WaterCAD Theory Document

Workshop on
Hydraulic Network Modelling with WaterCAD

16-20 October 2000
Paula Dawe
SOPAC Water Resources Unit
October 2000 SOPAC Miscellaneous Report 395
[2]
[SOPAC Miscellaneous Report 395 - Dawe]
[3]
CONTENTS
INTRODUCTION 4
PARTiCiPANTS 4
TRAINING SCHEDULE FOR WATERCAD COURSE 4
RECOMMENDATION ARISING FROM THE WATERCAD TRAINING COURSE .4
APPENDICES
A Training Schedule for PWD WaterCAD Course 5
B Background Notes on Hydraulics 9
C Design Examples 31
D Data for Model Calibration .43
E Feedback 49
[4]
INTRODUCTION
In September of 2000 a request was made to the SOPAC Water Resources Unit to perform a
week long training course on the hydraulic modelling software WaterCAD by the Fiji Public
Works Department (PWD). WaterCAD is software produced by Haestad Methods.
As part of a review of the Suva-Nausori master plan, an Australian consulting firm produced
a hydraulic model of this network. This model and the WaterCAD software used to build it
were then given to PWD without any training on how to use it. SOPAC was then approached
to provide the required training.
The training course took place during 16-20 October 2000. The venue for the workshop was
the SOPAC Headquarters, Mead Road.
PARTICIPANTS
The following from Fiji PWD participated in the workshop:
Name Position Area PhoneContact
1 Taito Apisarome Technical Assistant Suva Water Supply 321099
2 Timoci Turaga Senior Engineer Suva Water Supply 321099
3 Sereicocoko Yanuyanurua Hydraulics Enqineer Suva Water Supply 385334
4 Samuela Tubui Operations Enclneer Northern Division 812044
5 Piu Sekitoga Acting Supervisor Western Division 660899
6 Viiendra Prasad Water Engineer Suva Water Supply 385334
7 Aiav Prasad Gautam Senior Enqineer Suva Water Supply 385334
8 Taito Delana Senior Engineer Western Division 660899
9 Taniela Qutonilaba Technical Assistant Suva Water Supply 385334
TRAINING SCHEDULE FOR WATERCAD COURSE
An outline of the workshop activities can be found in Appendix A. Material that was used in
the training course has also been appended inclUding:
Background notes on hydraulics (Appendix B)
Design examples (Appendix C)
Data for model calibration (Appendix D)
RECOMMENDATION ARISING FROM THE WATERCAD TRAINING COURSE
Response from the training course was overwhelmingly positive (Appendix E). A number of
points for future note were made however. These include the following:
That future training courses in the use of AutoCAD and Maplnfo software could be
organised through SOPAC.
That the SOPAC WRU are available to assist PWD with the development of WaterCAD
hydraulic models for the Suva, Northern and Western Divisions and that an agreement to
this effect be worked out.
[5]
Appendix A:
Training Schedule for PWD WaterCAD
Course
[SO PAC Miscellaneous Report 395 - Dawe]
[6]
Day 1
1. Introduction to modelling.
2. Theory behind hydraulic models (read through notes- Background Theory for Hydraulic
Modelling):
Energy principle
Conservation of mass
3. Go over notes, highlighting important points
A model is only as good as the data you put in it
Where velocity is high, pressure is low
As pipe diameter increases, head loss decreases
As pipe roughness increases, head loss decreases
4. Introduction to WaterCAD network elements-looking at inputs required:
Pipe
J unction
Tank
Reservoir
Pump
Valve
5. Do Cybernet element tutorials- pipe, pump, reservoir, tank, valve
6. Practice linking the network elements to create a simple model.
7. Try creating a simple system with a pump, using the pump performance curve in your
notes as input data.
Day 2
8. Do tutorial on calculating model results.
9. Do tutorial on reporting model results.
10. Practice calculating and displaying model results using file Paula-PWDIExample2. wcd :
Run model for steady state and extended period analysis
Display results through tables, colour coding, annotation, profiles and contour maps
for the different analysis and the different time steps in the extended period
analysis
11. Simple design example- rural water supply system (Design Example 1from notes)
Does the total demand from the vii/age exceed the minimum flow from the source
spring?
Are the pressures in your system reasonable?
Are your pipe sizes reasonable?
How do they compare with the hand worked solution?
12. Building blocks of a hydraulic model (where to find what types of data):
user demand data
elevation/topography
pipe network layout
13. Do the tutorial on patterns
14. Extended period simulation- flow patterns
Using file Paula-PWDIExample2. wed, change the flow pattern from residential to
quarry demand using the global edit function in the tabular reports for junctions
Using the demand pattern in the Water Distribution section of the notes, create a
demand pattern for the rural example you created and analyse it for the extended
period option. Are the system pressures and flows still reasonable?
Day 3
15. Simple urban system- design, calculate, report (Design Example 2)
Do you have the most cost effective combination of pipes?
16. Calibration of a hydraulic model:
[7)
Data required for calibration
Does it simulate real events
17. For the simple urban system you've just worked on, apply demand and roughness
calibration factors
How does this affect your previous design?
Are you taking into account leakage and the daily peaking factor?
18. Do the database tutorial.
19. Cybernet and other software:
AutoCAD (.dxf files)
~ For creating .dxf backgrounds (Paula-PWDIRaro Cadastral PE Sample.dwg and
Raro.dxf)
Access (databases)
~ see handout on Creating Database Connections Between Maplnfo and Cybernet
Excel (spreadsheet)
~ Create a database connection with Excel exporting pipe length and diameter data from
the pipe table and importing elevation data for the junction table using the simple urban
system you've created. Make sure you save the database connection you've created.
Use the pipe length and diameter data in excel to estimate the cost of the system.
Maplnfo (GIS)
~ DTM of Rarotonga for importing elevation data (Turangi-with_elev. wcd and Turangi-
wo_elev.wcd) and Suva layers for creating a .dxf background (Suva.dxf)
Day 4
20. Using the control function for pumps and valves
21. Using the find function to locate problems within your model
22. Do the scenarios tutorial
23. Running model scenarios:
For calibration
For analysis of system
24. Create scenarios for 10 and 20 years in the future using the simple urban system you've
created based on the given population growth rate
25. Investigate the different scenarios in the file Example2.wcd
26. Using the information provided for the Cook Islands- (pressure, flow and demand data)
calibrate the model in Turangi-with_elev.wcd
27. Things to remember when creating a model for a large-scale network.
28. Complex urban system design example- design, calculate, report.
Suva based on Suva.dxf- try importing elevations from Maplnfo
Lautoka based on Lau.dxf
DayS
29. Other functions of Cybernet:
Do fire flow tutorial
Do water quality tutorial and experiment with Example1.wcd
30. Uses of hydraulic modelling/ interpreting results:
Identifying low pressure areas
Design/effect of upgrades
Leakage estimates
Operation and maintenance
Functioning of the network for different scenarios
For presenting data
31. Remaining questions.
32. Course review.
[8]
[9]
Appendix B:
Background Notes on Hydraulics
[10]
Background Theory for Hydraulic Modelling
Computer Modelling
A model is something that represents something in the real world. A computer model uses
mathematical equations to help explain and predict physical events. Modelling of water
distribution systems can allow you to determine system pressures and flow rates under a
variety of different conditions without havingto go out and physicallymonitor your system.
