Paraffin Problems in Crude Oil Production

And Transportation: A Review

Sanjay Misra, SPE, Simanta Baruah, and Kulwant Singh, SPE, Oil & Natural Gas Corp, Ltd.
Summary
Problems related to crystallization and deposition of paraffin waxes
during production and transportation of crude oil cause losses ofbil-
lions of dollars yearly to petroleum industry. The goal of this paper
is to present the knowledge on such problems in a systematic and
comprehensive form. The fundamental aspects of these problems
are defined, and characterizatin of paraffins and their solubility ten-
dencies have been discussed. It has been established conclusively
that n-paraffins are predominantly responsible for this problem.
Comprehensive discussion on the mechanism of crystallization of
paraffins has been included. Compounds other than n-paraffins, es-
pecially asphaltenes and resins, have profound effects on solubility
of n-paraffins. In evaluations of the wax potential of a crude, the cli-
mate of the area concerned should be considered, Under the most
favorable conditions, n-paraffins form clearly defined orthorhom-
bic crystals, but unfavorable conditions and the presence of impuri-
ties lead to hexagonal and/or amorphous crystallization, The gela-
tion characteristics are also affected the same way, An attempt was
made to classify the paraffin problems into those resulting from high
pipeline pressure, high restarting pressure, and deposition on pipe
surfaces, Fundamental aspects and mechanism of these dimensions
are described, Wax deposition depends on flow rate, the temperature
differential between crude and pipe surface, the cooling rate, and
surface properties. Finally, methods available in the literature for
predicting these problems and evaluating their mitigatory tech-
niques are reviewed, The available methods present a very diversi-
fied picture; hence, using them to evaluate these problems becomes
taxing, A top priority is standardizing these methods for the benefit
of the industry,
Introduction
Problems related to crystallization and deposition of paraffin waxes
during production and transportation of crude oil are well known.
Extensive research by many workers has enriched our knowledge
on the subject. Paraffin problems are causing losses of billions of
dollars per year to petroleum industry worldwide through the cost
of chemicals, reduced production, well shut-in, less utilization of
capacity, chocking of the flowlines, equipment failure, extra horse-
power requirement, and increased manpower attention, Indepth un-
derstanding of such problems is of paramount importance to oilfield
operators in their search for technical/economic solutions. This pa-
per reviews the fundamentals of these problems; the mechanisms of
wax crystallization, gelation, and deposition; and laboratory meth-
ods for predicting and quantifying these problems,
Characterization of Paraffin Wax
By historical definition of the problem, the organic compounds of
the crude, called paraffin, must be insoluble in the crude at the pro-
ducing conditions.! They must be higher-molecular-weight com-
pounds of various homologous series, The classes of compounds
recognized as possibly being in the deposits are (I) aliphatic hydro-
carbons (both straight and branched chain), (2) aromatic hydrocar-
bons, (3) naphthenes, and (4) resins and asphaltenes, Gruse and Ste-
vens
2
described some representatives of each of these classes of
chemicals, their structures, and their boiling and melting points, In
Copyright 1995 Society of Petroleum Engineers
Original SPE manuscript received for review Jan. 19, 1994. Revised manuscript received
Aug. 26, 1994. Paper (SPE 28181) accepted for publication Sept. 21,1994.
50
reality, however, these compounds can be present in crude oil in
pure generic forms or mixture of these forms. For example, in a giv-
en compound, alicyclic and aromatic rings can coexist in a straight-
chain moiety. The length and number of side chains and the presence
of alicyclic, aromatic, and condensed rings have a profound effect
on melting point, boiling point, and solubility of these compounds
in crude oil.
Recognized as the principal constituents of macrocrystaIline
waxes, n-paraffins give rise to clearly defined, needle-shaped crys-
tals. The branched-chain paraffins make up the major portion of mi-
crocrystalline waxes, The long, straight-chain naphthenic and aro-
matic paraffins also contribute to microcrystalline waxes and have
a marked effect on the type of crystal growth of macrocrystalline
waxes,
1
Macrocrystalline waxes lead to paraffin problems in pro-
duction and transportation; microcrystalline waxes contribute most
to the tank bottom sludges.
It has been established conclusively that wax deposited during
production and transportation of crude oil predominantly consists
of n-paraffins with smaller amounts of branched-chain and cyclic
paraffins and aromatics.
3
In a typical example, analysis of oil well
equipment deposits showed that paraffins are the dominant species
(52%)besides asphaltenes and resins (<5%)4; the balance is made
up of crude oil, water, and mechanical impurities.
