitesB1C
Typhlodromips swirs#ii (against spider mites, thrips, and white flies
'eltiella acarisuga (against spider mites
Stethorus punctillum (against spider mites
-acrolophus caluginosus (against spider mites
P(r(%itoid in%et%
*arasitoids lay their eggs on or in the body of an insect host, which is then used as a food
for developing larvae. The host is ultimately #illed. -ost insect parasitoids are wasps or
flies, and usually have a very narrow host range.
'our of the most important groups are.
"chneumonid wasps. (>D72 mm. *rey mainly on caterpillars of butterflies and
moths.
Braconid wasps. Tiny wasps (up to > mm attac# caterpillars and a wide range of
other insects including greenfly. ! common parasite of the cabbage white caterpillar-
seen as clusters of sulphur yellow cocoons bursting from collapsed caterpillar s#in.
&halcid wasps. !mong the smallest of insects (E5 mm. *arasiti+e eggsFlarvae of
greenfly, whitefly, cabbage caterpillars, scale insects and Strawberry Tortrix -oth
(!cleris comariana.
Tachinid flies. *arasiti+e a wide range of insects including caterpillars, adult and
larval beetles, true bugs, and others.
?xamples of parasitoids.
?ncarsia formosa ! small predatory chalcid wasp which is a parasitoid of whitefly, a
sap-feeding insect which can cause wilting and blac# sooty moulds. "t is most
effective when dealing with low level infestations, giving protection over a long
period of time. The wasp lays its eggs in young whitefly ,scales,, turning them blac#
as the parasite larvae pupates.
?retmocerus spp. (against white fliesB>C
!phidius colemani (against aphids
Gonatocerus ashmeadi ()ymenoptera. -ymaridae has been introduced to control
the glassy-winged sharpshooter )omalodisca vitripennis ()emipterae. &icadellidae
in 'rench *olynesia and has successfully controlled G8>3 of the pest density.BHC
*arasitoids are one of the most widely used biological control agents. &ommercially there
are two types of rearing systems. short-term daily output with high production of
parasitoids per day, and long-term low daily output with a range in production of 1-
7222million female parasitoids per wee#. Aarger production facilities produce on a
yearlong basis, whereas some facilities will produce only seasonally.
9earing facilities are usually a significant distance from where the agents will be used in
the field, and transporting the parasitoids from the point of production to the point of use
can pose problems. Shipping conditions can be too hot, and even vibrations from planes
or truc#s can disrupt the parasitoids.
Miro)or,(ni%m%
'urther information. biopesticide
*athogenic micro-organisms include bacteria, fungi, and viruses. They #ill or debilitate
their host and are relatively host-specific. :arious microbial insect diseases occur naturally,
but may also be used as biological pesticides. (hen naturally occurring, these outbrea#s
are density-dependent in that they generally only occur as insect populations become
denser.
B(teri(
Bacteria used for biological control infect insects via their digestive tracts, so insects with
suc#ing mouth parts li#e aphids and scale insects are difficult to control with bacterial
biological control.BIC Bacillus thuringiensis is the most widely applied species of bacteria
used for biological control, with at least four sub-species used to control Aepidopteran
(moth, butterfly, &oleopteran (beetle and 6ipteran (true flies insect pests. The bacteria is
available in sachets of dried spores which are mixed with water and sprayed onto
vulnerable plants such as brassicas and fruit trees.
*un,i
'ungi that cause disease in insects are #nown as entomopathogenic fungi, including at
least fourteen species that attac# aphids.B8C Beauveria bassiana is used to manage a wide
variety of insect pests including. whiteflies, thrips, aphids and weevils. ! remar#able
additional feature of some fungi is their effect on plant fitness. Trichoderma species may
enhance biomass production promoting root development, dissolving insoluble phosphate
containing minerals.
?xamples of entomopathogenic fungi.
Beauveria bassiana (against white flies, thrips, aphids and weevils
*aecilomyces fumosoroseus (against white flies, thrips and aphids
-etarhi+ium spp. (against beetles, locusts and grasshoppers, )emiptera, spider
mites and other pests
Aecanicillium spp. (against white flies, thrips and aphids
&ordyceps species (includes teleomorphs of the above genera. that infect a wide
spectrum of arthropods
Trichoderma species are used to manage certain plant pathogens. Trichoderma
viride has been used against 6utch ?lm disease, and to treat the spread of fungal
and bacterial growth on tree wounds. "t may also have potential as a means of
combating silver leaf disease.
