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Chapter 12 : Electricity ( Chapter Notes)

Key Learning :
1. Electric current is the rate of flow of charge.
2. Battery provides the driving force required to move the charges along the wire from one terminal to another.
3. The constant voltage difference etween the two terminals of the wire maintains the constant electric current
through the wire.
!. Electric current is measured in terms of amperes where
1 ampere = 1 coulomb / second
". #oltage is measured in terms of volt where
1 volt = 1 joule /coulomb
$. %esistance is a property that resists the flow of electrons in a conductor. &t controls the magnitude of the current.
The '& unit of resistance is ohm ()*.
+. %esistivity is defined as the resistance offered y a cue of the material of side 1 m when the current flows
perpendicular to the opposite faces of the cue.
,. )hm-s law: The potential difference across the ends of a resistor is directly proportional to the current through it.
provided its temperature remains the same.
/. The resistance of a conductor depends directly on its length. inversely on its area of cross 0 section. and also on
the material of the conductor.
11. &n 'eries comination of resistors:
o The current flowing through each resistor is the same
o The potential difference across the ends of the series comination is distriuted across the resistors
o The equivalent resistance is greater than the greatest resistance in the comination.
11. &n 2arallel comination of resistors:
o The potential difference across each resistor is same and is equal to the potential difference across the
comination.
o The main current divides itself and a different current flow through each resistor.
o The equivalent resistance is lesser than the least of all the resistances.
12. The effect of heating current due to which heat is produced in a wire when current is passed through it is called
heating effect of current.
13. Electric power is the rate at which electrical energy is produced or consumed in an electric circuit.
1!. The unit of power is watt (3*. )ne watt of power is consumed when 1 4 of current flows at a potential difference
of 1 #.
1". The commercial unit of electric energy is 5ilowatt hour (53 h*. commonly 5nown a -unit-.
op !ormulae :
1. The current & through the cross 0 section of a conductor is 3here 6 is net charge flowing across the cross 0
section of a conductor in time t.
2. 2otential difference (#* etween two points 7 wor5 done (3*8 Charge (6*
" = #/ $
3. %hm&s la': " = ( )
!. The equivalent resistance in series circuit is the sum of the individual resistances 9
) = )1 * )+ * ),
". The equivalent resistance of a parallel circuit containing resistances %1. %2. %3 is given as
1/)- = 1/)1 *1/)+ * 1/),
$. The electric power 2 is given y - = "(
%r - = (+) = "
+
/ )
+. The electrical energy dissipated in a resistor is given y
,. :oule-s law of heating; . = (+)t
/. 1 /# h = ,0 1220 222 3 = ,41 5 121 3

6lectricity is an important source of energy in the modern time. &t is used in our homes. factories and in transport. <or
e=ample. it is used in our homes for lighting operating fans and heating purposes. &n industries it used for running many
machines and in transport it is used to pull electric trains.
&t has een founded y the e=periments there are two types of charges positive charge and negative charge. By
convention. the charge acquired y the glass rod is called positive charge and charge acquired y an aonite rod is called
negative charge. 4n important property of electric charge is following ....
1. )pposite charges attract each other. <or e=ample. a positive charge attracts negative charge.
2. 'imilar charges repel each other. <or e=ample a positive charge repel each other. <or e=ample a positive charge
repel the another positive or negative charge repel the another negative charge.
The s.i. unit of electric charge is coulom which is denoted y the letter C. )ne coulom can e define as follow : one
coulom is that quantity of electric charge which e=ert the force of / = 11 / > on an equal charge placed at a distance of 1
m from it. 3e will now 5now that all the matter containing the positive charge called protons and having negative charge
called electrons. a proton possesses a positive charge of 1.$ = 11 91/ C whereas the electron have a negative charge of
1.$ = 11 91/ C.
>ote: the s.i. unit of electric charge ?coulom@ is equivalent to the charge contained in $.2" = 11 1, electrons.
Conductors: those sustances through which electricity can flow are called conductors. 4ll the metals li5e silver. copper.
aluminium etc are conductors.. . the metal alloys such as nichrome. manganin and constantan are also conductor of
electricity ut their conductivity is much less than that of pure metals. Caron in the form of graphite is also good
conductor of electricity and the human ody is also good conductor.
(nsulators: those sustance in which the electric current cannot flow are called insulators. Alass. eonite ruer. most
plastics. paper. dry wood. wood. cotton. mica. Ba5elite. and dry air are all insulators ecause they do not allow electric
charges to flow through them. &n the case of charged insulator li5e glass. eonite etc.. the electric charges remain ound
to them. and do not move away.
3e have Bust seen that some of the sustance are conductors whereas others are insulators. 4ll the conductors have
electrons which are loosely held y the nuclei of their atoms. These electrons are 5nown as . ?free electrons@. 4nd can
move from one place to another throughout the conductors.
he presence o7 87ree electrons9 in a substance ma/es it a conductor4
The electrons present in insulators are strongly held y the nuclei of their atoms. 'ince there are no Cfree electronsD in an
insulator which can move from one place to another. an insulator does not allow electric charges to flow through it.
Electricity can e classified into two parts:
1. 'tatic electricity: the electric charge in it do not move. Eeans remains as rest.
2. Current electricity: the electric charge in it move from one place to another.
6lectric potential: the electric potential at a point in an electric field is defined as the wor5 done in moving unit positive
charge form infinity to that point. &t is denoted y volt (#*.

