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This paper investigates Some Aspects of Stability in microgrids. The system structure and the control topology vary depending on the application. The small signal, transient and the voltage stability aspects in each type of the microgrid are discussed along with scope of improvements.
This paper investigates Some Aspects of Stability in microgrids. The system structure and the control topology vary depending on the application. The small signal, transient and the voltage stability aspects in each type of the microgrid are discussed along with scope of improvements.
This paper investigates Some Aspects of Stability in microgrids. The system structure and the control topology vary depending on the application. The small signal, transient and the voltage stability aspects in each type of the microgrid are discussed along with scope of improvements.
Some Aspects of Stability in Microgrids Ritwik Majumder, Member, IEEE AbstractThis paper investigates some aspects of stability in mi- crogrids. There are different types of microgrid applications. The system structure and the control topology vary depending on the application and so does the aspect of stability in a microgrid. This paper briey encompasses the stability aspects of remote, utility connected and facility microgrids depending on the modes of op- eration, control topology, types of micro sources and network pa- rameters. The small signal, transient and the voltage stability as- pects in each type of the microgrid are discussed along with scope of improvements. With a brief review of the existing microgrid control methods in the literature and different industry solutions, this paper sets up an initial platform for different types of micro- grids stability assessment. Various generalized stability improve- ment methods are demonstrated for different types of microgrids. The conventional stability study of microgrids presented in this paper facilitates an organized way to plan the micro source oper- ation, microgrid controller design, islanding procedure, frequency control and the load shedding criteria. The stability investigations are presented with different control methods, eigen value analysis and time domain simulations to justify different claims. Index TermsMicrogrid, stability, voltage source converter. I. INTRODUCTION T HE system stability issues in a microgrid are well known and have been investigated by many researchers in the re- cent past, focusing on a particular aspect. Depending on the type of microgrid, the control topology, network parameters, micro sources etc. vary and so does the stability aspect. With more and more voltage source converter (VSC) interfaced source integra- tion, the stability in a microgrid largely depends on the control topology of the VSCs. However, other micro sources, storage, protection, compensation etc. also play a signicant role in the system stability. The small signal stability of a microgrid is investigated in [1][13]. While [1], [3] and [4] address the dynamic stability with the power electronic distributed generators (DGs), [2] demonstrates the stability enhancement with double fed induc- tion motors. Load sharing with different current and voltage control loops with associated stability is discussed in [5][8]. The modeling and the stability analysis with VSC sources are addressed in [9] and [10]. Eigen value analysis and time domain results are presented to show the impact of feedback controller in the system stability. In [11][13], the general stability issues with the VSC sources are further emphasized, while a supple- mentary control loop is proposed in [13] to improve the system stability. Manuscript received July 23, 2012; revised August 11, 2012, October 31, 2012, November 25, 2012, and December 04, 2012; accepted December 09, 2012. Date of publication January 15, 2013; date of current version July 18, 2013. Paper no. TPWRS-00864-2012. The author is with ABB Corporate Research, Vsters, Sweden (e-mail: ritwik.majumder@se.abb.com). Color versions of one or more of the gures in this paper are available online at http://ieeexplore.ieee.org. Digital Object Identier 10.1109/TPWRS.2012.2234146 The microgrid stability in islanding is investigated in [14][17]. Impact of different loading conditions and constant power loads in the microgrid stability during islanding are addressed in [14] and [15]. In [16], an active damping control with a virtual resistance is proposed, while in [17] efcacy of frequency control with an internal oscillator and voltage feedback signal to regulate the island voltage in the VSCs are demonstrated after islanding. The transient stability analysis of a microgrid can ensure system operability after large disturbances. With micro sources with current limit, very little spinning reserve and limited reactive support, it is