Paraffin wax molecules are straight-chain alkanes that contain
more than 15 carbon atoms and have very little branching, Swet-
goffS listed the melting points of some paraffin molecules. Waxes
containing up to Csoparaffin compounds have been reported,6
Paraffin compounds containing more than 20 carbon atoms are
considered potential troublemakers for oilfield operators, Studies
by Holder and Winkler? showed that wax that came out of heavy
fuel oil on cooling from 9 to - 10 F had a composition centering
on C20 and a spread from C!6 to C2? As the temperature increases,
the average number of carbon atoms of the crystallized wax in-
creases, For example, wax composition centered on C22 when the
same oil was cooled between 33 and 9F with a spread OfC17toC29.
Leonidov et al.
s
demonstrated that the average carbon numbers of
waxes precipitated at 14,32,68, and 86F were 22, 23, 26, and 29
respectively.
While evaluating wax problem potentials of a given crude, we
must consider the following points: (I) the concentration of n-paraf-
fins; (2) their carbon number distribution; (3) the concentration of
branched paraffins, naphthenes, and aromatics; (4) the concentra-
tion of resins and asphaltenes; and (5) the climate of the area or the
temperature regimes.
While the first, second, and fifth factors would help us predict the
paraffin (macrocrystalline) wax deposition potential, the others
would indicate moderation in the extent of problem.
Solubility of Paraffins. Considerable work has been published on
the solubilities of paraffin waxes in hydrocarbon solvents. Reistle
9
showed the relationship of solubility of paraffin deposition in three
different-gravity petroleum fractions at various temperatures, Light
ends contribute appreciably to the solubility of waxes, which de-
creases with decreases in temperature and shows marked change
near melting points.!
Schanen 10 stated that the solubility of paraffin in liquid propane
is about the same as that in decane. The methane solubility at atmo-
spheric pressure is negligible, although its value slightly increases
with increases in pressure. Thus, we may conclude that loss oflow-
er-molecular-weight hydrocarbons affects the solubility of waxes to
some extent. Water does not change the solubility of paraffins.
Shock et at. 1 showed that wax deposits are most soluble in carbon
disulfide, followed by paraffinic solvents and then predominantly
SPE Production & Facilities. February 1995
aromatic solvents. The presence of carbon disulfide in other sol-
vents improves their solubility characteristics.
Crystallization of Paraffin Waxes. The solubility of paraffin
waxes is very sensitive to temperature changes. The factors that re-
duce oil temperature contribute to wax crystallization. Paraffin
waxes remain as soluble constituents of crude oil under most reser-
voir conditions under a state of equilibrium. When this equilibrium
is disturbed by such factors as changes in temperature and pressure,
paraffin may crystallize or precipitate. Paraffin may also precipitate
as a result of a loss of volatile light ends, which act as naturally oc-
curring solvents.
7
Weingarten and Euchner
ll
observed an increase
in wax crystallization temperature of crude after the loss of gases
present owing to a decrease in pressure.
Reservoir temperatures exceed critical temperatures of the light
ends (methane, ethane, etc.) and the nonhydrocarbon gases (N2,
C02, etc ).12 However, because of reservoir pressures, these light
ends remain in solution in a supercritical state. Supercritical light
ends tend to dissolve heavy ends. As the well starts flowing, a pres-
sure gradient is established across the reservoir, wellbore, and well-
head. Because of decreased pressure, the wax-carrying capacity of
supercritical solvent fraction decreases (liberation of light ends).
This results in crystallization of heavy ends (waxes). Crystallization
is again enhanced by a simultaneous decrease in temperature of the
crude oil (adiabatic expansion). 13
The solubility of paraffin in petroleum decreases with increases
in the amount of tars and asphaltenes. However, it has been observed
that wax deposition decreases as tar and asphaltene content in-
creases. Being in the colloidal state, asphaltenes prevent intensive
crystallization (poor crystal growth and interlocking) of paraffin
from petroleum solution, leading to poor depositional characteris-
tics. Petroleum with high paraffin and asphaltene content gave no
paraffin deposition.1
4
Rauglin and Lyushinl5 studied the crystallization temperature of
paraffin in the petroleum from the Bashkiria field. The concentra-
tion of asphaltenes and their interaction with gases present in petro-
leum affect the crystallization temperature of paraffin. Gases coagu-
late asphaltenes, increasing the crystallization temperature of
paraffin. When asphaltenes are coagulated, gases act as solvents for
the petroleum/paraffin system, thus decreasing the crystallization
temperature. Asphaltene of ?; 0.5 wt% decreased the initial crystal-
lization temperature. 16 Paraffins containing $:: 0.95 wt% resins had
lower crystallization temperatures. Thus, the composition and con-
centration of the asphalt-tar component influences wax crystalliza-
tion.!7
Structure of Wax Deposits. Using resistivity and viscosity studies
of waxy crudes, Fernandez-Lozano and Rodriquez
13
suggested a
micellar structure of wax crystals in the deposits. Some workers
have reported that both crystalline and amorphous waxes are pres-
ent in crude oil, but many others believe that waxes present in the
crude are all of crystalline nature. However, crystalline behavior of
these waxes is altered by the crystallizing medium, the conditions,
and possibly the presence of certain colloidal material in crude oil.