Cybernet or WaterCAD will help youto do the following:
Performsteady state, extendedperiodandwater qualitysimulations
Size pipes and pumps
Analyse for demands that vary over time
Model tank, pump and valve behaviour
Track chemical constituents in the water
Make estimates of leakagefromthe network
Planning upgrades to the network
It is important to remember the followingwhen modelling:
A model is only as good as the information you put into it!
Basically, if the data you input into the model is crap your results will be crap. The
predictions of pressure and flow rates that the model produces are only as accurate as the
assumptions or data used to formulate the equations in the model. Appropriate values for
friction loss, pump performance, demand, etc. must be carefully defined before being input
into the model. When a model has been properly calibrated, predicted pressures in actual
systems have been found to be within 35 to 70 kPa of measuredvalues.
Hydraulic Theory
Hydrodynamics
Hydrodynamics deals with the movement of fluid. There are 3 basic laws to fluidflow:
1. Conservation of mass
2. Conservation of energy
3. Newton's second lawof motion (F=ma)
The first two laws appear in many different forms, depending on how the symbols are
defined, the importance of terms, the mathematical language used, etc. Basically, you will
still have the same basic equations but different constants and unit conversion terms will be
used.
For the purposes of simplification, it is often assumed that water flows as an incompressible
ideal fluid. An ideal fluid is without Viscosityand therefore can have no frictional effects
between moving fluid layers or between these layers and boundary walls. This means that
there will be no eddy formation or energy dissipation due to friction. The assumption of an
ideal fluid allows a fluid to be treated as a collection of small particles, which will support
pressure forces normal to their surfaces but will slide over one another without resistance. In
situations where friction is small, the frictionless assumption will give good results. Where
friction is large, the assumption of an ideal fluidwill not provide good results.
Conservation of Momentum or Newton's Second Law
The simplest definition of momentum is: momentum =mass x velocity. A body has
momentum by the fact that it is moving. If the velocity is zero, then the momentumis zero.
[11]
The law of conservation of momentum states that a body in motion cannot gain or lose
momentum, unless some external force is applied.
Newtons 2
nd
law of motion is that a force is equal to the rate of change of momentum. Since
we are dealing with the movement of fluid, it only makes sense that laws of motion now apply
to the particles of that fluid. As a fluid particle moves, it is displaced from its original position
over time in the direction of motion. The velocity of this particle can be described by the
equation:
d
v=-
t
If the velocity of the particle changes over time, it will have acceleration. Unbalanced forces
acting on particles of an ideal fluid will result in the acceleration of these particles according
to Newton's 2
nd
law. Thus, a body cannot gain or loose momentum unless an external force
is applied. With acceleration defined, Newton's 2
nd
law of motion can now be applied to the
moving fluid particle. This equation is:
F =(mv
2
-mv
l
)lt=m(v
2
-vl)lt=ma
Another form of this equation for a moving fluid can be written as:
F =pQ(v
2
-VI) =pAv
2
The application of the momentum equation can be demonstrated as moving liquid
approaches a bend in a pipe. The waters tendency is to continue moving in a straight line.
To make it flow around the bend the pipe must exert a force on the water as shown in the
diagram below. Looking at a control volume in a pipe bend which changes direction in either
the horizontal or vertical plane, summing the forces on the control volume results in the
following equations:
This summing of forces can be applied to many different control volume examples, such as
in reducers and nozzles.
Conservation of Mass
The law of conservation of mass states that mass must be conserved. It can neither be
created nor destroyed. Basically, what this means is that what goes in, must come out. The
following diagram illustrates this:
The above is further explained by the following equation, otherwise known as one form of the
continuity equation:
y-X =0
The continuity equation expresses the continuity of flow from one section of a fluid to another
as the fluid moves. Another way to express conservation of mass is by the following
equation:
p\A\v\ =P2A2V2
This equation expresses the fact that in steady flow, the mass flowrate passing all sections of
a streamtube is constant.
What are the units of pAv? Does they constitute a mass flow rate?
For fluids of constant density, the continuity equation can be expressed as follows where, Q
is designated as the volume flowrate:
Q =A\v\ =A
2
v
2
What are the units of Q?
Conservation of Energy
The principle of conservation of energy states that energy can neither be created nor
destroyed, but can be transformed from one form to another. Energy must be conserved.
There are numerous forms of energy- mechanical energy, potential energy, heat energy,
kinetic energy, sound energy, etc. that it can be transferred to and from.
Considering a fluid streamline, the driving force tending to accelerate the fluid mass are (the
L l can be termed the "change in" the following parameter):
1. pressure forces acting on either ends of the element
F=MM
2. and the component of weight acting in the direction of motion
W=pgM&
The change in mass being accelerated by the action of these forces can be experssed by:
M =pi1dM
Applying Newton's 2
nd
law we can substitute these previous equations into
F=ma
i1v
-MM- pgM& =(pi1dM)v-
i1d
Dividing by pM gives:
[13]
M
-+g&+vL1v=0
p
For incompressible flow, this form of Newton's 2
nd
equation can be divided by g in order to
obtain Bernoulli's equation:
p v
2
-+-+z=H
pg 2g
Bernoulli's equation is an energy balanceformone point in a hydraulic systemto another. It
applies to all points on the streamline and thus provides a useful relationship between
pressure P, velocity v, and height above a datum, z. Units of headare in meters, but head is
just another way to express energy.
The components of Bernoulli's Equation represent different forms of energy present in a fluid.
These can be broken down as follows:
Pressure Head: P Energyimpartedby pressure, or work done on fluid
r
Elevation Head: z Same as Potential Energyor energydue to gravity
2
Velocity Head: ~ Same as Kinetic Energyor energydue to motion
2g
The Bernoulli equation may be visualised for liquids as vertical distances. The sum of all
three terms (or total head) is the distance between the horizontal datum and the Energy
Hydraulic Grade Line (HGL):
Sum of pressure head and elevation head
In water open to the atmosphere (river, lake), the HGL is at the water surface
The hydraulic gradient is the slope of the hydraulic grade line
The height to which water will rise in a piezometer or standpipe in a pipeline, if a tapping
is made.
Flow normally occurs in the direction of the hydraulic gradient from high to low pressure,
although the hydraulic gradient may rise over short distances giving an adverse gradient
which can be overcome by the momentum of the fluid
Negative pressures occur at any place where the pipeline rises above the hydraulic grade
line
When might an adverse pressure gradient form, trying to push the liquid back in the direction
of flow?
