IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON MAGNETICS, VOL. 29, NO.

3, MAY 1993 2095

Eddy Current Losses at Cryogenic Temperatures
V. Sokolovsky, V. Meerovich, and M. Slonim
Absfrucf-The present paper analyses e5wt of thermal pro-
cesses on eddy-current losses in construction elements of
cryogenic and superconducting devices. Maxwells equations
coupled with heat-conduction equation are solved with taking
into account the dependence of resistivity, heat capacity and
heat-transfer coefficient on temperature. Analysis of losses as a
function of magnetic field, frequency and geometry factors is
given for the case of thin strip in a uniform magnetic field. It
is shown that losses calculated with taking into account the
thermal processes may di5er from those obtained at constant
temperature.
INTRODUCTION
NE of the problems arising at design of cryogenic
0 and superconducting devices is calculation of eddy
current losses in constructional elements (CE), Le., in
cryostat walls, radiation shields, etc. [1]-[4]. The accu-
rate determination of these losses is required for the cool-
ing system construction and for choosing the power of
cryogenic refrigerators.
The main feature which must be taken into account at
cryogenic temperatures is the strong dependence of the
metals resistivity p on temperature T. Thus, the resistiv-
ity p may change by several times when the temperature
varies by 20 K [ 5] . The temperature of CE may vary con-
siderably even within the magnetic field period because
the heat capacity of metals at 4.2 K is approximately two
orders of magnitude lower than that at roomtemperature.
Also, the boiling crisis in the coolant causes the reduction
of the heat-transfer coefficient and the temperature in-
crease [5].
Usually eddy current losses are calculated at constant
resistivity corresponding to the selected temperature. The
effect of temperature on resistivity is taken into account
with the use of correction coefficients [ 11, [6].
This work is devoted to the analysis of the effect of
thermal processes on eddy-current losses in CE of devices
operating at cryogenic temperatures. As is done in induc-
tion heating problems [7], we will use an approach
founded on the coupled solution of electromagnetic and
thermal problems.
STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM
Generally, eddy current losses, temperature and, con-
sequently, resistivity are non-permanent in a volume of
Manuscript received July 7, 1992; revised January 15, 1993.
The authors are with the Department of Electrical and Computing En-
IEEE Log Number 9208216.
gineering, Ben-Gurion University of the Negev, Beer-Sheva, Israel.
CE. In metals whose resistivity p varies from point to
point, free space charge u may exist and Maxwells equa-
tion set takes the form:
+ +
rotH= j ;
+
div B =0; (3)
div E =U / E ~ (4)
+
where 2, 2 ar: the elect@ and magnetic field inte!sities,
respectively (E =p j ); i is the current density; B is the
magnetic flux density (B =p s ) ; pa is the magnetic
permeability, E, is the dielectric constant, t is the time.
The space charge density u is described by the expres-
sion:
+
u =E,j gradp. (5)
From(5) it follows that u =0 if grad p =0. This as-
sumption is used for most electromagnetic field problems.
5 should be noted that, even for great values of grad p ,
j grad p =0 and hence u =0 are satisfied when all the
current lines are parallel or if one can neglect the propa-
gation of heat in CE.
The problem now is to solve (1)-(5) coupled with the
heat-conduction equation:
(6)
aT
C - at =div (X grad T ) +W,
where C is the specific heat capacity; X is+the thermal
conductivity, T is the temperature; W =I E I 2 / p is the
loss power per unit volume.
In (1)-(6) C, X, p are functions of temperature and con-
sequently of time and of point-to-point variation.
The boundary conditions for Maxwells equations are
usual conditions for the magnetic and electric fields at a
conductor-dielectric interface. The type of boundary con-
ditions for (6) is defined by the device construction, the
cooling method and the form of the examined CE.
Losses in a Thin Strip
To analyze the influence of thermal processes on eddy
current losses, wewill consider, for example, a thin strip
(Fig. 1) in a uniform magnetic field normal to its surface
Hz =-H, sin at (a =271-5 f is the frequency). This
simple problemis a model for a number of practical cases.
0018-9464/93$03.00 0 1993 IEEE
_ _ -
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20% IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON MAGNETICS, VOL. 29, NO. 3, MAY 1993
boiling crisis starts; T =( T - Tq) / ( Tc - TJ; 8 =wt ; Q
=c,wd/h,.
In the quasi-steady state regime, the initial condition
for (9) is chosen as
Ho
T( e =0) =7( e =r).
(10)
The average loss for a unit of the strip's surface to be
divided by h, (Tc-Tq) is given by the expression:
td
Fig. 1. A thin strip in a uniform magnetic field normal to its surface.