18
It has been established
l9
.
20
that under the most favorable condi-
tions, the waxes form an orthorhombic lattice. But changes in condi-
tions bring about a mixture of orthorhombic and hexagonal lattices.
The most favorable conditions are the presence of higher paraffins
(C20 to C30) in low paraffinic solvents and very slow cooling rate.
The presence of impurities (asphaltenes, resins, and additives)
causes malcrystallization. The orthorhombic crystals have been
seen forming star-like
21
shapes or plate-like layers with better inter-
locking behavior. The solvent remains trapped and immobilized in-
side the lattice. Ideally, such star- or plate-like orthorhombic crystal
lattices have very good interlocking tendencies, but the degree of in-
terlocking is reduced by rapid cooling and the presence of impurities
and additives. In these cases, the amount of crystallization is the
same but the gel strength is poor.
Holder and Winkler's9 photomicrographic studies on wax crys-
tallization demonstrated that waxes precipitate in overlapping plate-
like crystals and that 2% wax is enough to form a gel.
SPE Production & Facilities, February 1995
Wax Problems
Crystallization of waxes in crude oil produces non-Newtonian flow
characteristics, including very high yield stresses that are time-de-
pendent (thixotropic) on the shear and temperature histories of the
crude. 22 Wax crystallization depends on the degree of undercooling
and the cooling rate.
23
Wax crystallization in crude oil may cause
three problems: high viscosity, leading to pressure losses; high yield
stress for restarting the flow, and deposition of wax crystallites on
surfaces.
High Viscosity and Pressure Losses. High viscosity and wax de-
position on pipe surfaces are primary causes of high flowline pres-
sures besides turbulent flow behavior.
24
,25 CrystalJization of wax
suddenly increases the crude viscosity. Because of the gel-forming
tendency of the wax crystallites, their presence increases both the
cohesive and the adhesive forces. This results in increased viscosity
and pressure losses, leading to a reduction in the effective capacity
of the line. Sometimes the pumping pressure can increase beyond
the limits of the system, and crude transportation is stopped.
Such pressure losses across the tubing cause low flow rates in the
well, which in tum makes the conditions for wax deposition more
favorable, thereby slowly decreasing the flow rate further until the
flow stops. In low-temperature reservoirs, the flow of petroleum has
been reported to be reduced by wax crystallization in the formation,
resulting into poor recovery.
Methods for Measuring Viscosity. To evaluate the impact of vis-
cosity changes, rheological studies at various temperatures and
cooling rates were performed. The temperatures and cooling rates
used should correspond to actual field conditions. Currently, rota-
tional viscometers are used for such studies because of their conve-
nience and ease of operation. The literature contains many reports
on such studies, so they are not discussed in detail here.
High Yield Stress for Restarting the Flow. This problem can be
called the restartability of the flow in a line when the static oil con-
tained therein is allowed to cool to temperatures below its pour
point. In such cases, certain pressure, called the restarting pressure,
is required to break the gel and resume flow. Sometimes this pres-
sure exceeds the pressure limits of the pumps and pipelines. The line
appears to be chocked. This problem is compounded by wax depos-
ited in the line.
Methodsfor Predicting Restartability. Many methods have been
reported to predict this problem. The simplest and most convention-
al is the pour-point test. 26 Yield-strength tests using various types
of viscometers have also been used.
27
Sophisticated methods based on pipeline simulators
28
have also
been applied. In one case,29 a 53-ft-Iong, V4-in.-ID model pipeline
simulator was used to evaluate flow improvers for the Bombay
High-Uran trunkline. This simulator could simulate shear/cooling
conditions in the field. It was also allowed workers to assess the effi-
cacy of flow improvement after restartability. Yield stress was pro-
vided by applying pneumatic pressure at one end of the line and ob-
serving restartability at the other. The cooling rates applied were
selected from actual pipeline data, such as oil entrance temperature,
line dimensions, and throughput, and external factors, such as type
of soil and seawater temperature.
In some cases, larger-diameter lines were used for simulators
30
;
in others, a short tube (20 in.)31 was used.
Alternately, restarting pressure can be calculated with a Fann
viscometer (Model 35). The oil is cooled as desired in the sampling
cup of the viscometer and gel strength (maximum dial reading) is
observed at 3 rev/min. Restarting pressure can be calculated for a
specific length and diameter of a line.
27
In one study, for the Troll field in the North Sea, a startup test was
performed on a l6-ft-long, O.016-in-diameter coil. The test results
were extrapolated to field conditions to assess cold startup of the
subsea wells. 32 Degtyarev
33
used the initial static shear stress value
to calculate restarting pressure in pipelines.