Energy Grade Line (EGL):
Sum of elevation, pressure and velocity head
Always goes down in the direction of flow
Because energy can neither be created nor destroyed, the Bernoulli equation can be further
expanded to act as an energy balance for fluid in a system. The total energy of the fluid at
one point has to equal the total energy of the fluid at a point farther down the streamline, but
relative proportions of the form the energy is in (pressure energy, elevation energy, kinetic
energy) may change. The following equation demonstrates this:
[15]
From this equation, it makes sense that when velocity increases, the sum of pressure and
elevation head must decrease. In many flow problems, elevation may vary little and the
general statement- where velocity is high, pressure is low- can be made. When liquid flows
through a pipeline, the continuity equation has to be obeyed, so any loss of energy appears a
a reduction in pressure. For example, if water flows through a ling pipeline of constant
diameter at a constant rate, then the mean velocity must be the same at all points along the
pipeline to maintain continuity of flow. Thus any loss of energy appears as a reduction of
pressure or head.
One useful application of Bernoulli's equation is that it shows that the velocity of an ideal fluid
exiting from a small orifice under a static head varies with the square root of the head. This
can be expressed by the following equation called Torricelli's theorem:
v=~2gh
The following points should be remembered when applying Bernoullis Equation.
1. Apply the Bernoulli equation in such a way as to minimize the number of unknown
variables. If energy losses are ignored there are six variables. After the use of other
equations, such as the continuity equation, there must be only one unknown to be able to
solve the problem. You can select which 2 points to use in the analysis.
2. Many problems involve a body with a free water surface, such as a tank or reservoir.
Normally we work with gauge pressure which uses atmospheric pressure as a datum, so
if a point is selected on the water surface, the pressure is atmospherice and P=O.
3. If a pipe or nozzle discharges to the atmosphere and the jet has a constant diameter then
it can be assumed that the water pressure in the jet is the same as the surrounding
atmosphere. If gauge pressure is used, P=O.
4. With large tanks or reservoirs the velocity on the water surface can be assumed to be
zero, so v=O.
5. The datum from which elevation is measured can be taken through the lower of the two
points being used in the analysis, so either Z1 or Z2 =O.
6. Make a drawing of the hydraulic system marking in the known values and the unknown
values.
[16]
Real Fluid Flow
The flow of a real fluid is more complex than that of an ideal fluid owing to the presence of
viscosity. Viscosity introduces resistance to motion by causing shear or friction forces
between fluid particles and between these and boundary walls. For flow to take place, work
must be done against these resistance forces, and in the process energy is converted to
heat.
The effects of viscosity cause the flow of a real fluid to occur under two very different
conditions or regimes:
Laminar flow
Turbulent flow
In experiments conducted by Reynold's, he discovered that for low velocities of flow in a
glass pipe, a thin filament of dye issuing from the tube did not diffuse but was maintained
intact throughout the pipe, forming a thin straight streamline. However, as velocity was
increased in the pipe, the dye filament would waver and break up, diffusing through the
flowing water in the pipe. From this experiment, Reynold's was able to isolate a critical
velocitv from which flow chanaed from one reaime to the other.
Since surface roughness increases the turbulence in a flowing fluid and thus decreasing the
effect of viscous action, roughness contributes to energy loss within the fluid. Energy is
dissipated by the work done in continually generating turbulence by the roughness. The
energy involved in this turbulence is composedof the kinetic enrgy of the fluid mass. Energy
dissipation is therefore proportional to the squareof velocity.
Velocity Profiles
The shearing stress created by viscosity effects in the fluid produce velocity profiles
characterized by reduced velocities near the boundary surfaces. This differs from the
uniformvelocity distribution of an ideal fluid. Since the velocity is no longer uniform, mean
velocity is now used in calculations with real fluid flow, and a correction factor is applied to
the velocity head. This correction is expressedas follows, where a is the correction factor.
v
2
a-
2g
This equation shows that head loss is not a loss of total energy, but rather a conversion of
energy to heat, part of which leaves the fluid. Friction energy or head loss is then in effect
lost from the useful total of pressure, velocity and potential energies.
The subject of pipe flow involves only those pipes in which flow is completely full. Pipes that
flow partially full such as in channels and sewers are treated as open channels. The solution
of pipe flow problems results from the application of the energy principle, equation of
continuity and the principles and equations of fluid resistance. Resistance to flow in pipes is
offered by long stretches of pipe and also by pipe-fittings, such as bends and valves.
Head Loss can be calculated using the following 3 equations:
Darcy-Weisbach Equation (use this one for pipe systems)
Mannings Equation
Hazen-Williams Equation
Darcy-Weisbach Equation
Early experiments indicated that head loss varied directly with velocity head and pipe length
(I) and inversely with pipe diameter (d). Knowing this, the following equation for head loss
was dirived where f is called the friction factor:
I v
2
h
L
=1 d 2g
This equation, is the basic equation for calculating head loss caused by pipe friction (not pipe
fittings) in long, straight, uniform pipes.
In words it expresses the following relationships:
hLuf the rougher the pipe, the greater the head loss
hLul the longer the pipe, the greater the head loss
[20]
hLaV the higher the velocity, the greater the head loss
hLa11d the larger the diameter, the smaller the head loss
It is found that f depends only on the Reynolds number and another dimentionless parameter
eld, called the relative roughness, where e is the height of surface roughness on the wall of
the pipe, and depends on the pipe material. Values of typical pipe roughness can be found
in the following insert. This relationship indicates a convenient means of presenting
experimental data on the friction factor.
The dependence of f on the Reynolds number and eld is different in laminar and turbulent
flow regimes. In laminar flow, f is only dependent on R and may be calculated from the
following equation:
f =64
R
Laminar flow can then be expressed as:
Q =;rd4pghL
128J.ll
Can you derive this equation?
Within the turbulent flow regime, as velocity and R increase, it is evident that the thickness of
the laminar film will decrease and the effect of viscous friction will decrease while roughness
will become more important. In the region described as completely turbulent, f depends only
upon eld. The variation of fwith these parameters is shown on the Moody diagram.
Hazen-Williams Equation
The Hazen-Williams equation was also developed for use in the pipe-flow problems. It can
be expressed as follows:
v ~ k C R "' SO" or h
L
=~9 ,f ( ~ J "
where:
v is the mean velocity, C is a factor dependent on relative roughness, R is the hydraulic
radius (area of flow divided by the wetted perimeter), S is the slope of the energy grade line,
and k is a factor dependent on units (0.849 for mls and m).
Values of C are found in the following table. They reflect the fact that long-term corrosion
and encrustation occurs in the pipe as it ages, increasing the pipes roughness. This effect
can be seen in the pictures below.