essential to carry out detailed transient analysis with possible contingencies. The transient stability is investigated in [18][20]. A direct method with energy function formulation for the transient stability analysis in a microgrid is proposed in [19], while [20] demonstrates the transient stability with both synchronous machine and VSC interfaced sources. The microgrid stability with both inertial and converter in- terfaced sources is investigated in [21][27]. The diesel genset operation in CERTS system is discussed in [21]. Different PV-diesel microgrid operations are investigated in [22], [24] and [25]. The system stability in decentralized operation with inertial and VSC sources in general is examined in [26]. Different control topologies to improve the system stability during the island transient are proposed in [27][31]. The change of converter control mode with voltage feedback is proposed in [28] and a master slave conguration for the island transient is investigated in [29]. Smooth islanding with state feedback control and islanding stability characteristic are discussed [30], [31].Various microgrid aspects, including control and system stability, are analyzed in the European research program on microgrid [32], [33]. High penetration of distributed generations and advanced architecture of microgrids are investigated in these projects. This paper identies various reasons for the stability issues in different microgrids and describes the generalized approach to improve the system stability. The possibility of different control loops and stabilizers are presented for different microgrid types. II. STABILITY ISSUES IN MICROGRIDS A microgrid can be represented with different micro sources and loads as shown in Fig. 1. However, the remote microgrids do not have the utility connections as shown in Fig. 1. The utility microgrids span geographically a larger area compared to the facility microgrids. The micro sources, loads, network parame- ters, control topologies vary in different microgrids [34]. In general the microgrid is dened as an integrated energy system consisting of distributed energy resources (DERs) and multiple electrical loads operating as a single, autonomous grid either in parallel to or islanded from the existing utility power grid [34]. From the stability aspect the major differences can be de- scribed as 0885-8950/$31.00 2013 IEEE 3244 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON POWER SYSTEMS, VOL. 28, NO. 3, AUGUST 2013 Fig. 1. General representation of a microgrid with DGs and loads. Fig. 2. Different stability issues in microgrid and the usual reasons. A utility microgrid, connected to the utility at one point (there could be also multiple connection points for grid connected reliability) of common coupling (PCC), can op- erate in island, spans over a large area (compared to a facility microgrid) and contains different types of micro sources and loads [34]. A remote microgrid is never connected to the utility and operates mostly with decentralized control methods. The maximum power use is limited for the customers and the power quality requirements are much relaxed compared to a facility microgrid [34]. A facility microgrid is normally connected with the host utility and commonly a single business-entity microgrid. A facility microgrid can continue to operate in an intentional or an unintentional island. Facility microgrids can be for an industrial or an institutional microgrid [34]. In this paper an institutional or campus microgrid (with few micro sources and diesel backup) capable to operate in island for a long time is considered as an example facility microgrid. Similar to a large power system, the stability issues in a mi- crogrid can be divided as small signal, transient and voltage sta- bility. The recurring reasons of each stability problemare shown Fig. 3. Different methods of stability improvement. Fig. 4. Stability issues in different types of microgrids. in Fig. 2. Small signal stability in a microgrid is related to feed- back controller, continuous load switching, power limit of the micro sources etc. A fault with subsequent island poses most of the transient stability problem in a microgrid. Reactive power limits, load dynamics and tap changers create most of the voltage stability problems in a microgrid. Fig. 3 shows different stability improvement methods. While supplementary control loops, stabilizers, coordinated control of the micro sources can improve the small signal stability, the transient stability improvement is achieved through use of storage, load shedding and adaptive protection devices. On the other hand, voltage regulation with DGs, reactive compensa- tion, advanced load controller and modied current limiters of the micro sources can ensure the voltage stability in a micro- grid. Depending on the microgrid type, different stability issues