Deposition of Wax Crystallites on Surfaces. When the oil temper-
ature goes below cloud point, the wax crystals start precipitating
51
out. These crystals deposit at the surface of handling system (e.g.,
on tubing, flowlines, tank bottom, process equipment, and sucker-
rod assemblies). Wax can deposit even if the bulk oil is at a tempera-
ture above its cloud point. This occurs because of a temperature dif-
ference between the bulk oil and the outer surface of the line. Oil
near the pipe wall may experience a temperature below its cloud
point, and wax crystallization will occur. Deposition is a preferred
state for such crystals because it is a low-energy state; it occurs at
a lower temperature and the lattice obtained is stable. Lattice stabil-
ity results from the availability of surface for deposition (adhesion)
and further interlocking of crystals (cohesion).
Mechanism. The mechanism of wax deposition is governed by
molecular diffusion of wax molecules, shear dispersion of wax crys-
tallites, and Brownian diffusion of the wax crystallites. Gravity set-
tling of wax crystals in flowline conditions is negligible because it
is dominated by shear dispersion. Burger et at. 34 illustrated this
mechanism while developing a mathematical model for wax de-
position in the Trans Alaska pipeline. Gravity settling may contrib-
ute more in static conditions, such as in storage tanks.
Factors Affecting Wax Deposition. The mechanism and extent of
wax deposition in a flowing system have been studied by many
workers.
35
-40 Different methods have been adopted to study the
phenomenon of wax deposition (discussed later). Three factors con-
tribute to the extent of wax deposition in flowing system, as best il-
lustrated by Bott and Gudmundsson
41
: flow rate, temperature dif-
ferential and cooling rate, and surface properties.
Flow Rate. In laminar flow, wax deposition increases with flow
rate. This can be explained by the availability of more particles for
deposition at the surface. As the flow rate increases to turbulent re-
gimes, wax deposition decreases because of shear dispersion. Thus,
wax deposition gradually decreases with increases in turbulance
32
and flow rate. Shear dispersion is predominant in turbulent flow in
all stages. The flow behavior in a flowing stream is described by the
Reynolds number.
The wax that deposits at higher flow rates is harder and more com-
pact. In other words, only those wax crystals and crystal clusters ca-
pable of firm attachment to the surface, with good cohesion among
themselves, will not be removed from the deposition.
Wax deposition is found to be problematic in low-flow-rate wells.
Low flow rates affect wax deposition mainly because of the longer
residence time of the oil in the tubing. This increased residence time
permits more heat loss and leads to a lower oil temperature, which
in tum leads to wax precipitation and deposition. I I The minimum
flow rate to avoid deposition has been proposed to be 0.56 ftlsec.
42
The intensity of paraffinization was described as T= F + B f(q),
where B is a constant, q is the flow rate, and F is a ratio that is de-
pendent on the coefficient of diffusion and concentration of paraffin
in solution.
36
Temperature Differential and Cooling Rate. In addition to the
cooling rate, the temperature differential between the bulk of solu-
tion and cold surface is another factor for wax deposition. Wax de-
position increases with an increase in temperature difference.
40
,43
Cole and Jessen
44
opined that the temperature differential between
the solution cloud point and cold surface is more important than that
between bulk and cold surface. Wax deposition would occur only
when the surface temperature is below both the solution temperature
and the solution cloud pointY
Initially, the rate of wax deposition is higher but it slows down as
more wax is deposited on the pipe surface.
44
,45 The thickness of the
wax layer increases, and this layer acts as insulation and reduces the
effective temperature differential. This lowers the availability of
wax crystals for further deposition.
The size and number of crystals formed are also important for
wax deposition. At a higher rate of cooling, the wax precipitates out
in smaller crystals and a large number of crystals are formed because
of the large number of crystallization sites available.
36
,46 At a lower
rate of cooling, the crystallization process is more uniform. Thus,
more uniformly packed crystals are formed that possess a relatively
small surface area and free energy.
Temperature differential also affects the composition of depos-
ited wax. If it is high, cooling is rapid and both lower and higher
52
melting waxes crystallize simultaneously, forming a weak porous
structure (owing to maJcrystallization) with cavities full of oil.
41
Suiface Properties. It is evident that during deposition, wax crys-
tals adhere to the pipe surface. So wax deposition can also be a func-
tion of surface properties. Parks
47
demonstrated that the presence of
certain adsorbed films on a metal surface would reduce the adher-
ence of paraffin to that surface. Zisman
48
showed that the nature of
the compounds adsorbed on a surface would determine its wettabil-
ity characteristics. Cole and Jessen
44
studied the effect of wettabil-
ity on paraffin deposition and found that the amount of wax depos-
ited for a given temperature difference decreases with decreasing
free surface energy. It was found that the temperature difference and
free surface energy acted independently in determining the amount
of wax deposition. As the paraffin wax is deposited on a surface, it
is held in place by adsorbtion forces. These adsorbtion forces are de-
pendent on the free surface energy of both the paraffin and surface.