Description of Pipe Valueof C
Cast iron: new 130
5 yrs old 120
10 vrs old 110
20 vrs old 90-100
30 yrs old 75-90
Concrete 120
Cement lined 140
Plastic 150
Asbestos cement 140
16 (;11 ,.\ new 8.QOmmdmmcicr duenlc iron pipe ith cement mortar lining. I~} An old. ~Ommrl iami:l ~.
pipe showil l S severe Htl :r.:rCl tl al i,)It.t"o,e 111<:: reduced hut:: as wdl a~)I~re;l sed roughn I:"'i
This equation is not applicable for low values of Reynold's number. The following nomogram
for the Hazen-Williams equation can be used to graphically solve the equation for discharge,
pipe size or energy slope given the other two variables. The following corrections can be
used for C values other than 100.
(
100)1.85 (100).38 ( C )
s; =SIOO C de =dlO O C o; =Ql Oo 100
Mannings Equation
The Manning equation is most commonly used for the analysis of flow in open channels, but
it can also be applied to pipelines. For a pipe flowing full this equation is as follows, where n
is the Manning roughness coeficient.
= 0.39 7D2/3S0.5 h =(~J2L
v F or L 066
n ~
Minor Losses
The category of minor losses in pipes includes losses incurred by change of section, bends
elbows, valves and fittings of all types. In longer pipes, minor losses can be neglected
without serious error in calculation. In shorter pipes, these losses become more important.
Minor losses usually result from rather abrupt changes (in magnitude or direction) of velocity.
Generally, an increase of velocity is associated with small head loss, but a decrease of
velocity causes large head loss because of boundary layer effects which result in flow
seperation and extreme turbulence.
eany experiments mcicateo mat minor losses vary wnn me square or veiocny. I ne neaa lOSS
may be expressed as:
2
HL=k ~
2g
where k is the loss coefficient and is a function of changes in direction, obstructions, or
changes in velocity. k is constant for a given fitting, but varies with fitting size.
Expansions in piplines, produce substantial energy losses. At abrupt enlargements energy
loss can be calculated from:
HL= (V\-V2)2
2g
One special case of a sudden contraction is that of a square edged pipe entrance from a
large tank where V1 is O. For this situation:
2
HL=0.52
2g
If the entrance is bell-mouthed, k can be taken as 0.4. The insert table on the following page
gives various k values for different fittings.
Fitting K
Entrance 0.5
Contraction 0.143
90 bend 0.18
Gate valve 0.12
Check valve 0.75
Elbow 0.39
Expansion 0.277
Bell-mouthed Entrance 0.4
Exit 1
k can also be expressed in terms of equivalent length (Vd) at a certain velocity. This is
expressed as follows and demonstrates the relationship that exists between f and k:
k =f
i
d
Where:
1= pipe length
[23]
d= pipe diameter
Pipe Line Problem
All steady-flow pipe line problems may be solved by the application of the Bernoulli and
continuity equations. Ususlly, the engineeringproblems consist of:
1. Calculation of head loss and pressure variation from flowrate and pipe-line
characteristics
2. Calculation of flowrate frompipe characteristics andthe headwhich produces flow
3. Calculation of required pipe diameter to pass a given flowrate between two regions of
known pressure difference
The first of these problems can be solveddirectly, but solution by trial is requiredfor 2 and 3.
Trial and error solutions are necessitated by the fact that the friction factor, f, depend upon
the Reynolds number, which in turn depends upon flowrate and pipe diameter. However,
flow in rough pipes at high Reynolds numbers usually does not warrant trial and error
solutions.
There are a fewpoints to remember when using Bernoullis equation:
1. Pipes must beflowing completelyfull under pressure
2. Open channels or pipes which run partially full with a free water surface that is at
atmospheric pressure are not analysedusingBernoulli
Construction of the energy and hydraulic grade lines for many problems is quite useful.
Consider a pipe line laid between 2 reservoirs having different elevations. The energy line
must start in one reservoirs surface and end in the other, using a gradual drop to repersent
head loss due to pipe friction hI, and abrupt drops to represent entrance, henh and exit losses,
hexit The total head loss can then be expressedas:
[25]
Step 1- Estimating the level of water consumption
the amount of water you have to supply determines how big your distribution system will
have to be- ego pipe size
in order to estimate future water use, you have to estimate the future population you are
going to be supplying
Things that increase (t) or decrease (-/,)water usage:
population- more people use more water
climate- people use more water in drier, hotter climates (eg. watering gardens)
economic level- rich people use more water than poorer people
population density- areas where you have high concentrations of people living have a
lower water demand (eg. in apartment buildlnqs, don't have to water lawns)
industry- industrial demands tend to be high, but it depends on the type of industry
cost- people who pay for their water use less
pressure- distributions systems that operate under high pressures use more water
quality of supply- people use less water if the quality of that water is poor
culture- some cultures use more water than others (eg. keeping pigs uses a lot of water)
Different types of users:
domestic
commercial (stores, bars, restaurants, hotels)
industrial (airports, factories)
institutional (government buildinqs, schools, hospitals, prisons)
agricultural
Total Consumption = domestic use +commercial use +public use +loss and waste
Water consumption varies during the:
year- highest during the dry season
day- highest around 7am in the morning when people getting up and showering, lowest
from 2-4am in the morning when people are asleep
[26]
Components of Water Distribution System
Pipes~ pressurized closed conduits
Stresses Acting on Pipes:
Pressure of water acting on the pipe (remember that the water doesn't want to be in the
pipe and is always trying to force its way out)
Forces caused by changes in the direction of flow within the pipe
External loads like the weight of dirt on the buried pipe
Changes in velocity
Water Hammer
Results from the sudden stopping or slowing of flow in a pipe
The kinetic energy of the water is transferred to the pipe wall and acts to stretch, deform
and burst the pipe
Can be avoided by closing valves slowly for example
Low Points
Where the depth of the pipe below the ground surface is great
High pressures may form at low points in the distribution system
You want to break the hydraulic gradient at low points with pressure reducing valves
(PRV), overflows, auxiliary reservoirs
Place hydrants at low points in order to drain the distribution lines for maintenance
purposes, and to remove sediment
High Points
Should be kept below the HGL, otherwise you can get negative pressures in pipes which
leads to the accumulation of gasses that may block the flow of water through pipes
Negative pressures in pipes can create a vacuum that will actually suck water from the
ground into your pipe~ problem if you are sucking in contaminated water from a septic
tank
Flow in a pipe is possible up to around -7.5m of water, after this vaporisation of the liquid
can be expected
Use vacuum, air relief valves, or pressure sustaining valves (PSV) to release air initially
in the line or that accumulates over time, or to admit air when the line is being emptied for
maintenance purposes
Pumps
The addition of mechanical energy to moving fluid by a pump alters the basic energy balance
of the Bernoulli equation. With the addition of energy by a pump, an additional term must be
included in the equation.
r; v
2
, P2 V
2
2
-+-+z,+Epump =-+-+Z2
pg 2g pg 2g
Epump will appear as an abrupt rise in the energy line over the pump machine. Pumps
therefore, add head to hydraulic systems.