can be related to most frequent problems as shown in Fig. 4. It can be seen that the DG feedback controller with decentralized control methods creates most of the small signal stability issues in a remote microgrid, while in a utility microgrid the most common reason is the current limiters. In a facility microgrid, the frequent load switching within a small area often creates the small signal stability problems. MAJUMDER: SOME ASPECTS OF STABILITY IN MICROGRIDS 3245 Fig. 5. Small signal stability: Speed of the control loops. Faults produce the obvious transient stability issues in all types of microgrids. While a fault and subsequent islanding in a utility or facility microgrid demonstrates the typical transient stability aspect, in a remote microgrid, a fault within the mi- crogrid and isolating the faulty part of the network creates the transient stability problems. The voltage stability in a remote microgrid is related to the reactive compensation of the network but in a utility micro- grid the main source of the voltage stability problems is the tap changers. With few sources and conned loads, limiters in the micro sources and under voltage load shedding create most of the voltage stability problems in a facility microgrid. III. SMALL SIGNAL STABILITY The small signal stability in a microgrid is analyzed with a linearized model of micro sources and loads. The speed of the control loops in a VSC is shown in Fig. 5. Most of the stability issues in the converter control loops (in a microgrid) arises from the outer most power controllers and their associated control gains. The small signal modeling of the converter with the associ- ated controllers is also shown in Fig. 5. The converter model is represented with the converter capacitor voltage , con- verter current and the output current states . Each of the converter controllers is modeled with its states as shown in Fig. 5. Together with the output voltage angle , real and reac- tive power output in power controller , voltage controller and the current controller states, the con- verter LCL lter states are combined to derive the state space model of the converter with the controllers. For each of the con- verters this is done individually at their own reference frame (dq). The load and the network are also modeled with their state space equations. Depending on location of the DGs and the loads in the network, the state space equations are com- bined to formulate the total microgrid state space equation in a common reference frame (DQ). The design of the controllers should be done using this combined state space model through small signal stability analysis [35]. Different supplementary control loops can be added to im- prove the system stability. Fig. 6 shows different possibility of stability improvement with the supplementary control loops in 3246 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON POWER SYSTEMS, VOL. 28, NO. 3, AUGUST 2013 Fig. 6. Improving small signal stability in droop controlling mode. Fig. 7. Improving small signal stability in power controlling mode. Fig. 8. Modeling for transient stability study. a droop controlled converter. Fig. 7 shows the supplementary control loops possibilities for power controlling converters. IV. TRANSIENT STABILITY The transient stability of a microgrid can be assessed with a nonlinear model (combining the converter droop controller models through the network equations [19]). One method of analysis is based on the construction of the Lyapunov function. A microgrid model for the transient stability analysis with the converter interfaced sources is shown in Fig. 8. The real and reactive power outputs of the converters relate the individual converter state equations through the network equation to derive the system model. To apply direct method of transient stability analysis, it is nec- essary to construct a Lyapunov function. The Lyapunov func- tion for a microgrid can be selected from the droop controller variables [19], which are converter operating frequency and lter capacitor voltage . The function can be written as (1) Fig. 9. Transient stability modeling with mixed sources. Fig. 10. Aspect of voltage stability: Stable (s) and unstable (u) points. The function can be derived with a separate constant for each state variable or combination of them satisfying the Lyapunov criteria. If a synchronous machine is present in the system, one can model themin a simplied way employing a classical model where the generators are represented with the swing equation (Fig. 9). The constant impedance loads are not generally in- cluded in the functions. However with a dynamic load, these techniques can be extended with the transient voltage depen- dency of the load. The source and the load behavior can be de- composed into slow and fast subsystems for transient analysis [36]. V. VOLTAGE STABILITY The voltage