Documentos de Académico
Documentos de Profesional
Documentos de Cultura
Conservation
The paper concludes with some of the ethical obli-
Integrating Human Rights in gations for conservation practitioners based on a
Conservation Programming respect for environmental human rights. These are:
Karin Svadlenak-Gomez ♦ To avoid or minimize harm, understanding that
T
conservation can lead to changes which may be
positive or negative for people, wildlife, and the
his brief is intended primarily for conser-
ecosystems which they share;
vation practitioners as a framework for consid-
♦ To work for the long-term conservation of bio-
ering and integrating human rights issues that
diversity and a functioning environment;
arise in biodiversity conservation contexts. It
♦ To involve actively and in a timely fashion indi-
purposely avoids an academic or legal treat-
viduals or groups (rights-holders), including in
ment of the subject. Rather, it provides a gen-
particular indigenous and local people, that may
eral introduction on human rights concepts
be affected by conservation practices and re-
and how they have evolved over time, and
search with the goal of establishing a working
then raises some of the human rights issues
relationship that can be beneficial to all parties
that may be of concern in conservation pro-
involved;
grams.
♦ To ensure that such involvement is meaningful
and equitable, and that existing inequities based
Reasons for integrating human rights concerns
on gender, social class or ethnicity are not inad-
into conservation programs are suggested, and
vertently reinforced;
different perspectives on environment-related
♦ To respect the rights and characteristics of local
human rights are explored. Although all hu-
and indigenous peoples, especially their acknowl-
man rights are inter-related and indivisible, the
edged rights to their lands, territories, resources
paper then presents an overview of a selection
and knowledge, which derive from their political,
of those rights most relevant in a conservation
economic and social structures and from their
context and discusses how conservation activi-
cultures, spiritual traditions, histories and phi-
ties may impact on and be impacted by the
losophies;
rights of different rights-holders. It also brings
♦ To seek the free prior informed consent of vul-
up some of the trade-offs that are likely to be
nerable people and to provide them with oppor-
necessary when trying to uphold the rights of
tunities for comparable or enhanced livelihood
different rights-holders.
strategies where displacement from land or
natural resources is unavoidable.
As a way of addressing the issues, the brief in-
♦ To establish processes and mechanisms to bring
troduces elements of a “rights-based” ap-
conflicting interest and rights (for example the
proach, which transforms the concept of
rights claims of present generations for liveli-
“stakeholders” into the rights-based concepts
hood security versus the inter-generational
of “rights-holders” and “duty-bearers”.
claims for biodiversity conservation), into the
open and seek to resolve them.
Finally, the paper provides some suggestions
for incorporating rights into conservation prac-
The annexes provide further background on and
tice. This requires a consideration of the spe-
links to various human rights conventions and decla-
cifics of a place, its ecology, its history, and its
rations, suggestions for further reading, and a tenta-
political context and governance systems.
tive checklist for considering rights in conservation
programming.
Recently several of the large international conserva- ment accountability and reduced corruption.
tion organizations have begun to discuss working Although it is usually beyond the scope of work
together on a human rights charter that would pro- of conservation organizations, collaboration with
vide a common base from which conservation civil society organizations involved in such move-
NGOs could demonstrate their commitment to ments can sometimes counteract political back-
maintaining and respecting human rights in their ing for logging, mining or unsustainable wildlife
fields of operation. Although some conservation use.
practitioners may view human rights issues as an
unwelcome distraction from their ultimate goal of This brief also includes examples of benefits
preventing the further destruction of biodiversity, from using a rights-based approach in conserva-
conservation organizations have to be able to ad- tion planning and implementation and discusses
dress human rights within a conservation perspec- the specific issues that tend to arise.