There are 3 main types of pumps available on the market:
1. Centrifugal Pumps
2. Axial Flow Pumps
3. Mixed Flow Pumps
[29]
if the water supply is located above the level of the water users, no pumping is required
~ this is a gravity distribution system
the steepness of the slope effects the pipe design and velocity of flows in the pipe
water will flow from a high point to a low point, but if there is a rise in between the water
must have sufficient energy to flow over this rise
Users
how much water people use determines how big your distribution system is going to have
to be
Steps in designing a distribution system:
1. Flows to each section of the community must be estimated and designated to individual
subareas of your system
2. A system of interlocking loops must be laid out- this ensures continuous delivery of
water even if a portion of the system is shut down for repairs
3. Flows are assigned to various nodes of the system
The actual design of the distribution network involves determining the size of the arterials,
secondary lines and small distribution mains required to ensure appropriate pressures,
flows, head losses and velocities in the system under a variety of design flow conditions
Design flow:
must make sure that the system operates during the worst case scenario~ maximum
daily flow +fire flow
The design of a distribution system is based on the provision of adequate pressure for
fire protection at the maximum daily flow, including fire demand
There are many solutions to the design problem of creating a distribution system-s you must
optimise (adjust parameters such as pipe size to achieve the most appropriate pressures at
nodes and velocities in pipes) to find the best solution. The following insert helps to explain
this.
Distribution system consists of a network of:
nodes-e points of flow withdrawal
links~ pipes connecting nodes
It is not reasonable to analyse a system up to every house-s individual flows can be
concentrated at a smaller number of points, commonly at pipe (or road) intersections
The usual engineering approach to the design of a looped pipe system involves laying out
the network, assigning estimated pipe sizes, and calculating resulting flows and head losses.
The pipe sizes are then adjusted as necessary to ensure the pressures at the various nodes
and the velocities in the various pipes meet the criteria.
The calculation of the flows and pressures can be performed using the Hardy Cross method.
This method is based upon the hydraulic formulas used to calculate energy losses in
elements of a system. The energy loss in any element of the pipe system may be expressed
as:
hj =kjQt
Where:
hi =energy loss in element i
OJ =flow in that element
~ =constant depending on pipe diameter, length, type and condition
[30]
x =1.85 to 2, depending on the equation used
For any pipe in a loop of the system, the actual flow will differ froman assumed flow by an
amount i1:
Q
i
=Qassumed +.6.
For any loop, the sum of the head losses about the loop must be equal to zero. Thus, for
any loop:
I.k .Qx =0
I ,
The above equation can then besolvedfor the correction:
.6. =_ I.h
i
" , h .
x"",-'
o,
The Hardy Cross procedure maybe outlinedas follows:
1. Disaggregate the flowto the various blocks or other sub-areas of the community
2. Concentrate the disaggregatedflows at the nodes of the system
3. Add the requiredfire flowat appropriate nodes
4. Select initial pipe sizes
5. Assume any internally consistent distribution of flow. The sumof the flows entering and
leaving each node must be equal to zero
6. Compute the head loss in each element of the system. Conventionally, clockwise flows
are positive and produce positive headloss
7. With due attention to sign convention, compute the total head loss around each loop:
I.h
i
=I.k iQt
8. Compute, without regardto sign, the sumI.k
i
Qt-
1
9. Calculate the correction for each loop (Li) and apply the correction to each line in the
loop. Lines common to two loops receivetwo corrections withdue attention to sign.
10. Repeat the procedure until the corrections calculated in step 9 are less than some
stipulated maximum. Theflows and pressures in the initial networkare then known.
11. Compare the pressures and velocities in the balanced network to standard criteria.
Adjust the pipe sizes to reduce or increase velocities and pressures and repeat the
procedure until a satisfactorysolution is obtained
Typical Design Parameters
Fire Flows (Umin) 1890 ~ min
32 400 ~ max
i e on/off valves 150-250 m
to prevent deposition of 0.3-0.6rn/s
~1 m/s
of streets
[31]
Appendix c:
Design Examples
_"'''''"C::::,~:'';-::t:'~'':=:::;;;''':'_''::-=:;C':=:-'_'_4 . - """-"""*-""~~~-'~~----~-~.=::---=::=:::-":"'-:::::::C7::=:_:=::'-=-~- ---":==--~--=::;::.-------:=--::::::::::_?.::?~5~=;:::_:::-
By interpol ation, frictional l oss is 5.1 m/km for a fl ow of 2.3 lis. Therefore, total
frictional l oss is
2038 X 5.1
1000
= l OAm
and the height of the HGL above the water l evel in the tank is 20 - lOA = 9.6m
which meets the design requirements of 5mminimum.
, n Three Hour Practical
iJ es'3')
E I
1
1. General
XQi'Y'tp e
This exampl e is taken from an Indonesian project operated by CARP. It can be
usedas the basis to create a worked exampl e for a three hour practical by al tering
parameters to be more representative of conditions in this country. Participants
shoul d fol l ow the step-by-step design procedure outl ined bel ow.
A vil l age has a popul ation of 850 divided into two parts, Part I with 605 persons
and Part II with 245 persons. A water source with an estimated minimum fl ow of
one l is is l ocated approximatel y 2,300 metres from the vil l age. The standpipes are
used for 12hours per day. Assume that gal vanized iron pipe must be used for al l
pipe because of the rocky terrain. (A sketch map of the vil l age anda ground
profil e are presented in Figures 3 to 6. Designthe pipel ines required to serve and
pl ot the hydraul ic gradient for each pipe l ength.
2. DesignParameters
Population
The design popul ation is the expectedpopul ation in 10years at a 2%
growth rate or 850 X 1.22equal to 1,037 persons. For designpurposes
this is rounded up to 1,050 persons.
Water Usage
It is preferabl e to suppl y the maximum amount of water possibl e but a
per capita suppl y of 100l itres per day woul d require 105,000l itres/day or
a fl ow of 1.21 lis. Since the estimated minimum fl ow of the source is onl y
1lis this is not possibl e. A per capita use of 80l itres/day woul drequire
an average dail y fl ow of 0.97 l is andthis is possibl e.
Storage Requirements
A per capita use of 80 l itres/ day means that the average dail y usage is 80
X 1,050 or 84,000 l itres. Because the gal vanized iron pipe is so expensive
the smal l est pipe possibl e is used. In order to reduce the size of the main 17
pipe, storage wil l be l ocated in the vil l age. The recommended storage is
then one hal f of 84,000 l itres or 42m
3
Basedon the present popul ation
distribution 245 +850 X 42m
3
or 12.1m
3
shoul d be in Part II and 605 +
850 X 42m
3
or 29.9m
3
shoul d be inPart I. Basedon the vil l age sketch it
has been decided that the water wil l be distributed to five publ ic
reservoirs, three in Part I and two in Part II. With this l ayout, the water
wil l be under vil l age control . Costs wil l be reduced because the main pipe
does not have to convey peak fl ows of water. The publ ic reservoirs are to
be situated on high points to obtain any acceptabl e pressure head at the
tank outl et.