Hunt
49
studied the effect of roughness on paraffin deposition and
concluded that the deposits do not adhere to the metals themselves
but are held in place by surface roughness. Jorda
3
observed that par-
affin deposition increases with an increase in surface roughness.
Patton and Casad
37
observed that there is no direct correlation be-
tween wax deposition and surface roughness. However, they argued
that the adhesion bond at a surface should be proportional to the total
contact area and therefore related to surface roughness. Jessen and
Howell
35
studied wax deposition in pipes of different types of mate-
rial and concluded that the amount of wax deposited on a smooth
surface is less than that deposited on steel.
Laboratory Studies on Paraffin Deposition. Paraffin deposition
has been studied in the laboratory under conditions simulating de-
position in the field. Current theories on the mechanism of deposi-
tion have evolved from field observations and laboratory paraffin
deposition tests. Basically, these tests are carried out by maintaining
a temperature differential between the oil and surface.
Paraffin deposition equipment has been outlined by a number of
authors. 5.3537 ,40,41.44,46.50.51 One type is the "static cold finger"
that is similar to equipment outlined by Jorda.
3
This method allowed
control over such variables as oil solution temperature, deposition
surface temperature, temperature differential, and time. Hunt4
9
de-
veloped the cold-spot test as a screening test for studying the effect
of plastic pipe coatings and chemical additives on paraffin deposi-
tion. In this test, coolant was circulated through a cold finger having
a flat plate silver-soldered to the end. The cold finger was immersed
in a stirred waxy oil slurry held at a constant temperature. The tem-
perature of the cold-finger coolant was lowered at a constant rate
throughout the test from a point just above the slurry temperature.
Deposits formed on the tube of the cold finger and a spot in the cen-
ter of the plate. The deposit on the tube was also held in place by its
cohesive forces as soon as a complete cylinder of deposit had
formed. The waxy oil slurry was stirred by a magnetic stirrer. Cold-
spot tests were made with the refined waxy oil slurry with the fol-
lowing plates: cold-rolled steel, polished stainless steel, and sand-
blasted stainless steel. These tests showed that the deposits do
adhere to a polished stainless steel surface or a polished cold-rolled
steel surface, but not to a sand-blasted stainless steel surface.
Jessen and HoweU
35
used %- and 2-in.-diameter, 5-ft-long pipe
to determine the effect of velocity on deposition rates. Tests were
carried out with steel, aluminum, butyrate, rigid PVC, and resin-
type plastic pipes; epoxy-coated pipe; and PVC-lined fiberglass
pipe. Pressure differentials across the test section indicated wax de-
position.
In another system, the "rotating disk apparatus,"40 velocity can
be controlled. This unit consists of four probes, each of which can
be set electronically for a specific temperature.
In another experiment,27 the minimum temperature differential
was determined at which a 0.004-in. layer of paraffin was deposited
on the plate, using a variation of cold-plate method.
Extensive laboratory studies were performed by McClaflin and
Whitfill
52
with a paraffin deposition apparatus to screen wax crystal
modifiers and paraffin dispersants. The apparatus was used in al-
most the same manner as described by Newberry.24 The apparatus
made use of removable sand-blasted steel loops that had outer sur-
faces that were exposed to crude oil contained in a beaker. At the end
SPE Production & Facilities, February 1995
of experiment, the coolant in the tube was removed and the depos-
ited wax was measured gravimetrically.
The apparatus used by Burger et al. 34 consisted of three O. 25-in.-
00, 9.5-ft-long stainless steel deposition tubes; a similarly
constructed second unit consisted of a 1.61-in. tube plus two D.5-in.
tubes. Each of the six tubes was equipped with its own oil and cool-
ant pumps and thus could be run as separate entities.
Bilderback and McDouga1l
53
carried out paraffin deposition
studies with a double-cell paraffin deposition apparatus that al-
lowed treated and untreated crudes to be tested at the same time un-
der exactly the same temperature and dynamic conditions. Bolt and
Gudmundsson
50
studied the deposition of paraffin wax from kero-
sine in cooled heat exchange tubes. Agarwal et at. 54 conducted ex-
periments on a 0.24-in.-ID, 83-ft-long stainless steel tube. The
Bombay High crude oil was recycled through this tube at various
conditions of temperature, flow rate, and time. Hartley and Bin Ja-
did
32
conducted such experiments using a capillary tube.