Under the above-described assumptions, the losses per
unit of area of liquid nitrogen cooling (77 K) copper strip
were Calculated. The values of c1 ( T) , p I (7) and hi (7) were
taken from data-tables for copper. The function hl (7) was
Wemake the assumption that the strip is sufficiently thin
that one can neglect eddy current reaction. Then the elec-
tric field intensity E is defined by the solution of the equa-
tions given by
1 for 7 I 1 ;
1.92 - 0.927 for 1 <T I 2;
+ ai i
at
rot E - p a - *
div I@ =0.
(7)
0.08 for T >2.
With this approximation, E does not depend on re&
This form approximates to the q ( T)
tivity and hence on temperature. In the thin strip, the elec-
tric field has only component E,,. Therefore, the solution
of (7) is of the form:
E, =wpaxH, cos ut. ( 8)
with sufficient accuracy*
In Fig. 2(a)-(c) are given the calculated results of loss
densities as functions of the magnetic field intensity, fre-
quency and strip thickness in normalized units (8, 13, 2,
respectively). The values k =1, d =1, 6 =1 were
chosen, corresponding to 6 =0.5 and Q =0.5. In the
same figure the calculated results without taking into ac-
count the thermal processes are plotted (dotted curves).
Solving the heat-conduction (6) we will make the fol-
-the temperature is constant in the strip's thickness;
lowing assumptions:
-one can neglect heat propagation along axis n;
-the thermal flow density q from the strip's surface is
DISCUSSION
supposed to be given in the form: Influence of Boiling Crisis
=h( T - Tp)
where Tq is the temperature of coolant; h =h ( T ) is the
heat-transfer coefficient.
The two former assumptions are valid under following
conditions:
hd/ x <<1
and
xd/(Z2h) <<1
(see notations in Fig. 1).
In this case (6) reduces to an ordinary differential equa-
tion which it is convenient to write in the dimensionless
form:
aT p ( i - COS 28)
ae PI
nc, - = - 4,
where c l , hl , p I are the parameters normalized to their
values c,, h,, po at the temperature Tq; =
( p a wH, ) 2 ~d / [ 2 p ~o ( T, c - Tq)] is the parameter that is
characterized as a ratio of eddy-current power loss to ther-
mal power flow; T, is a certain characteristic temperature
of the process, for example, the temperature at which a
Fig. 2 shows a great difference between curves ob-
tained in our approach (solid curves) and those calculated
without taking into account the dependence of the param-
eters on temperature (dotted curves).
First, we will consider the region A-B-C-D in which
the loss densities are two-valued. The existence of this
region is due to a boiling crisis of the coolant (nitrogen).
In Fig. 3 the qualitative dependence of thermal flow den-
sity q and of average loss density S( Hl ) , S(H2), S( H3) on
dimensionless temperature T are plotted. The points of the
curve's intersections 1-5 correspond to quasi-steady states
to be determined by the condition (10). There are points
of equilibrium between heat dissipation and thermal flow
fromthe strip's surface. For the curves S( Hl ) and S(H3)
there is only one point of thermal equilibrium (points 1
and 5). As seen from Fig. 3 it is possible for the lower
values of losses to correspond to the greater magnetic field
intensity.
Curve S(H2) has three points of thermal equilibrium, of
which the points 2 and 4 are stable. In the region between
points K and M, corresponding to the transition fromnu-
cleate to filmboiling, the equilibrium is unstable. With
variation of magnetic field to value H2, the realization of
a stable state at point 2 or 4 depends on their previous
SOKOLOVSKY et a[ . : EDDY CURRENT LOSSES AT CRYOGENIC TEMPERATURES
. 1.0-
2097
S /
/
/
/
B
/
I .
0.
/
/L
0.5 1.0 1.5 2
0 L c- 1 2 *.
(C)
Fig. 2. Loss density versus magnetic field (a), frequency (b), strip thick-
ness (c). Solid curves correspond to the calculation which takes into ac-
count thermal processes. Dotted curves were obtained at constant temper-
ature.
temperature. If 7 <73, the stable state is attained at point
2; if 7 >73 it will be at point 4. As a result with increase
of magnetic field, the losses change in accordance with
curve A-B and with a sharp transition to point C. With
decrease of field, the losses change in accordance with
curve C- D and with a transition to point A.
For real conditions, the heat propagation in the CE and
in the coolant may lead to smoothing of the hysteretic part
of the curve and to a smooth curve trend in sections B-C
and D-A.
The total loss in the unit of the strip length is defined
as the integral of the loss density over strip width 1 . The
curves have a smoother shape. The explanation of these
results is that because of the unequal distribution of the
0 1 2, 2 3
Fig. 3. Determination of thermal equilibrium points taking account of
coolant boiling crises.
I p
:I
0.4
I
f
/ / /
/
1
Fig. 4. Total losses in the strip length unit versus magnetic field. Solid
curve corresponds to the calculation which takes into account thermal pro-
cesses; dotted curve was obtained at constant temperature.