stability problem in a microgrid may appear due to various reasons as mentioned in Section II. The voltage sta- bility problem in a microgrid can be demonstrated using the P-V and Q-V curves. The P-Vcurve indicates the maximum loadability while Q-V curve shows the necessary amount of re- active power at the load end for desired voltage. In a microgrid, if a VSCis injecting (Fig. 10) power to a load , the load powers can be related with the terminal voltage and the load voltage . MAJUMDER: SOME ASPECTS OF STABILITY IN MICROGRIDS 3247 The reactive power generation can be expressed in terms of the terminal voltage , load voltage and the load power . It must be noted that the reactive power control is much faster with a VSC compared to a synchronous machine. The reactive power sharing with a sudden change in the reactive power demand or supply must be controlled properly to avoid converter reactive limit or system oscillation. With different types of loads, the reactive power demand may vary with the load characteristics. Three voltage stability cri- teria related to the reactive power are shown in Fig. 10. For all the cases, the system stability curves are shown with stable and unstable points. Condition-1 shows the stability curve for the reactive power generation and the reactive power consumption . The systemis stable when is pos- itive as indicated in Fig. 10. The rate of change in the reactive power consumption with the load voltage is compared to the rate of change in the reactive power generation with the voltage in condition-2. Condition 3 is derived from condition-1 and con- dition 2. It shows the stability criteria for rate of change in the converter terminal voltage with the load voltage. The key issues in this analysis would be 1. Reactive power control strategy. 2. Load characteristics. 3. Slow increase of the power demand. 4. Outage of one part of the network. VI. STABILITY IMPROVEMENT IN MICROGRID In this section various methods to improve the stability in a microgrid are discussed. A. Stabilizer Stabilizers can be used in the VSC interfaced micro sources to improve the small signal stability. Fig. 11 shows the stabi- lizer for a DG and it can be seen that the voltage magnitude, frequency and the power output of the connected DG are fed to the stabilizer. It is to be noted that the stabilizer can be included in any of the control loop shown in Figs. 6 and 7. Separate stabi- lizing equipment (for existing VSCs) or a supplementary control loop can improve the stability of a VSC interfaced DG. 1) Modulating and provide a fast response stabiliza- tion but may lead to systemoscillation in a continuous load switching scenario. 2) Modulating and can also provide an effective stabilization loop. This option is suitable for both grid con- nected and grid forming sources. 3) Modulating and provide a much slower stabiliza- tion but effective in remote microgrid scenarios, where the regulations are not time critical. B. Reactive Compensation With DSTATCOM The reactive compensation in a microgrid is necessary to maintain the voltage within acceptable limits. The voltage reg- ulation problems are more in utility and remote microgrids. 1) In grid connected mode, the voltage regulation problem appears mostly on the load end of the feeder. 2) In islanded mode, the voltages may fall below acceptable limit anywhere and identifying the compensation location is harder. Fig. 12 shows a DSTATCOM connected close to the crit- ical load to ensure required power quality. When the voltages fall below the lower limit, the DSTATCOM can inject reactive power. The DSTATCOM can be controlled Fig. 11. Stabilizer for DGs. Fig. 12. Reactive compensation with DSTATCOM. based on local measurements of the point it is connected; based on communicated measurements and coordinated control with the DGs [37]. The communicated measurements can be used to modulate the converter output voltage reference as shown in Fig. 13. C. Energy Storage System: Flywheel Energy storage system provides the stability improvement in a microgrid by injecting active (sometimes also reactive power) power during power shortage, DGtrip, islanding, load dynamics and ride through till the backup diesel gensets come live. There are many energy storage devices available in the market. The ywheel is one of the high performance energy storage solu- tions. With a ywheel system it is possible to inject power in the MW range even within one fourth of a cycle [38]. The basic structure of a ywheel systemconnected to a microgrid is shown in Fig. 14. The ywheel system is connected to the microgrid 3248 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON POWER SYSTEMS, VOL. 28, NO. 3, AUGUST 2013 Fig. 13. Converter control for DSTATCOM with communication. Fig. 14. Flywheel storage for microgrid stability. Fig. 15. Converter control for ywheel storage. with back to back