%ne volt: a potential of 1 volt at a point means that 1 Boule of wor5 is done in moving 1 unit of electric charge from infinite
to that point.
-otential di77erence: the potential difference 8w two points in an electric current is defined as the amount of wor5 in
moving a unit charge from one point to other point.
2otential difference 7 wor5 done 8 quantity of charge moved
&f w Boules of wor5 has to e done move 6 couloms of charge form one point to other point. then the potential difference
# 8w the points is given y the formula
# 7 386 where
3 7 wor5 done and 6 7 quantity of charge
The s.i. unit of potential difference is volt.
The potential difference 8w two points is said to e 1 volt if one Boule of wor5 is done in moving 1 coulom of electric
charge from one to the other.
Thus 1 #olt 7 1 Boule8 1 coulom
1# 7 1 8C
Note: the potential difference is measured y means of an instrument having has a high resistance called voltmeter and it
always connected in parallel across the points where the potential difference is measured.
6lectric current: it is the flow of electric charges (electrons* in a conductor such as wire is called electric current. the
magnitude of electric current in a conductor is the amount of electric charge passing through a given point of the
conductor in one second.
&f a charge of 6 coulom flow through the conductor in t seconds. then the magnitude of & of the electric current flowing
through it is following
Current ( & *7 6 8t
The s.i. unit of current is ampere which is denoted y the letter ? 4@.

)ne ampere: when one coulom of charge flows through any cross section of a conductor in one second. the electric
current flowing through it will e one ampere. That is
1 ampere 7 1 coulom8 1 second or 1 4 7 1C8 1s
4 smaller unit of current is called C milliampereD is also used. which is denoted y ?m4@.

1 m4 7 11
93
4 and 1 micro ampere 7 11
9$
4
Note: current is measured y an instrument called ammeter and it is always connected in series of the circuit and has low
resistance.
:irection o7 electric current: the conventional direction of electric current is from positive terminal to negative terminal
through the outer circuit means in the opposite direction of movement of electrons in circuit.
%hm;s la': it gives a relationship 8w current and potential difference. 4ccording to this: at constant temperature. the
current flowing through a conductor is directly proportional to the potential difference across its ends.
&f & is the current flowing through a conductor and # is the potential difference across its ends then according to ohm@s law:
& F #
)r # F &