tive. Because of the way this debate is now re-
ported in the media, conservation organizations can- 1.3 Different perspectives on human
not afford to neglect human rights. rights relating to biodiversity and
the environment
In addition though, the integration of a human rights
perspective can enhance the success of conservation Human rights related to the environment or
programs by lending them legitimacy in the eyes of “environmental rights” can be viewed from many
the concerned populations; and it can even lead to different perspectives and at different scales
new, sometimes community-initiated, conservation (global, national, local), leading to potentially dif-
initiatives by generating local support and awareness ferent strategies for biodiversity conservation
of the importance of conservation. Conservation and use. Conservation-minded people who view
success may also be enhanced by support to democ- biodiversity primarily as a global public good
ratization programmes that lead to greater govern- might emphasize the future generations’ right to
Human rights are stated explicitly or implicitly in The following is an attempt to synthesis and summa-
a great number of national laws, international rize the majority perspectives on human rights as
human rights-related treaties and declarations they relate to the environment. All of these rights
(many of which are listed in Annex III), institu- are reflected in several of the above-mentioned dec-
tional policies and religious texts. larations (see also Annex III, which provides links to
the full text of the declarations). The list below of
Many human rights depend, at least in the long human rights that have a clear environmental link
term, on an ecologically intact environment. Nu- below is not exhaustive. It reflects those rights
merous national constitutions, laws, and policies most commonly cited in the literature on environ-
document the importance accorded to the right mental human rights. There are several other rights
to a clean and healthy environment and related for which environmental linkages could be con-
environmental rights, even if enforcement of structed, such as the right to food or the right to
such norms is often imperfect or, in some coun- clean air.
tries, blatantly absent. “Clean and healthy” are
of course subjective and vague classifications of
environmental integrity, and there are no univer-
sal indicators of what constitutes an “unhealthy”
environment or where the threshold between
healthy and unhealthy lies. On the other hand,
where obvious environmental degradation is
threatening to have an impact on human wellbe-
ing, such rights can justifiably be invoked. In less
obvious situations, conflicts are often fought out
© WCS/David Wilkie
© Gilda Morelli
(From the 1972 Declaration of the United Nations Con-
ference on the Human Environment [emphasis added] at
http://www.unep.org/Documents.Multilingual/Default.asp?
DocumentID=97&ArticleID=1503)
Although human rights are theoretically access with strong incentives for individuals to
“universal” (they apply to everyone) and mine the resource today and discount tomor-
“indivisible” (all rights are equally necessary for a row. Consumption of fossil fuels that have
dignified life), in practice conflicts exist among differ- powered the economies of many nations and
ent rights, and different rights-holders. benefited millions of people is resulting in
changes in climate that are adversely affecting
Conflicts typically arise because the actions of some the livelihoods of others. Similarly, distortive
individuals or groups, as they exert their rights, can policies and subsidies that accelerate the loss of
impinge on the rights of others. For example, the natural resources (for example for damaging ag-
unsustainable extraction of raw materials (mining, ricultural practices and fisheries), preference
oil, timber, fishing) may be undertaken in the name some groups’ rights over others’. Resource
of national development (advancing some society conflicts between subsistence economies (e.g.
members’ rights), but may damage ecological sys- coastal fishing communities in developing coun-
tems and thereby impair the livelihoods, health or tries that depend on fish as their primary source
cultural traditions of local people who depend on of protein) and market economies (e.g. industrial
them (violating another group’s rights). In the fisheries that vastly overfish the oceans for the
absence of enforceable laws or norms that regulate tables of distant consumers who have many
access and meter use, resources will remain open other consumption choices) illustrate how such
conflicts are rooted in inequitable power struc-
tures.
“Human rights are indivisible in two senses. First, there is no Under many circumstances the rights of some
hierarchy among different kinds of rights. Civil, political, eco- are infringed to secure the rights of others. In
nomic, social and cultural rights are all equally necessary for a fact, it is not possible for all rights of all in-
life of dignity. Second, some rights cannot be suppressed in dividuals and groups to be met simultane-
order to promote others. Civil and political rights may not be ously. Acceptance of the likelihood of trade-
violated to promote economic, social and cultural rights. Nor
offs implies that there may be winners and los-
can economic, social and cultural rights be suppressed to pro-
mote civil and political rights.” (UNDP, 2000)
ers, or at least compromises. Some claimants’
rights may be enforced, while others’ rights are
violated by this very enforcement. What is pos-
© WCS/David Wilkie
© Richard Margoluis
against violent attacks when undertaking their
duties. News media have reported both on con-
servation-related violence against local people at
the hands of government personnel, and of pro-
tected area wardens being harmed or killed by
armed poachers.