.iru%e%
The ?uropean 9abbit ($ryctolagus cuniculus is seen as a ma@or pest in !ustralia and
/ew Jealand.
! viral biological control which can be introduced in order to control the
overpopulation of ?uropean rabbit in !ustralia is the rabbit haemorrhagic disease
virus that causes the rabbit haemorrhagic disease.
Com#ined u%e o! p(r(%itoid% (nd p(t"o,en%
"n cases of massive and severe infection of invasive pests, techniques of pest control are
often used in combination. !n example being, that of the emerald ash borer (!grilus
planipennis 'airmaire, family Buprestidae, an invasive beetle from &hina, which has
destroyed tens of millions of ash trees in its introduced range in /orth !merica. !s part of
the campaign against the emerald ash borer (?!B, !merican scientists in con@unction with
the &hinese !cademy of 'orestry searched since <225 for its natural enemies in the wild
leading to the discovery of several parasitoid wasps, namely Tetrastichus planipennisi, a
gregarious larval endoparasitoid,$obius agrili, a solitary, parthenogenic egg parasitoid,
and Spathius agrili, a gregarious larval ectoparasitoid. These have been introduced and
released into the %nited States of !merica as a possible biological control of the emerald
ash borer. "nitial results have shown promise with Tetrastichus planipennisi and it is now
being released along with Beauveria bassiana, a fungal pathogen with #nown insecticidal
properties.B72C B77C B7<C
P+(nt%
The legume vine -ucuna pruriens is used in the countries of Benin and :ietnam as a
biological control for problematic "mperata cylindrica grass. Mucuna pruriens is said not to
be invasive outside its cultivated area.B75C 6esmodium uncinatum can be used in push-pull
farming to stop the parasitic plant, Striga.B71C
Indiret ontro+
*ests may be controlled by biological control agents that do not prey directly upon them.
'or example the !ustralian bush fly, Musca vetustissima, is a ma@or nuisance pest in
!ustralia, but native decomposers found in !ustralia are not adapted to feeding on cow
dung, which is where bush flies breed. Therefore the !ustralian 6ung Beetle *ro@ect
(78H>-78I>, led by 6r. ;eorge Bornemiss+a of the &ommonwealth Scientific and
"ndustrial 9esearch $rganisation, released forty-nine species of dung beetle,B7>C with the
aim of reducing the amount of dung and therefore also breeding sites of the fly.B7HC
E!!et% o! #io+o,i(+ ontro+
E!!et% on n(ti-e #iodi-er%it$
Biological control can potentially have positive and negative effects on biodiversity. B<C The
most common problems with biological control occur via predation, parasitism,
pathogenicity, competition, or other attac#s on non-target species. B7=C $ften a biological
control agent is imported into an area to reduce the competitive advantage of an exotic
species that has previously invaded or been introduced there, the aim being to thereby
protect the existing native species and ecology. )owever the introduced control does not
always target only the intended speciesK it can also target native species.B7IC "n )awaii
during the 7812s parasitic wasps were introduced to control a lepidopteran pest and the
wasps are still found there today. This may have a negative impact on the native
ecosystem, however, host range and impacts need to be studied before declaring their
impact on the environment. B78C
$ver the past 7> years with the rise in biological control interest there has become a
greater focus on the non-target impacts that could occur. B<C "n the past many biological
control releases were not thoroughly examined and agents of biological control were
released without any consideration. (hen introducing a biological control agent to a new
area, a primary concern is its host-specificity. ;eneralist feeders (control agents that are
not restricted to preying on a single species or a small range of species often ma#e poor
biological control agents, and may become invasive species themselves. 'or this reason
potential biological control agents should be sub@ect to extensive testing and quarantine
before release into any new environment. "f a species is introduced and attac#s a native
species, the biodiversity in that area can change dramatically. (hen one native species is
removed from an area, it may have filled an essential ecological niche. (hen this niche is
absent it may directly affect the entire ecosystem.Bcitation neededC
:ertebrate animals tend to be generalist feeders, and seldom ma#e good biological control
agentsK many of the classic cases of 0biocontrol gone awry0 involve vertebrates. 'or
example the cane toad, Bufo marinus, was intentionally introduced to !ustralia to control
the introduced 'renchLs &ane Beetle and the ;reybac# &ane Beetle,B<2C pests of sugar
cane. 72< toads were obtained from )awaii and bred in captivity to increase their numbers
until they were released into the sugar cane fields of the tropic north in 785>. "t was later
discovered that the toads could not @ump very high and so they could not eat the cane
beetles which stayed up on the upper stal#s of the cane plants. )owever the toad thrived
by feeding on other insects and it soon spread very rapidlyK it too# over native amphibian
habitat and brought foreign disease to native toads and frogs, dramatically reducing their
populations. !lso when it is threatened or handled, the cane toad releases poison from
parotid glands on its shouldersK native !ustralian species such as goannas, tiger sna#es,
dingos and northern quolls that attempted to eat the toad were harmed or #illed.B<7C This
example shows how small mis-introduced organisms can alter the native biodiversity in
large ecosystems. "f native species are reduced or eradicated, a domino effect can ta#e
place until a new equilibrium is reached.