converters. The rst converter works as y- wheel drive and maintains the DC side voltage. The grid side converter injects real and reactive power based on the measured frequency and voltage. The power injection is usually based on droop control outside an acceptable frequency or voltage range. A possible control solution is shown in Fig. 15. D. Load Shedding for Stability Improvement The most crucial role of load shedding in the microgrid sta- bility takes place during islanding. A sudden loss of the grid creates power imbalance and the load shedding for the power balance is time critical in a microgrid. The load shedding can be achieved with different methods, Fig. 16. Different methods of load shedding for microgrid stability. Breaker interlock: A xed switch is interlocked with the is- landing switch to shed some xed loads. This method is fast and effective but xed (Fig. 16, option 1). Under Frequency Relay: The most common way to shed load in a microgrid is to detect under frequency and trip the relays. However, this method is slow and could be much slower with presence of a large storage. PLC Based Load Shed: PLC based load shedding schemes are activated based on number of generators operating under frequency condition and amount of load connected to the system. However it requires high amount of moni- toring and during transients the time to shed load is often too long. Advanced Methods: Advanced load shedding method (Fig. 16, option 2) can use monitored data and network model for an optimization process. VII. EIGEN VALUE AND TIME DOMAIN RESULTS In this section simulation results investigating different sta- bility issues and stability improvement methods are presented (Figs. 2 and 3). Only a few key results, with the most common stability improvement methods (Fig. 3, top row) for small signal stability, transient stability and voltage stability are presented to demonstrate the concepts. The simulation cases are shown in Table I. The cases are linked with the identied stability issues in Sections IIIV and the improvement methods in Section V. The simulation cases are shown in Fig. 17. It is to be noted that these are simplied representations of the schemes. The micro source and the system parameters are presented in Tables IIVI. A. Small Signal Stability The most common reason of small signal stability issues in a microgrid is the feedback controller (Fig. 2). In this case, the impact of the feedback gains on the system stability is tested by gradually increasing the power controller gain. The eigenvalue trajectory with change in the power controller gain is shown in Fig. 18 [for the example microgrid Fig. 17(a)]. It can be seen that the system becomes unstable for a higher value of the feedback gain . However in many scenarios a higher gain is required to ensure proper load sharing. MAJUMDER: SOME ASPECTS OF STABILITY IN MICROGRIDS 3249 Fig. 17. System structure in different stability study cases. (a) Small signal stability. (b) Islanding transients. (c) Load shedding. (d) Reactive compensation. TABLE I SIMULATION CASES TABLE II GRID DATA TABLE III LOAD IN THE MICROGRID A supplementary control loop (Figs. 3 and 11) can ensure system stability while using high feedback gain. For sim- ilar change in the power controller gain as in Fig. 18, the eigenvalue trajectory with the supplementary control loop is shown in Fig. 19. TABLE IV CONVERTER AND CONTROLLER TABLE V DG CONTROLLER GAINS TABLE VI MICROGRID LINE IMPEDANCE Fig. 18. Eigenvalue trajectory as function of power controller gain. The time domain results with the high power controller gains (with and without the supplementary controller) are shown in Fig. 20. The values of the power controller gains are changed from to at 0.2 s. The system becomes unstable with the high feedback gains as shown in Fig. 20(a). The supplementary controller can make the system stable as shown in Fig. 20(b). The active power output of the DG is shown as . The system damping with different converter control loops (Fig. 9) are compared with 10% change in the power reference. The rise time and the settling time are shown in Fig. 21. It can be seen that injecting damping signal in the current control loop always provides the fastest response (rise time); the settling time is much higher in the remote microgrid as compared to the facility microgrid; 3250 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON POWER SYSTEMS, VOL. 28, NO. 3, AUGUST 2013 Fig. 19. Eigen trajectory as function of power controller gain with supplemen- tary control loop. Fig. 20. System stability with and without supplementary control loop. (a) System instability with high power controller gains. (b) Supplementary controller with high gain power controller. Fig. 21. Damping in converter control loop. the control loops for damping (Figs. 7 and 8) have different impacts on the facility and the remote