of conservation program planning and implementa-
There will always be difficult questions that don’t tion. The emphasis here is on process (i.e. proce-
have just one right answer. Trade-offs between dural rights), not merely on outcomes, although
development and conservation goals are some- process also influences outcomes. The rights of
times inevitable, as are the trade-offs between public participation and access to information and
the rights of different actors. Rather than just justice are provided in the Aarhus Convention23
hoping for the best, discussing conflicts (see Annex III). The literature on participation is
openly and honestly amongst all stakeholders extensive, and a detailed treatment of the subject
(rights-holders and duty-bearers), with appropri- would go beyond the scope of this issue brief. A
ate mediation, can make reconciliation possible. key message is that real participation takes time, a
In fact, compromise solutions that seem to lot more time than is often allowed for the devel-
yield less than perfect conservation outcomes, opment of new projects funded by donors. Many
but that are “owned” by all stakeholders, may in months, even years, may be needed to build up
the end achieve better results than exclusionary relationships of trust and to give people time to
approaches that can lead to open hostility to think about issues and to formulate their own
conservation projects. Additionally, they are opinions and ideas about addressing them.
likely to be based on a respect for stakeholders’
rights.
A big challenge is ensuring equitable participa-
2. Incorporating Rights into Conser- tion, by bearing in mind and moderating power
relationships among different groups and within
vation Practice particular groups. Poor communities, though
typically less powerful than wealthier actors, are
To what extent can conservation efforts be de- not homogeneous and have their own power hier-
signed to minimize conflicts and maximize re- archies, sometimes based on gender, relative
spect for human rights? wealth, age, or ethnicity. Addressing power imbal-
ances is critical, because it affects whose rights
There are clearly moral as well as pragmatic rea- count. Elite capture of participatory processes is
sons to take stakeholders’ rights into considera- one danger that should be counter-acted. Gender
tion. Though environmental human rights are equity is especially important because in many de-
universal and apply globally, most conservation veloping countries women deal directly with the
practitioners will have to tackle these issues at management of natural resources and the use of
the local level. biodiversity, and at the same time gender equality
is one of the rights that tends to be resisted by
2.1 Respecting and upholding rights some community members.
and resources, and placing people in ‘uncomfortable’ 2.1.3 Dealing with displacement
proximity to wildlife. Moreover, as conservation
efforts successfully conserve and restore healthy Conservation-related displacement of local
wildlife populations, the needs of people and the populations has been an issue for a long time,
needs of wildlife will increasingly clash. Understand- but has recently received considerable media
ing who wins and who loses in human-wildlife con- attention, particularly in the context of the es-
property or use taxes. This achieved without displacing previous legitimate ac-
is rarely the case in poor cess of vulnerable people to land or renewable re-
nations with developing sources, local and national authorities should make
economies. Sometimes the every effort to ensure that the free prior informed
Human Rights and Conservation, September 2007 TransLinks 17
consent of all displaced people is sought and that
they are provided with comparable or enhanced
livelihood opportunities or compensation. The
World Bank, for example, has an explicit policy on
involuntary resettlement27, and already in 1992, the
OECD’s Development Action Committee (DAC)
issued Guidelines on Aid and Environment (No.3)28 for
Aid Agencies on Involuntary Displacement and Re-
settlement in Development Projects, which call on
project designers and implementors to ensure that
the population displaced by a project receives bene-
fits from the changes and that it is re-established on
a sound productive basis. Most conservation or-
ganizations do not yet have an explicit displacement
policy (except for the above-mentioned IUCN/
WWF policy on indigenous peoples). WCS has just
developed and adopted an organizational dis-
placement policy.
© WCS/David Wilkie
as when people are living on marginal lands that are
prone to natural disasters, relocation may actually
enhance their security and respond positively to ad-
dressing their rights. However, even in this in-
stance, people may resist relocation because they
have an attachment to their homes, and fair negotia- to understand such differing perceptions, con-
tion of terms will in any case be necessary. servation managers, can help deal with rival,
overlapping claims and avoid or resolve resource
But who are the “local people”? How long a conflicts.