The three reservoirs in Part I wil l be 10m
3
each for a total of 30m
3
(rounded up from 29.9m
3
). The two reservoirs in Part II wil l be 6m
3
each
for a total of 12m
3
(rounded down from 12.1m
3
). With this distribution of
reservoirs, no one has to wal k more than 100meters to obtain water.
4J4 f ' f f &;T S,,: J,: ;,(t,} ;! .')7 ~~ ?~':'" \,,,,," - '-'
\Sj1-":":"'< ,
.~.; .., "':',
-,<"--., ,.",\,;,/:'.,,: .:
_-_ h~~ 4*~ .;tno' :1t> t~:4d;VW -FifiPjJ 1
Number of Faucets
The number of persons per faucet shoul d be between 30 and 100so the
number of faucets for Part I shoul d be between 6 and20 and for Part II
between 2 and 8. In order to accomodate future demand, a higher number
is preferabl e. Thus 6 faucets at each of the three reservoirs in Part I and 4
faucets at each of the reservoirs in Part II give a total of 26. The average
number of persons per faucet (based on the future popul ation of 1050) is
42 for Part I and 37 for Part II. Hal f of the faucets can be pl aced on one
side of the reservoir and hal f on the opposite side. Thus, one area can be
used by femal es and the other by mal es.
Design Flows
The path of the pipel ine is sketched in Figure 3. The water wil l fl ow
continuousl y into the reservoirs so the design fl ows wil l be the same as the
average dail y fl ows. The peaking factor is therefore 1. At the projected
per capita use of 80 IIday the average dail y fl ow is 0.97 lis but the spring
has an estimated minimum fl ow of 1.0 l is. Therefore, 1.0 lis wil l be used
in designing the pipel ine.
18 From the source to the junction at point A the design fl ow usedis 1.0 l is.
At point A this fl ow is divided with 0.71 lis fl owingto Part I and
reservoir B. The remainder of 0.29 lis wil l fl ow to Part II andreservoir E .
At reservoir B 0.23 lis is taken and the remainder of 0.48 lis fl ows to
reservoir C. At C 0.24 lis is taken andthe remainder of 0.24 lis fl ows to
reservoir D. At reservoir E 0.14 lis is taken and the remainder of 0.15 lis
fl ows to reservoir F. The design fl ows are noted on the pipel ine route and
profil e.
'. i> ! "ml l i! 1! l m~~'
,> ' '. . ""Fmi::) ~~~i!
. (d'~' "';:k' L"'" '.>
... H"H' ..., ..;>~... _.,..'"'.H" ..:.";..; ..;"".,,, .;~."'~",.,.,J"i," .... , .. ,. _"""""'i,,,,,, .,,..,~";"'""',, u~ f:::lWt:iilliliih!I~~i.:~
change diameters in such a way that cost is reduced at each step. The worked
probl em bel ow indicates how this might be done. It is important to note however,
that the preferabl e approach is to use a computer, even for branched networks,
which is described in the notes for the secondsubmodul e.
Worked Example
( ) -
e5IQ n F" 1 h f acommuni . hI' f
..J igure sows a street map 0 a commumty WIt present popu anon 0 1,000that
Ey. QM \e '1 is to be servedentirel y by publ ic standpipes. The purpose of this exampl e is to
P il l ustrate the four steps of design usinga conventional approach that empl oys a
desk cal cul ator.
Figure 1: Street Map of Worked E xampl e
..
Background Data
Present Popul ation 1,000
Average per capita fl ow 100 l /c/d
Peaking factor 3
Town growth rate 2 %/year
Design period 20 years
Unaccounted for l osses 20 0/0
Number of persons per standpipe 100
Maximum l evel of el evated tank 16 m
Minimum l evel of el evated tank 12 m
Ground el evation, al l nodes 0 m
M;n;mnm l l l l owahl e nressure 5 m\~
---------------------_ .
co]
Layout
With 1,000 persons intown and 100persons per standpipe, there wil l be 10
standpipes. If the popul ation is more or l ess evenl y distributed throughout the
town, the standpipes shoul d be evenl y spaced. They shoul d be l ocated al ong
streets where users have easy access, near street comers if possibl e. Figure 1shows
one arrangement of the standpipes, which are denoted by node numbers.
This network has a singl e source at the el evated tank (node 11). The task now is to
connect the standpipe nodes to the source node keepingtotal pipe l ength as short
as possibl e, l ayingpipes in streets, and sel ectingroutes where the greatest number
of houses are l ocated so that in the future when the system is upgraded to
individual connections, these houses wil l be abl e to connect. Figure 2 shows the
resul ting l ayout. This network has 1source node (No. 11), 10demand nodes (Nos.
1-10),3 junction nodes (Nos. 12-14), and 13pipes. In a branched network, the
number of pipes is al ways 1l ess than the number of nodes.
Figure 2: Network L ayout of Worked E xampl e
Flows
The peak hourl y design fl ow for this network is cal cul ated inthe sl ide show and
above. It is 557 mt/d which is equival ent to 6.5 l itres/second.
Since this is a smal l town with onl y domestic demand to be servedandsince each
standpipe serves the same number of persons, the fl ow at each demand node (Nos.
1-10) is assumed to be identical , namel y 0.65 l itres/second, andthe infl ow at node
No. 11is 6.5 l itres/second. Note that the network is beingdesignedto meet peak
hourl y demands.
With a takeoff fl ow of 0.65 Ips at each demand node, it is an easy matter to
cal cul ate the fl ows in the 13pipes of the network. It is preferabl e to start the
,
110.'" DlIIiiiii ~_'fl )f7nl ~il \'1~~MiIIC'~h~~"'9M''"~~",.~~~''C"~''=n_~f'''oI''W __ ~_~''''' __ '''"'...,''''n_ ...,~_n.c.,.,.-
@A]
, . '_.. ,,1.' ,-,: .. ,~.j~.".. ,~~.";'~~i~~(~~~
cal cul ations at the terminal ends andwork toward the source. For exampl e, the
fl ow in pipe No. 13is 0.65, in No. 12it is 1.30, etc. The l ist of pipe fl ows and
their l engths is as fol l ows:
Pipe No. L ength (m) Fl ow (Ips)
1 1~ ~~
2 210 5.85
3 225 1.95
4 95 1.30
5 110 0.65
6 165 0.65
7 155 1.30
8 lW Q~
9 1~ Q~
10 155 1.95
11 140 0.65
12 235 1.30
13 160 0.65
Pressures
From the Background Data, the water el evation in the tank varies between 12and
16 m. At the time of peak hourl y demand, the l evel shoul d be approximatel y
midway in the tank. Hence, the inl et pressure is 14m.
The minimum target pressure is 5 m. Because the network is fl at, this pressure
shoul d occur at the terminal nodes of the network. That is, if the network is wel l
designed, the pressure at each of the 6 terminal nodes (Nos I, 2, 6, 7, 8 and 10)
shoul d be about 5 m.