$ther examples of biological control agents that subsequently crossed over to native
species are.
9hinocyllus conicus, a seed-feeding weevil, was introduced to /orth !merica to
control exotic thistles (-us# and &anadian. )owever the weevil does not target
only the exotic thistlesK it also targets native thistles that are essential to various
native insects which rely solely on native thistles and do not adapt to other plant
species.
The mongoose was introduced to )awaii in order to control the rat population.
)owever it preyed on the endemic birds of )awaii, especially their eggs, more often
than it ate the rats. (/ote, however, that the introduction of the mongoose was not
underta#en based on scientificMor perhaps anyMunderstanding of the
consequences of such an action. The introduction of a generalist mammal for
biocontrol of anything would be unthin#able by any reasonable standards today.
> cats brought to the subantarctic -arion "slands to catch mice in 7818 multiplied to
5,122 in about two decades and started to threaten local extinction of birds. They
had to be infected with feline distemper virus. The rest were shot and completely
eliminated by the 7882s.
The sturdy and prolific mosquito fish was introduced from around the ;ulf of -exico
to around the world in the 7852s and 12s to combat malariaK however, it was found
to cause the decline of local fish and frogs through competition of other food source
as well as eating their eggs.B<<C (See -osquitofish in !ustralia
Aiving organisms, through the process of evolution, may achieve increased resistance to
biological, chemical, and physical methods of control over time. "n the event the target pest
population is not completely exterminated or is still capable of reproduction (were the pest
control means a form of sterili+ation, the surviving population could acquire a tolerance to
the applied pressures - this can result in an evolutionary arms race with the control
method. Successful biological control reduces the population density of the target species
over several years, thus providing the potential for native species to re-establish. "n
addition, regeneration and reestablishment programs can aid the recovery of native
species. To develop or find a biological control that exerts control only on the targeted
species is a very lengthy process of research and experiments.
E!!et% on in-(%i-e %peie%

The invasive species !lternanthera philoxeroides (alligator weed was controlled in 'lorida
(%.S. by the introduction of !gasicles hygrophila (alligator weed flea beetle
Biological control programs aim to reduce or eliminate populations of ecologically and
agriculturally harmful invasive species. ?xamples where this has been achieved include.
The alligator weed B<5C was introduced to the %nited States from South !merica.
This aquatic weed spreads rapidly and causes many problems in la#es and rivers.
The weed ta#es root in shallow water causing ma@or problems for navigation,
irrigation, and flood control. The alligator weed flea beetle and two other biological
controls were released in 'lorida. Because of their success, 'lorida banned the use
of herbicides to control alligator weed three years after the controls were introduced.
B<1C
;alerucella calmariensis, a leaf beetle, has been introduced in /orth !merica as a
control agent for purple loosestrife (Aythrum salicaria.
"n the late 78th century cottony cushion scale was discovered in the &alifornian
citrus industry, and it was feared that severe economic losses would result.
)owever the vedalia beetle and, subsequently, &ryptochaetum iceryae, a parasitoid
fly, were introduced to control the pest. (ithin a few years the cottony cushion scale
was controlled and the citrus industry suffered little financial loss.Bcitation neededC
Salvinia molesta is a ma@or aquatic weed. "t covers many waterways causing
damage to water flow and the ecosystem. This weed was incorrectly identified at
first. Scientists found weevils eating this weed. They named this species of weevils
C salviniae. The weevils have become a great biological control success for all
countries. B<>C
*ric#ly pear cacti, $puntia spp., were introduced in to Nueensland, !ustralia as an
ornamental plant. "t quic#ly spread to cover over <> million hectares of !ustralia.
Two control agents were used to help control the spread of the plant. These were C
cactorum, a Aepidopteran species, and 6actylopius spp., a )emipteran species.
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