history of residence in an area do people have to
have to be considered local? Where land is not pri- 2.1.4 Compensation and restitution
vately owned and other forms of land rights have
not been formally granted, as is often the case in By ethical and moral standards, winners should
indigenous territories and communally held lands, compensate losers, but who decides who gets
determination of legitimacy may be tricky. In many compensated, when, and how much? Legitimacy
cases two or more groups may stake claims on the of those with lost or impinged upon rights is
same territory or resources. clearly a criterion, as is the absolute and relative
loss incurred. However, neither are easy to es-
The demographic history of an area is important in tablish.
establishing who are the legitimate claimants,
though, this alone is often insufficient to reconcile Conservation initiatives that result in the com-
rival claims. For example, in the Amazon, are only plete loss of the natural assets of vulnerable peo-
indigenous forest dwellers legitimate claimants, or ple clearly warrant compensation, whereas those
also 3rd or 4th generation poor farmers who prac- that make a small dent in an individual’s overall
tice slash and burn agriculture? Making an effort to income may not. Determining this depends on
study historical accounts, often representing outside the context and typically requires negotiation.
views, and listening to local perceptions of residence
history is important, though members of one group Where property rights are not formally or
may view themselves as having a long established clearly established, recognition of customary
history in an area and yet be considered claims (such as legal recognition of property
“newcomers” by another resident group. By seeking rights and titling of collective property if appro-
© WCS/Bryan Curran
provided in Annex IV.
28 http://www.oecd.org/dataoecd/37/27/1887708.pdf
29 http://www.biodiv.org/doc/publications/addis-gdl-
en.pdf
Annex I: Check-list (what to keep in mind Annex III: List of hard law and soft law instruments
when thinking about human rights in a conserva- relating to human rights (human rights covenants
tion context) and declarations with web links to the actual docu-
ments)
Annex II: List of organizations dealing with hu-
man rights and principles as related to the envi- Annex IV: References and further readings on
ronment relevant topics
This check list is adapted from Annex A. of a UNDP 1. Who are the right-holders? Which individu-
document: Emilie Filmer-Wilson with Michael als and groups require access to natural re-
Anderson. Integrating Human Rights into Energy and sources and energy services; which groups
Environment Programming: A Reference Paper. 2005. use these resources and services; which
UNDP, New York; Available for download at http:// groups are affected by environmental degra-
www.undp.org/governance/docs/ dation or by conservation?
HR_Pub_environmentprog.pdf [accessed April 19, 2. Are right -holders aware of their rights and
2007] environment laws and standards enshrined in
international and national legislation?
3. Are there effective civil society organizations
1. Analyzing the Country Context to represent right-holders when decisions
A. Legal Framework over resources and services are made?
4. Do public authorities provide right-holders
1. What are the relevant international and regional with access to environmental information,
human rights Conventions and standards in this access to decision making affecting the envi-
context? What are the relevant environment ronment, and effective access to justice and
Conventions in this context? remedy?
2. Is the right to the environment enshrined in the 5. Who are the duty-bearers? Which are the
Constitution or other national laws? Are sub- actors or institutions responsible for making
stantive human rights related to environment, and enforcing the rules for using natural re-
such as the right to life, the right to health in- sources? Who resolves disputes over shared
cluded in national laws? natural resources?
3. What are the relevant traditional, religious and 6. At what level or scale: local, regional, na-
customary laws in this context? tional, or international, does the authority
4. Do constitutional provisions provide procedural over resources reside?
rights for citizens and NGOs to obtain informa- 7. What are the national and international obli-
tion participate in decision-making and have ac- gations related to environmental protection
cess to courts as enshrined in Agenda 21 and that the duty-bearers are supposed to meet?
Principle 10 of the Rio Declaration? 8. Do the duty-bearers have the capacity to
5. Are national standards, laws and judicial deci- perform their duties (including authority,
sions related to environment and energy issues data and resources)?
enforced? What are the main obstacles to en- 9. Do government officials (e.g. ministry offi-
forcing these rights? cials, judges, development planners), know
6. What are the indirect laws that affect people's and understand environment laws and stan-
access to and use of natural resources (e.g. dards?
property rights/land title, legal status )
2. Applying rights in the program context
B. Political Framework
A. Goals
1. What priority are environment and energy is- 1. What human rights are being supported di-
sues given in national and local policy and budget rectly and indirectly by the program?
decisions? 2. Are stakeholders involved in defining pro-
2. What is the level of rights awareness among gram goals?
state officials and the population as a whole? Are
Participation Accountability
1. Do both duty-bearers and claim-holders 1. Is the program process transparent?
participate in the program design, imple- 2. Do monitoring and evaluation arrangements of
mentation, and monitoring and evaluation programs involve stakeholders?
process? Is the management adaptive, al- 3. Has the program established accessible and ef-
lowing for participant input at all stages of fective mechanisms for redress in case of stake-
holder conflicts with program activities?
the process?