Diameters
Usingthe method in the sl ide show, the first task is to cal cul ate the minimum
hydraul ic gradient. This means findingthe l ongest branch anddividingits l ength
into the avail abl e head, which in this case is 14- 5 = 9 m.
This network has 6 branches, one for each terminal node. The branches can be
designated by the terminal node numbers. For exampl e, branch No. 6 incl udes
pipes No. I, 2, 7 and 8, and branch No.8 incl udes pipes No. I, 2, 10and 11. The
branches with their pipe numbers andtotal l engths are:
Branch Pipe Numbers Total L ength (m)
6
1 1,2,3,4,6 860
2 1,2,3,4,5 805
6 1,2,7,8 650
7 1,2,7,9 705
8 1,2,10,11 670
10 1,2,10,12,13 925
The branch with terminal node No. 10is l ongest, and its average hydraul ic
gradient is 9 m: 925 m = 0.00973.
. -
&oJ
Usingthe Hazen Wil l iams equation andthis gradient, the diameter of each pipe in
the network can be cal cul ated based on its design fl ow. The Hazen Wil l iams
equation is:
Q = 3.7 X 10-6C 1)2.63(H/L )OS4
Q ::::fl ows, Ips
C =roughness co-efficient =130
D = diameter, mm
H/L = hydraul ic gradient = 0.00973
Substituting these val ues into this equation yiel ds:
Q = 3.94 x 10-
5
D2.63
Rearranging by sol ving for diameter:
Q = 47.28 QO.38
Usingthis equation, the diameter of each pipe can be cal cul ated. For many of the
pipes, the diameter wil l not be a commercial size. Hence, the exact diameter wil l
have to be rounded up rather than down, but this is a matter of judgement. The
resul ting diameters in mm are:
E xact
Pipe No. Diameter Rounded mm
1 96 100
2 93 100
3 61 50
4 52 50
5 40 38
6 40 38
7 52 50
8 40 38
9 40 38
10 61 50
11 40 38
12 52 50
13 40 38
This is an initial estimate of diameters. Note that al l of them were rounded down
to commercial sizes except those for pipes No. 1and 2. If al l diameters had been
rounded up incl uding pipes No.3 to 13, there woul dbe no question about the
feasibil ity of this design; al l node pressures woul dbe above the minimum target
val ue because the gradient woul d be l ess than 0.00973 which was usedto cal cul ate
the exact diameters. Because el evenof the diameters were rounded down,
however, a check must be made to verify that the proposed design is feasibl e.
The actual headl oss shoul d be cal cul ated ineach pipe, and if the minimum target
pressure of at l east 5 m is not obtained at each terminal node, then diameters
shoul d be adjusted until this is achieved. There are 6 branches in this network;
onl y two of them wil l be checked in this worked exampl e. The others can be
checked as an exercise.
Consider the branch with terminal node No.1; its pipes are Nos. 1,2,3,4 and 6.
The Hazen Wil l iams equation can be rearranged to sol ve for pipe headl oss (H) as
a function of fl ow (Q), diameter (D), and l ength (L). The equation (for C =130)
is:
.... ,., '-~' '~;.':"~~"~:<h"~" __' -~;~.""",,;_;~i_"~\i.,.,;,{.:~.'~i;.)..~"~:,~-~;:.-;ii,i~:kW~,i:,~<~' ~~~~l iiiWl iiil G ~
.
H =1.39 X 10
6
QI.86 L/D4.87
Now, usingthe initial rounded diameters, pipe fl ows and pipe l engths, the
headl oss in each pipe can be cal cul ated. For the branch with terminal node No.1,
the actual headl oss woul d be:
Pipe No. 1 2 3 4 6
Q (Ips) 6.50 5.85 1.95 1.30 0.65
L (m) 165 210 225 95 165
D (mm) 100 100 50 50 38
H (m) 1.33 1.39 5.73 1.14 2.09
The total headl oss in this branch is the sum of the individual pipe l osses which is
11.68 m. Hence, with a pressure at the inl et of 14m, the pressure at terminal node
No.1 is 14.0 - 11.68 = 2.34 m, which is bel ow the minimum pressure target of 5
m. Hence the diameters for this branch are infeasibl e.
Now l et's check the branch with terminal node No. 10; the pipes in this branch are
Nos. 1,2, 10, 12and 13. Usingthe same approach, the total headl oss is cal cul ated
to be 11.51 m, which means that the pressure at node No. 10woul d be
14.0 - 11.51 =2.49 m. Again, the design is infeasibl e because the pressure is
bel ow the minimum target of 5 m. Both of these infeasibil ities occurred because of
rounding el even of the pipes down instead of up. It is important to note that this
happened despite what appears to be substantial increases that were made by
rounding up pipe Nos. 1and 2.
The question now is how can some diameters be changed to make the design
feasibl e?Which pipes shoul d be adjusted? The general rul e to fol l ow in cases
where diameters need to be enl arged is: l eave pipes near the ends smal l and enl arge
them near the source. In cases where diameters are too l arge and must be reduced,
the rul e is reversed: l eave pipes near the source l arge and reduce those nearer the
ends. This rul e wil l general l y resul t in l owering the cost.
In the case of these branches, it was pipes fairl y cl ose to the source that were
rounded down that caused the infeasibil ity, namel y pipes No.3 and 10. Since
diameters needto be enl arged, the above rul e suggests that these are the pipes
whose diameters shoul d be changed. Assume that the next l arger commercial size
above 50 mm is 75 mm. Hence, it is proposed that pipes No.3 and 10both be
increased to 75 mm. The resul ting design is:
Pipe No. Diameter
1 100
8 2 100
3 75
4 50
5 38
6 38
7 50
8 38
9 38
10 75
11 38
12 50
13 38
Usingthe Hazen Wil l iams equation, the headl oss in pipe No.3 with 75 mm
diameter woul d be 0.79 m, and in pipe No. 10and 75 mrn, the headl oss woul dbe
" < t, "'~.;~,
M; .:l.]
0.66 m. Hence, these changes woul dincrease the pressures at terminal nodes No. 1
and 10to 7.26 m and 5.88 m, respectivel y. As expected, the design is feasibl e.
To concl ude this exampl e, l et us cal cul ate the cost of pipe in the network usingthe
diameters l istedabove. Recent prices in pesos per metre for constructing pipe in
South Atnerica are shown bel ow; the tabl e al so shows the l ength of each different
diameter pipe in the proposed network. Total pipe cost is 1.269 mil l ion pesos.
Diameter(mm) Price (P1m) L ength (m) Cost (10
3
P)
38 300 870 261
50 440 485 213
75 800 380 304
100 1310 375 491
Three Hour Practical
1. The Three Hour Practical session for this submodul e shoul d be patterned
after the worked probl em above except usingl ocal data. The participants
can be divided into groups of from I to 3 persons. E ach group shoul d be
given a street map of a smal l community and asked to design a branched
network. E ven if the topography is hil l y, it shoul d be assumed to be fl at.