Weingarten and Euchner
11
used a sophisticated indirect method
to estimate wax deposition in crude oil. They passed the crude in
tubes through filters kept at desired temperatures. The pressure dif-
ferential across these filters was measured to assess wax deposition
tendencies. They expressed their results using the "ideal-solution
theory." Majeed et al. 55 used a test loop 3 ft long with different diam-
eters (0.24, 0.35, and 0.47 in.) and conducted gravimetric wax de-
position tests. They also tried to extrapolate these results to field
conditions. Similarly, Mazepa
56
used a vertical pipe of I-in. diame-
ter.
Conclusions
Paraffin waxes, being sparingly soluble in solution components of
the crude oil, crystallize when temperatures decrease and are the
major contributors to petroleum wax deposits. Branched paraffins,
naphthenes, aromatics, asphaltenes, and resins, however, contribute
less to these deposits but modify crystallization behaviour of paraf-
fin waxes appreciably. To predict wax deposition tendency of crude
oil, it is important to know its composition for the above-mentioned
components. Knowledge of carbon-number distribution of waxes
helps us predict the onset of crystallization. The climate of the area
should also be considered. Wax crystallizes because of decreases in
pressure and temperature. A decrease in pressure causes loss oflight
ends, which act as natural solvents for waxes. Temperature changes
affect the solubilities of paraffin waxes in petroleum.
Wax solutions in kerosene show that under most favorable condi-
tions it forms needle-shaped orthorhombic crystals with a lattice of
overlapping plates. As the conditions become unfavorable, the crys-
tal form changes to a high-energy hexagonal form. The interlocking
in hexagonal forms is not as strong as in orthorhombic crystals.
Wax crystallization poses three problems: (1) high viscosity,
which leads to pressure losses; (2) high yield stress for restartability;
and (3) deposition of wax crystallites on the surface. These prob-
lems are governed by a very complex set of factors and can amount
to heavy production and material losses if not taken care of properly.
Data from various laboratory studies, including studies simulat-
ing actual field conditions as closely as possible, can be used to
evolve suitable solutions to a variety of field problems. A number
of methods have been used to predict paraffin problems, but their
standardization still eludes the scientific community. The need of
the hour is to standardize these methods for better technical/eco-
nomic mitigation.
Acknowledgments
We are thankful to R.L. Malhotra, DGM (P), ONGC, for his help
and valuable suggestions. Permission to publish this paper by GM
(Exploration) and GM (DVP), ONGC, ERBC, is also acknowl-
edged. Valuable advice tendered by Krishna Kumar, DGM (Chem),
ONGC, ERBC, during finalization of the draft is also acknowl-
edged.
SPE Production & Facilities, February 1995
References
I. Shock, D.A., Sudbury, J.D., and Crockett, J.J.: "Studies of the Mecha-
nism of Paraffin Deposition and Its Control," JPT (Sept. 1955) 23.
2. Gruse, W.A. and Stevens, D.R.: Chemical Technology of Petroleum,
McGraw-Hill Book Publishers Inc., New York City (1960) Chap. XXII.
3. Jorda, R.M.: "Paraffin Deposition and Prevention in Oil Wells," JPT
(Dec. 1966) 1605; Trans., AIME,237.
4. Ershov, V.A. et al. : "Study of the Composition and Properties of Paraffin
Deposition in Oil Fields of Western Siberia," Probl. Nefti Gam Tyumeni
(1981) 49,46.
5. Swetgoff, J.: "Paraffin Problems Can be Resolved With Chemicals," Oil
& GasJ. (Feb. 1984) 79.
6. Woo, G.T., Garbis, SJ., and Gray, T.C.: "Long-Term Control of Paraffin
Deposition," paper SPE 13126 presented at the 1984 SPE Annual Tech-
nical Conference and Exhibition, Houston, Sept. 16-19.
7. Holder, G.A. and Winkler, J.: "Wax Crystallization From Distillate
Fuels, Part 2," 1. Inst. Pet. (July 1965) 51,236.
8. Leonidov, A.N., Pereverzev, A.N., and Vazhnova, G.P.: "Effect ofCrys-
tallization Temperature on the Composition of Paraffin Fractions," Nef-
tepererab. (1980) 8, 20.
9. Reistle, C.E.:" Paraffin and Congealing-Oil Problems," Bull . USBM,
No. 348 (1932) 125.
10. Schanen, A.N.: Chemical Constituents of Petroleum. Reinhold Publish-
ing Corp. (1945) 30 I.
II. Weingarten, 1.S. and Euchner, J .A.: "Methods for Predicting Wax Preci-
pitation and Deposition," SPEPE (Feb. 1988) 121; Trans .. AIME,285.
12. Carnahan, N.F.: "Paraffin Deposition in Petroleum Production," JPT
(Oct. 1989) 1024.
13. Fernandez-Lozano, 1.A. and Rodriguez. Y.M.: "Rheological and Con-
ductometric Properties of Two Different Crude Oils and Their Frac-
tions," Ind. Eng. Chern. Process Des. Dev. (1984) 23, No.1, 115-21.