2. Do stakeholders have the capacity to Indivisibility and Inter-dependence of rights
participate meaningfully in the program Are there possibilities to address various human
process? (e.g. do they have sufficient and rights by linking conservation programs to other
accessible information on and understand activities?
the issues being addressed; do they have
experience in participatory processes; do D. Rights-holders and duty bearer capacity
they possess communications and nego- Does the program build the capacity of both the
tiations skills?) right-holders and duty-bearers?
3. Was there fair and equal representation?
4. Are strategies included in programming
to enable program beneficiaries to deliver
and manage natural resources them-
selves? (e.g. are they trained in the re-
quired technical and management skills?)
5. Is partnership building with local community
organisations developed as part of program-
ming strategy to achieve local implementa-
tion?
6. Are community-based organisations and local
NGOs strengthened through the program?
European Charter on the Environment and The Statement of Forest Principles (http://
Health (1989) (http://www.who.dk/AboutWHO/ www.un.org/documents/ga/conf151/aconf15126-
Policy/20010827_3) 3annex3.htm)
This non-binding declaration issued by the World Also a product of the Rio Earth Summit, this non
Health Organization recognizes the dependence of -legally binding agreement deals with the devel-
human health on a number of environmental factors opment, preservation, and management of the
and calls for all member states of the European Un- planet's remaining forests.
ion to take steps to reverse or reduce environ- Draft Declaration of Principles on Human
mental degradation that may pose a hazard to Rights and the Environment (1994)
health. (http://cesr.org/draftdeclarationenvironment)
United Nations Conference on Environment The draft is the first international instrument to
and Development (1992) comprehensively address the linkage between
The 1992 Earth Summit held in Rio de Janeiro was human rights and the environment. It declares
unparalleled for a U.N. conference in both the size that all people have the right to a secure, healthy
and scope of its concerns. Held twenty years after and ecologically sound environment. The decla-
the first global environment conference in Stock- ration was attached to the report of the Special
holm, this Earth Summit aimed to aid governments Rapporteur Madame Fatma Zohra Ksentini, of
in reevaluating economic development and find ways the U.N. Sub-Commission on Prevention of Dis-
to halt the destruction of irreplaceable natural re- crimination and Protection of Minorities, who
sources and pollution of the planet. was asked in 1989 to study the linkages between
environment and human rights issues.
Kanak traditions are guiding efforts to more for- Redford, Kent H., and Michael Painter. 2006.
mally protect New Caledonia’s waters. With Natural Alliances between Conservationists
help from Conservation International (CI), and Indigenous Peoples. WCS Working Pa-
World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF), the pro- per No. 25. Wildlife Conservation Society,
vincial government, and local partners, tribes are New York. http://www.wcs.org/science [accesssed
playing an integral role in making the case for April 2, 2007]
designating the region as a UNESCO World
Heritage site. Both indigenous peoples and large natural areas are
threatened by forces associated with expanding in-
Butler, Rhett. 2006. Amazon Conserva- dustrial society. The survival of both indigenous
tion Team puts Indians on Google Earth peoples and much of what remains of nature lies in
to save the Amazon. Mongabay.com the ability of both sides to find common ground.
However, parks and protected areas have become
Human Rights and Conservation, September 2007 TransLinks 37
the focus of conflict between conservationists and participation is about or for. This magazine fo-
indigenous peoples. In this paper the authors pro- cuses its analysis on the mainstreaming of par-
vide a case study illustrating how effective coopera- ticipatory rural appraisal techniques,
tion between indigenous people and conservation- drawing on experiences of development profes-
ists can be, using the example of the Kaa-Iya del sionals from across the world.