E ach group shoul d assume a different set of background data and
produce a design for those conditions. Because cal cul ation wil l be made
by hand, the networks shoul d have a maximum of about 25 pipes. If there
are several groups, an interesting exercise is to have each group work on
the same probl em usingthe same map, but with different design
standards. For exampl e, one group can assume per capita fl ow of tOOl ed
and another can use 150l ed. One group can use an el evated tank height of
13m and another can use 18m. One group can assume 200 persons per
standpipe and another can assume 150. After each group does its best to
produce a l east cost network design, the groups shoul d be reassembl ed so
they can compare their resul ts, especial l y network costs. They shoul d pay
particul ar attention to the effects that design pressures and fl ows have on
pipe sizes and costs.
In addition to these practical exampl es the fol l owing points can be
considered through cl ass discussion, or in smal l groups.
2. Given a set of demand nodes, total pipe l ength and cost can be minimized
by l inking them together with a branched network. Why then are l ooped
networks used?Why is it necessary to have l ooped networks? What are
their advantages?
3. Suppose a network has to be designedfor a target fl ow of X. The
engineer can assume, say, either 10demand nodes or 20. If he assumes 20,
wil l the pipe diameters be l arger or smal l er than if he assumes 1O?In
deciding on the number of demand nodes, is it safer to assume a l arger
number or a smal l er number? Why is it possibl e that in some publ ic 9
standpipe systems, the pipe diameters are l arger than those in networks
that provide house connections?
4. What are the average per capita design fl ows for standpipes, yardtaps,
singl e house taps, mul tipl e house taps?Why do they change?What are
the peaking factors for each of these different l evel s of service?Why are
they different?
5. How woul d you conduct a study to determine the average per capita
consumption in a community? How woul dyou col l ect the data to
measure the peak hourl y fl ow?How woul d you measure peaking factors?
6. Why are networks usual l y designed for peak hourl y fl ow?If the network
didnot have a central storage tank, but rather each house had its own
tank, woul d it stil l be necessary to design for peak hourl y fl ow?Woul d it
, make any difference if the tanks were equipped with fl ow restrictors inthe
inl et?
~:ml1"!":!~~'~m:ffflm!'!~~\'~'''W~'~(''';>(:~!''''''''!'''i''''- ,,,,"',,,,,,,,,-
rttaJ
Appendix D:
Data for Model Calibration
r:_J 1
>
COOK ISLANDS Utility Profile
MINISTRY OF WORKS, ENV IRONMENT AND PHY SICAL PLANNING
(Water Supply Division)
Address P. O. Box 102, Rarotonga, Cook Islands
Telephone : (682) 20034
Fax: (682) 21134
Head : Mr. Nooroa Parakoti, Director
The Water Supply Division is responsible for the water supply of Rarotonga Island with a population of 11,100 including
the capital, Avarua Township. It is adivision under the Ministry of Works, Environment and Physical Planning (MOWEPP)
with a water supply systemthat was established in 1900. The government exercises control on the number, salary and
appointment of staff, appointment of top management, budgets for O&M and development. The division has a partly
developed management information system. Development is guided by its 1995-2000 Development Plan. No annual
report is published by the Water Supply Division. The utility still do not collect any tariff from its consumers. As part of the
government reform process, consideration is being given to the utility's privatization.
No Mission Statement.
Connections 4,265
Staff 15
Annual O&M Costs NZ$405,700 US$275,181
Annual Col l ections' NZ$ 9,500 US$ 6,444
Annual Billings! NZ$ 9,500 US$ 6,444
Annual Capital Expenditure NZ$360,000 US$244,184
(Average over last 5 years) Expenditure Per Connection US$57.25/connection
Source of Investment Funds 72.2% commercial loan; 27.8% externally-funded government grant
1 Billings and collections are for new connection fees.
There is no tariff levied by the Government on water consumers
for the water supply service at present.
Notes: 1 There were 50 new connections in 1996. Cost of new connection is NZ$200.00
(US$135.66)
2 About 95% of all industrial, commercial andinstitutional connections and 12%of
house connections are metered.
I. As seen by Management II. Consumers' Opinion
1) Improve water resources management in the island. 1) Improve water quality.
2) Development of water supply master plan for Rarotonga. 2) Better water storage facilities.
No tariff is levied on the consumers. Average monthly power bill is NZ$81.50 (US$55.28). About 80% claim to have 24-
hour water supply. Perception on water quality ranges from satisfactory (56%) to poor (36%) with only 8% saying quality
is good. About 75% boil, filter or do both to their drinking water. Approximately 27% said water pressure is low. Water
supply interruption was experienced by 55% of the respondents on the month prior to the survey. Leak repairs take about
3 days to be made after reporting to the utility. Overall rating of the utility is fair (52%) to good (17%).
;lf~m' ._.~4'=' -
The number of connections increased by 69% which are mostly residential users. However, UFW increased from 27% to
70"10attributed mostly to leaks in house plumbing systems and agricultural usein residential connections where only 12%
of connections aremetered but comprise 98% of total connections. Staff/1,000 connections ratio improved to 3.5 from 12.6.
Funding sources also changed from purely government grant to the useof commercial loans (72.2%) and externally-funded
government grant (27.8"10).Unit production cost decreased by 13%.
108 Second Water Utilities Data Book for the Asian and Pacific Region
[~]
Appendix E:
Feedback
~]
Taniela Qutonilaba Everything were OK.
Nothin to com lain about.
Taito Apisarome The workshop was a great success for me. I do not have any
complaints or problems but look forward to continued backup
support until I am really familiar and can run this program
inde endentl . Thank- ou.
Ajay Prasad Gautam Good Points
-got first hand knowledge with respect to what WaterCAD is
about
-now I am fairly confident in using WaterCAD software at my
work
it would be easier for me now to relate to basic problem or
information to WaterCAD software
-course was very well organised
-good provision of tea and lunch
-good access to communicate with the course director
Note
We hope to organise more courses in future in-lieu to above.
Samuela Tubui Presentation
Excellent, a flow chart to help participants in trying to find their
way through any given exercise. This could be compiled
together as a set of notes for to help participants in their
exercise.
Facilities
Excellent, appropriate for this kind of workshop.
Participation
The examples given as exercise was quite good and they do
clearly demonstrate the strengths behind this software.
Training on Maplnfo and AutoCAD would really add some
knowledge to the use of this software
Thanks.
Timoci Turaga Presentation
Clear and easy to follow up. Very good.
Tutorials
Detailed explanation of various attributes in software. Very
good.
Model
Have now attained a very good grasp of using the WaterCAD
software.
Data Collection
Did not have tome to collect field data but this can be done by
us. A thorough explanation was done on the need and
importance of this.
Conclusion
The workshop have been a tremendous benefit to myself in
terms of m lob res onsibilities and duties.
Sereicocoko Yanuyanurua The course was well presented and organised. I have learnt a
lot and is very beneficial to my work. I should be able to use
this software with confidence after this course. Ve well done.

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Workshop on

Hydraulic Network Modelling with WaterCAD

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