14. Os'kin, LA.: "Role of Asphaltenes in Crystallization of Paraffin," Neft.
Khoz. (1973) 10,46.
IS. Rauglin, VA. and Lyushin, S.F.: "The Crystallization Temperature of
Waxes in Petroleum of Bashkiria," Tr. Bashk. Gos. Nauchno-Issled.
Proektn. Inst. Neft. Prom-Sti. (1975) 127.
16. Ragulin, VA.:" Characteristics of Crystallization of Paraffin in Porous
Channels," Tr. Bashk. Gos. Nauchno-Issled. Proektn. Inst. Neft. Prom-
Sti. (1975) 45,123.
17. Ragulin, VA. and Lyushin, S.F.: "Effect of Gas Saturation and Gas
Composition on the Incipient Crystallization Temperature of Paraffin in
Solution," Tr. Bashk. Gos. Nauchno-Issled. Proektn. Inst. Neft. Prom-
Sti. (1973) 34, 91.
18. Laxmi, S .. Srivastava, S.P., and Iyengar, M.S.: "Problems in Crude Pro-
duction Technology," Chern Age India (1972) 23, No.4, 17.
19. Barmby, D.S., Houston, J.A., and Bostwick, L.G.: Proc . Sixth World
Pet. Cong .. Frankfurt (1963) Sec. VI, 161.
20. Srivastava, S.P. et al.: "Crystallization Behviour of n-Paraffins in Bom-
bay High Middle Distillate Wax IGel," Fuel (May 1992) 71, 533.
21. Knox, J., Waters, A.B., and Arnold. B.B.: "Checking Paraffin Deposi-
tion by Crystal Growth Inhibition," paper SPE 443 presented at the 1962
Annual Fall Meeting, Los Angeles, Oct. 7-10.
22. Wardhaugh, L.T. and Boger, D.V: "Measurement of Unique Flow Prop-
erties of Waxy Crude Oils," Chern. Eng. Res. Des. (1987) 65, No. 1,74.
23. Urazgaliev, B.U., Ni, E.A., and Ryazantsera, E.I.: "Kinetics and Mecha-
nism of the Crystallization of Normal Paraffins," Tr. Inst. Khim. Nefti.
Prir. Solei. Akad. Nauk. Kaz. SSR (1972) 4, 59...Q5.
24. Newberry, M.E.: "Chemical Effects on Crude Oil Pipeline Pressure
Problems," JPT (May 1984) 779.
25. Agarwal, K.M. et al.:" Influence of Waxes on the Flow Properties of
Bombay High Crude," Fuel (July 1989) 68, 937.
26. "Standard Method of Test for Pour Point of Petroleum Oils," ASTM
97...Q7, American Soc. for Testing and Materials.
27. Van Wazer et al.: Viscosity and Flow Measurement, Interscience Pub-
lishers, New York City (1963).
28. Vershuher. E .. Verhuel, C.M., and den Hartog, A.P.: "Pilot Scale Studies
on Restarting Pipelines Containing Gelled Waxy Crudes," J. Inst. Petro
(May 1971) 57,139.
29. Van Engelen. G.P. et at.: "Study of Flow Improvers for Transportation
of Bombay High Crude Through Submarine Pipeline," JPT( Dec. 1981)
2539.
30. Nicolai, H.G.: "Laboratory Test-Loop Analyses Illustrates Waxy-
Crude Transport Methods," Oil & Gas J. (Nov. 1985) 132.
31. Irani. C. and Zajac, 1.: "Handling of High Pour Point West African
Crude Oils," JPT (Feb. 1982) 289.
53
32. Hartley, R. and Bin Jadid, M.: " Use of Laboratory and Field Testing To
Identify Potential Production Problems in the Troll Field," SPEPE (Feb.
1989) 34; Trans . AIME, 287.
33. Degtyarev, YN.: "Calculation of the Initial Shear Stress of Thixotropic
Petroleum," Tra/lSp. Khranenie Nefti Nefteprod. (1978) 10,21.
34. Berger, E.D., Perkins, T.K. , and Striegler, J.H.: "Studies of Wax Deposi-
tion in Trans Alaska Pipeline." JPT (June 1981) 1075.
35. Jessen, EW. and Howell, J.N.: "Effect of Flow Rate On Paraffin Accu-
mulation in Plastic, Steel and Coated Pipes," Trans .. AIME (1958) 213,
80.
36. Tronov, YP. : "Effect of Flow Rate and Other Factors on the Formation
of Paraffin Deposits," Tr. Talar. Neft. Nauch.-Issled. IlIsl. (1969) 13,
207.
37. Pall on, c.c. and Casad, B.M.: " Paraffin Deposition From Refined Wax-
Solvent System," SPEJ (March 1970) 17.