Gran Chaco National Park and Integrated Manage-
ment Area in Bolivia. Mumbu, Pierre. 2006. Conserving Biodi-
versity in the Democratic Republic of the
Participatory Approaches Congo: The Challenge of Participation. In:
Bessette, Guy (ed.) People, Land, and Wa-
The literature on different interpretations of partici- ter: Participatory Development Commu-
pation and participatory approaches is extensive. nication for Natural Resource Manage-
Listed here are just a few possible sources to draw ment. Earthscan/IDRC. London. Sterling,
on. VA. http://www.idrc.ca/en/ev-98617-201-1-
DO_TOPIC.html#begining [accessed June 4,
Apte, Tejaswini. 2006. A People's Plan for 2007]
Biodiversity Conservation: Creative Strate-
gies That Work (and Some That Don't). The author presents the case of the Kahuzi-
Gatekeeper Series No 130. IIED. London Biega National Park in South Kivu, Democratic
http://www.iied.org/pubs/display.php?o=/14538IIED Republic of Congo. He argues that, unless an
[accessed April 24, 2007] effort is made to consult the people who have
always lived from those resources, and unless
India’s approach to preparing the National Biodiver- they are involved in the decision-making process,
sity Strategy and Action Plan (NBSAP) is a unique conflicts are bound to arise and conservation
example of people’s planning for environmental gov- efforts are likely to be in vain.
ernance. Coordinated by a non-governmental or-
ganisation, the NBSAP was prepared via a large-scale Pretty, Jules N. and Simplice D. Vodouhê.
decentralised planning process across all states of 1997. Using rapid or participatory rural
India. The process helped to increase awareness of appraisal. Chapter 6 in Burton E. Swan-
biodiversity, empower people through participation son, Robert P. Bentz and Andrew J.
and inspire some local initiatives to begin implemen- Sofranko, eds. Improving agricultural ex-
tation of local plans. This paper reflects on some of tension, a reference manual on agricul-
the lessons that emerged from the process. tural extension. Food and Agriculture Or-
ganization of the United Nations (FAO).
The International Institute for Environment Rome, Italy. http://www.fao.org/docrep/
and Development (IIED) issues a publication W5830E/W5830E00.htm [accessed April 19,
series called Participatory Learning and Ac- 2007]
tion, a journal on participatory approaches
and methods. http://www.iied.org/pubs/ This chapter focuses on participatory methods
search.php?s=PLA [accessed April 19, 2007] that are also applicable for conservation pro-
jects.
Institute of Development Studies (IDS)/
Participation Group. Pathways to Participa- Ramsar Convention Secretariat. 2004.
tion: Critical Reflections on PRA. IDS, Uni- Ramsar handbooks for the wise use of
versity of Sussex. Brighton, UK. http:// wetlands. Handbook #5 on Participatory
www.ids.ac.uk/ids/particip/research/path/ Management. 2nd Edition. Ramsar Con-
path2part.pdf [accessed April 19, 2007] vention Secretariat. Gland, Switzerland.
http://www.ramsar.org/lib/
The label PRA originally meant 'Participatory Rural lib_handbooks_e05.pdf [accessed April 19,
Appraisal', but has come to capture a range of differ- 2007]
ent practices and interpretations of what
Barutciski, Michael. 2006. International Brockington, Daniel and James Igoe. 2006.
Law and Development-Induced Displace- Eviction for Conservation: A Global Over-
ment/Resettlement. In Chris de Wet (ed.), view. Conservation and Society. Vol.4. No.3.
Development-Induced Displacement, Ox- http://www.conservationandsociety.org/cs_4_3_7-
ford: Berghahn, pp. 71-104. 424.pdf [accessed April 2, 2007]
http://www.berghahnbooksonline.com/books/
refu_forc/dewetdevelopment/ [accessed April Displacement resulting from the establishment and
18, 2007] enforcement of protected areas has troubled rela-
tionships between conservationists and rural groups
This is a chapter in a book on development- in many parts of the world. This paper examines
induced displacement/resettlement (DIDR). It one aspect of displacement: eviction from protected
explores the role of international law in DIDR areas.
situations. International legal norms are ana-
Human Rights and Conservation, September 2007 TransLinks 39
Brockington, Dan, James Igoe and Kai This paper summarizes the basic logic and tools
Schmidt-Soltau. 2006. Conservation, Human of livelihoods and rights-based approaches and
Rights, and Poverty Reduction. Conservation examines ways in which they might complement
Biology. Vol.20 (1), 250–252. http:// each other. Case study material collected during
www.earthscape.org/r2/ES16944/scb20_1.27.pdf a DFID research project on ‘livelihood security,
[accessed April 2, 2007] human rights and sustainable development’ is
used to illustrate the arguments.