)r # 7 % = & . where % is called CresistanceD of the conductor. The value of this constant is depends on nature.
length. area of cross section and temperature of the conductor. This equation can e written as follows
% 7 # 8& where . # 7 potential difference . & 7 current and % 7 resistance of conductor
The s.i. unit of resistance of is ohm denoted y the symol ?G@.
%ne ohm: 1 ohm is the resistance of a conductor such that when a potential difference of 1 volt is applied to its ends. a
current of 1 ampere flows through it.
&f we draw the graph 8w current and potential difference it will always a straight line. &t is clear from the following graph
<ood conductors0 resisters and insulators:
)n the asis of their electrical resistance. all the sustance can e divides in to three groups: good conductors.
resistances and insulators. Those sustances which have very low electrical resistance is called conductors. Hi5e gold.
silver. copper etc...
Those sustances having comparatively high electrical resistance are called resisters. Hi5e the alloys nichrome .
manganin and constantan. all have quit high resistance so they 5nown as resistances.
4nd those sustances which have infinite high electrical resistance are called insulators. 4n insulator does not allow
electricity to flow from it. %uer is an e=cellent insulator. 3ood and paper are also insulator of electricity.
!actors a77ecting the resistance o7 a conductor:
The electrical resistance of a conductor depend upon the following factors:
Effect of length of conductor: on increasing the length of wire its resistance increases and on
decreasing the length of wire the resistance will reduce. Actually, the resistance of wire is directly
proportional to its length.
Effect of area of cross section of conductor: it has been found that the resistance of a conductor is
inversely proportional to the area of the cross section of conductor which is used in the circuit.
Effect of nature of material of conductor: the electrical resistance of a conductor depends on the
nature of its material which is it made.
Effect of temperature: the resistance of conductor of pure metals increases o increasing the
temperature and decreases on decreasing the temperature.
)esistivity: &t has een found that
1. The resistance of a given conductor is directly proportional to its length
% F l
2. The resistance of given conductor is inversely proportional to the area of cross section that is
% F 184
Then % F l84
% 7 I = l8 4
3here (I* rho is a constant 5nown as resistivity of the material of the conductor. 4nd
%7 resistance of the conductor and 4 is the area of cross section of conductor which is used in circuit.
<rom here ; resistivity (I* 7 %= 4 8 l
'o. the s.i. unit of resistivity is ohm 0 meter or Gm.
Note: we use copper aluminium wires for the transmission of electricity ecause these have low resistivity. 4nd the
resistivity of alloys are much more higher than the pure metals.
Combination o7 resistances: The resistances can e comined in two ways (i* in series and (ii* in parallel %esistances in
series: when two resistances are connected end to end consecutively. they are said to e connected in series and when
two resistors are connected 8w the same twp points. they are said to e connected in parallel.
)esistances in series: 4ccording to the law of comination of resistances in series: the comined resistance of any
numer of resistances connected in series is equal to the sum of the individual resistances. <or e=ample. if a numer of
resistances %1. %2. %3..... etc are connected in series. then their comined resistance % is given y % 7 %1J %2J %3....
Before we derive the formula for the resultant resistance of a numer of resistances connected in series. we should 5eep
in mind that:
1. 3hen a numer of resistances connected in series are Boined to terminal of a attery. then each resistance has a
different potential difference across its ends ut the total potential difference across the ends of all resistances in
series is equal to the voltage of the attery. Thus. when a numer of resistances are connected in series. then
the sum of the potential difference across all the resistances is equal to the voltage of the attery applied.
2. 3hen a numer of resistances are connected in series. then the same current flows through each resistanec.
%esultant resistance of two resistances connected in series:
&f there are two resistances %1 and %2 connected in series. 4 attery of # volt has een applied to the ends of this series
comination. >ow suppose the potential difference across the resistance %1 is #1 and resistance r
2
is #2. 3e have applied
a attery of voltage #. so the total potential difference across the two resistances should e equal to the voltage of the
attery
That is : # 7 #1 J #2 99999999999999(1*
3e have Bust seen that the total potential difference due to the attery is #. >ow suppose the total resistance of the
comination e %. and the current flowing through the whole circuit e &. 'o y applying the ohm@s law
#8& 7 % or # 7 & %
'ince the same current & is flows through oth the resistances %1 and r2 connected in series. so y changing ohm@s law to
oth resistances . we will get
#1 7 & %1. and #2 7 & %2
>ow putting the value of #1 and #2 in equation (1*
& K % 7 & K %1 J & K %2 or we get % 7 %1 J %2
)esistances in parallel: The comine resistance of a numer of resistances connected in parallel can e calculated y
using the law of comination of resistances in parallel. 4ccording to this law : the reciprocal of the comined resistance of
a numer of resistances connected in parallel is equal to the sum of the reciprocals of all the individual resistances.
&f a numer of resistances %1. %2. %3..... etc are connected in paralle then the total resistance % of the comination is given
y the formula
18 % 7 18 %1 J 18%2 J 18%3.......
Note: when a numer of resistances are connected in parallel then their comined resistance is less than the smallest
individual resistance.
Before we drive a formula for the resistance of a numer of resistances connected in parallel. we should 5eep in mind that:
1. 3hen a numer of resistances are connected in parallel. then the potential difference across each resistance is
the same which is equal to the voltage of the attery applied.
2. 3hen a numer of resistances connected in parallel are Boined to the terminals of attery. then different amount
of current flow through each resistance. ut the current flowing through all the individual parallel resistances.
ta5en together. is equal to the current flowing in the circuit as a whole. Thus. when a numer of resistances are
connected in parallel. then the sum of the currents flowing through all the resistances is equal to the total current
flowing in the circuit.
Combine resistance o7 t'o resistances connected in parallel: &f two resistances %1 and %2 are connected in parallel
to one another 8w the same point 4 and B. 4 attery of # volts has een applied across the ends of this comination. &n
this case the potential difference across the ends of the oth resistances will e the same. 4nd it will e the equal to the
voltage of the attery used. The current flowing through the two resistances in parallel is. however not the same
'uppose the total current flowing in the circuit is &. then the current passing through %1 is &1 and %2 is &2 respectively.
Then total current in the circuit
& 7 &1 J &2 .....................(i*
3e 5now y ohm@s law & 7 #8% then
'ince the potential # across oth the resistance %1 and %2 in parallel is the same. so y applying ohm@s law to
each resistance separately we get
&1 7 # 8 %1 and &2 7 # 8 %2
>ow putting teh values if &1 and &2 in equation (i*
#8% 7 # 8 %1J # 8 %2 and we get
18 % 7 18%1 J 18 %2
:omestic electric circuits: series or parallel : #hen designing an electric circuit. we should consider whether a series
or parallel circuit is etter for the intended use: for e=ample. if we want to connect a large numer of electric uls for
decorating uildings and trees as during festivals such as Liwali or marriage function. then the series circuit is etter
ecause all uls connected in series can e controlled with Bust one switch. 4 series circuit is also safer ecause the
current in it smaller. But there is a prolem with this circuit. This is ecause if one ul gets fused. then the circuit rea5s
and all the uls are turned off. 4n electrician has to spend a lot of time in locating the fused ul form among hundreds
uls. so as to replace it and restore the lighting.