38. Armenskii, E.A. , Novoselov, YE, and Tugunov, P.1.: "Paraffin Deposi-
tion in Short Pipelines," Izv. \Yssh. Vcheb. Zaved. Neft. Gaz (1971) 14,
No. 7,71.
39. Bott, T.R. and Walker, R.A.: Conference in Heat Transfer and the Design
and Operation of Heat Exchangers, Johannesberg (1974).
40. Eaton. P.E. and Weeter, G.Y.: "Paraffin Deposition in Flow Lines," pa-
per No. 76-CSME / CSChE-22 presented at the 16th Natl. Heat Trans-
fer Conference, St. Louis, Aug. 1976.
41. Bott, T.R. and Gudmundsson, J.S.: "Deposition of Paraffin Wax From
Flowing Systems," Inst. of Petroleum, Tech. Paper IP-77-OO7 (1977).
42. Troyanovskii, Yu. V.: "Effects of Thermal Condition on the Growth Rate
of Paraffin Deposits in an Oil Well Collecting Pipeline System," Maler.
Nauch.- Tekh. Konf. Molodykh Veh. Spels. Tyurneni (1967) 137.
43. Makhmutov. B .. Urazgaliev, B.U., and Saginbaeva, M.K.: "Study ofIn-
tra Pipe Paraffin Deposits," TrallSp. Khranenie Nefti Nefteprod. (1977)
4, 11.
44. Cole, R.I . and Jessen, EW.: "Paraffin Deposition," Oil & Gas J. (Sept.
1960) 58, 87.
45. Liszka,K., Jewulski J., and Kohesling, Z.: "Formation of Paraffin De-
posits In Tubes of Operating Oil Wells in the light of Laboratory Stud-
ies," Wiad. Naft. (1971) 5, 97.
46. Rafikov, S.R.: InSI. Chern. Eng. (1973) 13,500.
47. Parks, C.E: "Chemical Inhibitors Combat Paraffin Deposition," Oil &
Gas J. (April 1960) 58, 97.
48. Zisman, W.A.: "Influence of Constitution on Adhesion," Ind. Eng.
Chern. (1963) 55, No. 10, 18.
49. Hunt, E.B. Jr. : "Laboratory Study of Paraffin Deposition," JPT (Nov.
1962) 1259; TrailS .. AIME, 225.
50. Bott, T.R. and Gudmundsson, J.S.: "Deposition of Paraffin Wax From
Kerosine in Cooled Heat Exchangers." Cdn. J. Chern. Eng. (Aug 1977)
55,381.
54
51. Bern. P.A., Withers,V.R., and Cairns, 1.R.: "Wax Deposition in Crude
Oil Pipelines," paper EUR 206 presented at the 1980 SPEEuropean Off-
shore Petroleum Conference and Exhibition, London, Oct. 21-24.
52. McClaflin, G.G. and Whitfill. D.L. : "Control of Paraffin Deposition in
Production Operations," JPT(Nov. 1984) 1965.
53. Bilderback, C.A. and McDougall, L.A.: "Complete Paraffin Control in
Petroleum Production," JPT (Sept. 1969) 1151.
54. Agarwal, K.M. el al.: "Wax Deposition of Bombay High Crude Oil Un-
der Flowing Conditions," Fuel (June 1990) 69, 794.
55. Majeed, A., Bringedal, 8., and Overa, S.: "Model Calculates Wax De-
position for North Sea Oils," Oil & Gas J. (June 1990) 63.
56. Mazepa, B.A.: "Formation of Paraffin Deposits on the Surface ofa Steel
Plate," Tr. Permsk. Gos. Nauchno-Issled. Proektn. Insl. Neft. Prom-Sli.
(1972) 7, 162.
51 Metric Conversion Factors
OF (OF - 32)11.8
ft x 3.048*
in. x 2.54*
'Conversion factor is exact.
=OC
E-O=m
E-O =cm
SPEPF
Sonjoy Misra is in charge of quality control and custody transfer
in the oilfield operations of ONGC in Assam . India . as dy. superin-
tending chemist. He holds a PhD degree from Lucknow U. He
has held quality control and research jobs in wax:y crude trans-
portation. water injection, and cryogenic liquefied petroleum
gas recovery plant. Simanta Boruoh has worked in oilfield op-
erations since 1992. After obtaining an MS degree in chemistry
from Dibrugarh U . he accepted a 2-year research assignment
on the value addition of refinery residue at Regional Research
Laboratory (CSIR). Jorhat. Kulwant Singh is dy. general manager
of projects for the Dhansiri Valley Project of ONGC in Jorhat, In-
dia. He holds MS degrees in both mathematics and chemistry.
Having worked at ONGC since 1959. he has experience in cor-
rosion. demulsification, water injection, and transportation of
wax:y crudes.
Misra Baruah Singh
SPE Production & Facilities, February 1995