The authors see the dearth of information as a key
problem in moving the debate forward. Dramatic ODI also has a web site titled “Rights in Action”
claims and counterclaims have been made, for exam- with a subsection on rights, livelihoods and natu-
ple, about displacement and forced resettlement ral resources. http://www.odi.org.uk/rights/
from protected areas. Better understanding is criti- What_we_do/Rights_Livelihoods.html [accessed
cal if we are to move beyond the sound bites and April 19, 2007]
the stereotypes and develop appropriate policy re-
sponses that minimize or mitigate the negative ef- DANIDA. 2004. Best practices for includ-
fects and maximize the positive. One clear re- ing indigenous peoples in sector pro-
sponse will be to better understand the ‘ecologies of gramme support (Toolkit).
coexistence’ – to make better use of those catego- http://www.um.dk/Publikationer/Danida/English/
ries or protected areas that link biodiversity protec- DanishDevelopmentCooperation/ToolKit/
tion with human activity, rather than pursuing ideals tool_kit_gb.pdf [accessed September 12, 2007]
or wilderness, and to look beyond protected areas
to other biodiversity-rich landscapes in which peo- DANIDA has developed a detailed toolkit for
ple are an integral part. working with indigenous peoples, which includes
a section on human rights, as well as on sector-
Campese, Jessica, and Arnelle Guignier. 2007. specific experiences. Section 5.1 addresses is-
Human Rights – A Brief Introduction to Key sues relating to agriculture, natural resource
Concepts. Policy Matters Issue No. 15. pp. 10 management and the environment. Best prac-
-26. IUCN. Gland, Switzerland tices are also included.
http://www.iucn.org/themes/ceesp/Publications/
Publications.htm [accessed September 12, 2007] Filmer-Wilson, Emilie and Michael Ander-
son. 2005. Integrating Human Rights into
Understanding the relationships between conserva- Energy and Environment Programming: A
tion and human rights is difficult in part because of Reference Paper. UNDP, New York.
the nature of human rights themselves. We provide http://www.undp.org/governance/docs/
a brief overview of some (though by no means all) HR_Pub_environmentprog.pdf [accessed April
key concepts, debates, and contemporary instru- 19, 2007]
ments protecting international human rights. Given
the vastness and complexity of the issue, we aim This is a useful and comprehensive working pa-
only to provide a helpful overview for readers unfa- per on applying a rights-based approach to en-
miliar with the international human rights frame- ergy and environment programming written spe-
work. cifically for UNDP staff, but broadly applicable.
Conway, Tim, Caroline Moser, Andy Norton Hiskes, Richard. 2005. The Right to a
and John Farrington. 2002. Rights and Liveli- Green Future: Human Rights, Environ-
hoods Approaches: Exploring Policy Dimen- mentalism, and Intergenerational Justice.
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Response, International Alert, Safer- Wildlife Damage Management Research and
world . 2004. Conflict-Sensitive Ap- Outreach Cooperative. Ithaca, New York.
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Pack. London, UK. http:// Practical guidance on designing, implementing and
www.conflictsensitivity.org/?q=resourcepack evaluating wildlife management engagement proc-
[accessed May 24, 2007] esses.