The parallel electric circuit is etter for connecting uls in house ecause then we can have separate switches for each
ul and hence operate it separately. &n addition to having ease of operation. parallel domestic circuits have many other
advantages over the series circuits.
:isadvantages o7 series circuit s 7or domestic 'iring:
There are some following disadvantages of series circuits in the domestic wiring:
1. &n series circuit. if one electrical appliance stops wor5ing due to some defect. then all other appliances also stop
wor5ing.
2. &n series. all the electrical appliances have only one switch due to which they can@t e turn off or on separately.
3. &n series circuit. the appliances do not get the same voltage as that of the power supply line.
!. &n the series connection of electrical appliance. the overall resistance of the circuit increases too much due to
which the current from the power supply is low.
4dvantages of parallel circuits in domestic wring:
There are some following advantages of parallel circuits in the domestic wiring:
1. &n parallel circuits. if one electrical appliance stop wor5ing due to some effect then all other appliances 5eep
wor5ing normally.
2. &n parallel circuit. each electrical appliance has own switch due to which it can e turn off or on independently.
without effecting other appliances.
3. &n parallel circuits. each electrical appliance gets same voltage as that of the power supply line.
!. &n the parallel connection of electrical appliances. the overall resistance of the house hold circuit is reduced due
to which the current from the power supply is high.
6lectric po'er:
we 5now that the rate of doing wor5 is 5nown as power. so electric power is the electrical wor5 done per unit. That is
2ower 7 wor5 done 8 time ta5en
)r 2 7 38 t
=nit o7 po'er: The s.i. unit of electric power is watt denoted y the letter 3. the power of 1 watt is a rate of wor5ing of 1
Boule per second. That is
1 3att 7 1 Boule 8 1 second

3att is a small unit. therefore. a igger unit of electric power called 5ilowatt is used for commercial purpose. That is
)ne 5ilo watt 7 1111 watts
1 53 7 1111 watts or 11
3
watts
'o we can say that electric power is the rate at which electrical energy is consumed or electric ower is the electrical
energy consumed per second.
3e can write down the another definition of electric power. when electric appliance is consumes electrical energy at the
rate of 1 Boule per second. its power is said to e 1 watt.
3e 5now that
2ower 7 wor5 done 8 time ta5en
)r p 7 3 8t 999999999999999999999(i*
But we 5now that the wor5 done 3 y current & when it flows for time t under a potential difference # is given y
3 7 # = & = t
2ut this value in equation (i*. we get
2 7 (# = & = t*8 t
2 7 # K & watts
3here. # 7 potential difference and & 7 current in amperes
Electric power 7 potential difference K current