microgrid in term of the response timings. The rise time varies in both the cases proportionally from current control loop to power control loop. However the variations of control loops have little impact on settling time in case of the facility microgrid. B. Islanding Transients In this section, the transient stability issues following an is- land (Fig. 2) are demonstrated. There are various factors in a fault and subsequent islanding. It is required to shed some load to achieve the power balance. Fig. 22. System instability during islanding due to power imbalance. Fig. 23. System stability during islanding with storage. (a) Power injection by storage. (b) RMS voltage at load bus. However, the load shedding procedure takes some time. In a fault, the system may lose stability very rapidly before the loads are cut off Fig. 22. A fault ride through can be provided by a DSTATCOM Fig. 12. (The normal operation of the DSTATCOM de- scribed in Fig. 13 can provide the reactive support.) The support from the DSTATCOM provides time to shed load [39]. The value of the dc capacitor supplying the DSTATCOM should be chosen such that there will be no appreciable drop in the dc bus voltage during the transients. Thus the DC capacitor value is derived from the energy requirement during the transition. It must be noted that this support from the DSTATCOM is limited with the device rating Fig. 13. In a microgrid, storage plays an important role during islanding. The power injection from the storage (until the loads are cut off) can ensure 1) system stability, 2) power quality, and 3) normal operation of the DGs. The storage can provide the stabilizer action (Figs. 14 and 15) throughout the system operation for both grid connected and islanded mode. With battery storage it is possible to supply power for longer time and this is useful following a major power imbalance e.g., islanding. Fig. 23 shows the system response during an islanding with power support fromthe storage. It can be seen that the extra load requirement is picked up by the battery at 0.15 s (islanding) and at 0.65 s the storage power output is reduced to zero as the loads are shedded accordingly. MAJUMDER: SOME ASPECTS OF STABILITY IN MICROGRIDS 3251 Fig. 24. Oscillations in system frequency and load shedding in islanding. Fig. 25. Settling time of system frequency with load shedding in different microgrids. C. Load Shedding The impact of the load shedding on the system stability is shown in this section. With the example microgrid [Fig. 17(c)], an islanding with 20% extra load is simulated. The islanding is followed by a load shedding to achieve the power balance. The systemresponses with different load shedding methods (Fig. 16) are shown in Fig. 24. It can be seen that the performance of the conventional frequency relay deteriorates with presence of a motor load. For critical network it is recommended to use the advanced load shedding method with superior performance Fig. 16. The settling times in different microgrids are compared in Fig. 25. It can be seen that with the motor load, the frequency based load shedding has a longer settling time and that is quite high in case of the remote microgrid. D. Reactive Compensation The reactive compensation method with the DSTATCOM (Figs. 12 and 13) is used in different types of microgrids. As mentioned the compensation is achieved by the coordinated control of the DSTATCOM and the other DGs. This improves the RMS voltage in the feeders as shown Fig. 26(b). It can be seen that without compensation the volt- ages fall much below the acceptable level [Fig. 26(a)]. The RMS voltage drops (%) for different microgrids with reactive compensation are shown in Fig. 27. It is to be noted that for the facility and the utility microgrids the voltage drop remains well within acceptable limit; Fig. 26. Reactive compensation with DSTATCOM. (a) RMS voltage without reactive compensation. (b) RMS voltage with reactive compensation. 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Majumder, Reactive power compensation in single phase operation of microgrid, IEEE Trans. Ind. Electron., to be published. [38] Powerstore, ABB-Power Corp. [Online]. Available: http://www.pcorp.com.au/index.php?option=com_content&task= view&id=83&Itemid=132. [39] R. Majumder, A. Ghosh, G. Ledwich, and F. Zare, Power sharing and stability enhancement of an autonomous microgrid with inertial and non-inertial DGs with DSTATCOM, in Proc. Int. Conf. Power Sys- tems, 2009 (ICPS 09), Dec. 2729, 2009, pp. 16. Ritwik Majumder (M10) received the Ph.D. degree from Queensland Univer- sity of Technology, Brisbane, Australia. He is working at ABB Corporate Research, Vsters, Sweden. From 2004 to 2007, he worked with Siemens and ABB Corporate Research Centre, India. His interests are in power systems dynamics, distributed generation and power electronics applications.