This collaboratively produced publication aims Eriksson, Gunilla, Helge Sonntag and Kjell
to identify, synthesise, complement and enable Westerdahl. 2002. A guide to living with
conflict-sensitive practice in the fields of devel- large carnivores. The Large Carnivore Initia-
opment, humanitarian assistance and peacebuild- tive of Europe (LCIE) and the World Wide
ing. The focus of the initiative was donors, gov- Fund For Nature (WWF), Sweden. http://
ernments, INGOs and local civil society organi- www.peopleandwildlife.org.uk/crmanuals/
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2 and 3: 2007]
Designed to guide local communities, wildlife Crop raiding by wildlife can completely undo initia-
managers, policy makers, and other people in- tives that work with local people as it is a source of
volved in community conservation, in ways to great friction. This report is the result of a work-
reduce human-wildlife conflict. It provides some shop that brought together people from across Af-
background on the problem and gives specific rica who have been addressing crop-raiding and try-
examples of methods used to reduce human- ing to find solutions in a wide variety of cultural set-
wildlife conflict in Southern Africa. tings and habitats. The report synthesizes what
these people have learnt through their experience in
Livestock predation & attacks on humans dealing with this issue and provides guidelines for
protected area managers and researchers when fac-
Athreya, V.R. & A.V. Belsare. 2007. Hu- ing this problem. The appendices provide several
man-leopard conflict management guide- case studies which give more detail as to how crop-
lines. Kaati Trust, Pune, India. http:// raiding has been tackled in various countries.
www.peopleandwildlife.org.uk/crmanuals/
Athreya%20and%20Belsare%20leopard% Osborn, F.V. and G.E. Parker. 2002. Living
20conflict%20management%20manual% with Elephants II: A manual for implementing
20INDIA.pdf [accessed April 16, 2007] an integrated programme to reduce crop loss
to elephants and to improve livelihood secu-
Practical guidelines to handle the problem of hu- rity. Zambezi Elephant Project, Zimbabwe.
man-leopard conflict management from an eco- http://www.peopleandwildlife.org.uk/crmanuals/
logical perspective; originally designed for the LivingWithElephantsMANUAL.pdf [accessed April
field officers of the Maharashtra Forest Depart- 19, 2007]
ment, India.
Designed to help communal farmers and wildlife
Rigg, Robin. 2001. Livestock guarding managers mitigate the impact of wildlife upon small-
dogs: their current use worldwide.IUCN/ scale agriculture. The guide presents an integrated
SSC Canid Specialist Group. Occasional approach to conflict mitigation, with methods that
Paper No. 1 [online] http://www.canids.org/ have been field-tested and designed to be replicated
occasionalpapers/ [accessed April 16, 2007] in different situations.
This report is targeted to wildlife managers, po- Parker, G.E. , F.V. Osborn, R.E. Hoare & L.S.
tential sponsors of livestock guarding dogs and Niskanen. 2007. Human-elephant conflict
human-wildlife conflict resolution projects, re- mitigation: A training course for community-
searchers as well as livestock breeders. The re- based approaches in Africa. Elephant Pepper
port presents the history and current use of live- Development Trust, Livingstone, Zambia,
stock guarding dogs to protect from depreda- and IUCN/SSC African Elephant Specialist
tion by predators. Includes description of the Group, Nairobi, Kenya. (Trainer’s manual in
breeds, and advice on acquiring and raising dogs English; Participants’ manual in English and
to be successful guardians. French). http://www.iucn.org/themes/ssc/sgs/afesg/
hec/hectools.html and http://www.iucn.org/themes/
Crop-raiding, other damage in rural areas ssc/sgs/afesg/hec/pdfs/heccombaptmen.pdf [accessed
April 16, 2007]
Hill, C.M., F.V. Osborn, and A.J. Plumptre.
2002. Human-Wildlife Conflict: Identifying Making extensive use of real-life examples and case
the problem and possible solutions. Alber- studies, combined with a strong practical element,
tine Rift Technical Reports Series Vol. 1. this training course aims to provide African wildlife
Wildlife Conservation Society. Kampala, managers and local residents with the basic tools
Human Rights and Conservation, September 2007 TransLinks 45
needed for effective community-based HEC manage-
ment.
TransLinks
Contact
Dr. David Wilkie
Living Landscapes Program
Wildlife Conservation Society
2300 Southern Blvd.
Bronx, NY 10460 USA
Email: TransLinks@wcs.org
http://www.wcs.org/international/translinks
This publication is made possible by the generous support of the American people through the
United States Agency for International Development (USAID), under the conditions of the
Cooperative Agreement No. EPP-A-00-06-00014-00. The contents are the responsibility of the
lead partner and do not necessarily reflect the views of USAID or the United States
Government.