The power e=panded in heating a resistor or turning a motor depends upon the potential difference 8w the terminals of
the device and electric current passing through it.
2ower p 7 # = & watts
>ow if an electrical appliance is operated at a potential difference of 1 volt and the device carries a current of 1 ampere.
then power ecomes 1 watt. That is
1 watt 7 1 volt K 1 ampere
1 w 7 1 # 4 means
)ne watt is the power consumed y an appliance which when operated at a potential difference of 1 volt carries a current
of 1 ampere.
'ome other formulae of calculating the electric power:
3e have Bust otained a formula for calculating electric power ; which is
2 7 # K &
3e have other formulae of electric power which are following;
1. 2ower in term of & and %
3e have . 2 7 v = &99999999999999999999999(&*
>ow from ohm@s law we have #8& 7 %
)r v 7 & K % . now from 1
- = (
+
) where . & 7 current and % 7 resistance
2. 2ower in the terms # and %
2 7 # = & 99999999999999999999 (i*
4lso from ohm@s law we have #8& 7 % or & 7 #8%
2utting this value of & in equation (i*@ we get
2 7 #
2
8% . where # 7 potential difference and % 7 resistance of wire
>ote: power is inversely proportional to the resistance of wire.
-o'er> voltage rating o7 electrical appliance:
3e 5now that every electrical appliance li5e an electric an electric ul . radio or fan has a lael or engraved plate on it
which tells us voltage and electric power consumed y it. <or e=ample. if we loo5 at a particular ul in our home. it may
have the figures 111 w 0 221 # written on it. >ow 111w means this ul has a power consumption of 111 w and 221 #
means that it is to used on a voltage of 221 volts. The power rating of an electrical appliance tells us the rate at which
electrical energy is consumed y the appliance.
<or e=ample: the power rating of 111 w on the ul means that it will consume electrical energy at the rate of 111 Boules
per second.
4n electrical formula for calculating electrical energy:
3e have already studied that;
Electric power 7 wor5 done y electric current 8 time ta5en
>ow according to the law of conservation of energy.
3or5 done y electric current 7 electric energy consumed
2ower 7 electric energy8 time
Electric energy 7 power = time or E 7 2 = t

The electrical energy consumed y an electrical appliance is given y the product of its power rating and the time for
which it is used.
<rom this we conclude that the electrical energy consumed y an electrical appliance depends on two things
1. 2ower rating of the appliance and
2. Time for which the appliance is used
&n the formula: electrical energy 7 power = time. if we ta5e the power in ?watts@ and time in ? hours@ then the electrical
energy ecomes ?watt 0 hours@. (3h*
%ne 'att ? hour is the amount of electrical energy consumed when an electrical appliance of 1 watt is used for one hour.
>ow we have descrie the commercial unit of electrical energy of electrical energy called 5ilowatt 0 hour.
)ne 5ilowatt 0 hour is the amount of electrical energy consumed when an electrical energy consumed when an electrical
appliance having power rating of 1 5ilowatt is used for 1 hour.

)elation b/' /ilo'att ? hour and joule: )ne 5ilowatt 0 hour is the amount of electrical energy consumed when an
electrical energy consumed when an electrical appliance having power rating of
1 5ilowatt is used for 1 hour.
That is; 1 5ilo watt 0 hour 7 1 5ilo watt for one hour
7 1111 watts for 1 hour
But : 1 watt 7 1 Boule 8 1 second
1 5ilo watt 0 hour 7 1111 Boules 8 second for one hours and one hour 7 3$11 seconds
)r 1 5ilo watt hour 7 3$.11. 111 Boules 7 3.$ = 11 $ Boules
>ote : 5ilowatt 0 hour is the CunitD of electrical energy for which we pay the electricity.
.eating e77ect o7 current: 3hen an electric current is passed through a high resistance wire li5e nichrome wire. the
resistance wire ecomes hot and produced heat. This is 5nown as heating effect of current. The role of resistances in the
circuits is same as the friction in the machines.
'ince a conductor. say a resistance wire. offers resistance to the flow of the current. so wor5 must e done y a current
continuously to 5eep itself flowing. 3e will calculate the wor5 done y a current & when it is passing through a resistance %
for time t. >ow when an electric charge 6 moves against a potential difference #. the amount of wor5 done is given y
3 7 6 K #
<rom the definition of the current we have. & 7 6 8t or 6 7 & t
4nd from ohm@s law. we have #8 & 7 % or potential difference . # 7 & = %
>ow putting 6 7 & = t and # 7 & = %
3e have 3 7 &
2
K % = t or
Meat produced. M 7 &
2
K % = t Boules
&t is clear that the heat produced in a wire is directly proportional to
1. 'quare of current
2. %esistance of wire
3. Time for which current is passed
@pplications o7 the heating e77ect o7 current:
The important applications of the heating effect of electric current are following
o The heating effect of current is utilised in the wor5ing of electrical heating appliance such as electric
iron. 5ettle. toaster. )ven. room heaters and water geysers.
o The heating effect of current is utilised in electric ul for producing light.
o The heating effect of current is utilised in electric fuse for protecting house hold wiring and appliances.

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