The Functional Dependence Analysis
In Fig. 2 it will be seen that for two values of 8, G, 2,
the losses are proportional to H2, G2, 2. However, the
losses dependence on 8 and ij is practically linear to the
right of region A-B-C-D. To explain these results, we
will analyze the heat-conduction equation solution on the
assumption that C and h are constant and that the resistiv-
ity is given by the linear function of temperature:
p 1 = 1 + y 7
where y is a numerical coefficient (for copper and alu-
minumin nitrogen y =0.4).
The solution of (9) in the formof a series is
7 = +7 , ( e) +- - -
where
To =[(l +4py)12 - 11/27
71 =p sin (28 +J / ) [ 4 ~ * ( 1 +y 7~~ +(1 +2y T,)~] - 3/ 2
(1 1)
temperature and losses x, the crisis at dif-
J / is the phase difference between losses and temperamre;
ferent points is attained at different values of parameters
H, w and d. For example, in Fig. 4 wehave plotted the
curve of total loss (in a unit of strip length) as a function
7o is the mean temperature.
From(1 1) for 4py << we have
of monotonical increasing magnetic field to 8. 7 =p[i +sin (28 +$)/(4n2 +1)3/23.
2098 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON MAGNETICS, VOL. 29, NO. 3, MAY 1993
In this case the temperature and resistivity,do not vary
appreciably, and eddy-current losses are proportional to
w2H2d. In the other limiting case when 407 >>1 we
obtain:
7 =m; P =P O U +6) =Po Jpr,
and the losses are proportional to wH&. In Fig. 2 and
Fig. 4, one can see these two limiting cases.
Note that the losses, to a great degree, depend on the
coefficient @ which depends on H and w in the same mea-
sure. This explains the near trend of the loss curves as
functions of H and w . The small difference arises fromthe
fact that parameter Q depends on frequency too.
CONCLUSION
The analysis performed shows the strong influence of
thermal processes on the eddy-current losses in a CE of
cryogenic and superconducting devices. To calculate these
losses, the approach based on coupled solution of the
electromagnetic and thermal problems may be used. The
eddy-current losses in a CE of cryogenic and supercon-
ducting devices, calculated taking into account the ther-
mal processes, differ by several times fromthose obtained
at constant temperature. This difference attains about 40%
at =0.6 and nearly 300% at fi =1.0 as one can see
fromFig. 4. Also, the boiling crises of the coolant leads
to a hysteresis in the loss density dependence on magnetic
field and freauencv.
[4] U. N. Vershinin, V. M. Meerovich, I. E. Naumkin, N. L. Novikov,
and V. L. Sokolovsky, A comparative analysis of nonlinear reactors
with shields from low-temperature and high-temperature (about 90K)
superconductors, Electrical Technology. USSR (UK), no. 1, pp.
1-9, J anuary 1989.
[ 5] V. G. Fastovsky, U. V. Petrovsky, and A. E. Rovinsky, Cryogenic
technique, Moscow, 1974, (in Russian).
[6] H. Tsuboi and K. Kenisu, Eddy current analyses of the thin plates
taking into account of the source current distributions and its experi-
mental verifications, ZEEE Trans. Magn., vol. 27, no. 5 , pp. 4020-
4023, May 1991.
[7] R. C. Mesquita and J . P. A. Bastos, 3-D finite element solution of
induction heating problems with efficient time-stepping, IEEE Trans.
Magn., vol. 27, no. 6, pp. 4065-4068, J une 1991.
Vladimir Sokolovsky received the M.Sc. and Ph.D. degrees from the Uni-
versity of Novosibirsk (USSR) in 1973 and from the Electrotechnical In-
stitute of Novosibirsk in 1987, respectively.
He has participated in the programs on development and design super-
conducting electrical machines, current limiting devices, magnetic energy
storage, cables. The main field of his scientific activity is theoretical and
experimental research of electromagnetic and thermal processes at low
temperatures. Since 1992, he has been working at the Ben-Gurion Univer-
sity, Israel on the research project of development of superconducting cur-
rent-limiting devices for power systems.
Vitor Meerovich received the M.Sc. degree in physics from the University
of Novosibirsk (USSR) in 1970 and the Ph.D. degree in electrical engi-
neering fromthe All-Union Electrotechnical Institute (Moscow, USSR) in
1987.
He has worked more than 15 years in the field of applied superconduc-
tivity and in development of superconducting power equipment. He has
participated in the USSR programon the development of current-limiting
devices and superconducting magnetic energy storage. Since 1992, he has
been working in the field of the high-temperature superconductivity at the
Ben-Gurion University, Israel.
1- ----a
- ~~.
REFERENCES
Takao Takahashi, Numerical analysis of eddy current problems in-
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H. Brechna, Superconducting Magnet Systems, Springer-Verlag, Ber-
lin, 1973.
I. A. Glebow, J . B. Danilevish, and V. N. Shachtarin, Turbogener-
atom using superconductivity, Leningrad, Science, 1981 (in Rus-
sian). M. Slonim biography not available at time of publication.