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Chapter 15: Evolution

Evolution: process of change and adaptation leading to development of new life forms and genetic
diversity

THEORIES OF EVOLUTION
A. Lamarck
Use and disuse: organs used are extensively develop, while organs not used atrophy
acquired characteristics: never, more complex species from older simpler species
through accumulation and modification of [term]
false but first systematic approach
B. Darwin
theory of evolution
agents leading to evolution
organisms produce offspring, very few survive to reproductive maturity
favorable variation: give organism slight advantage in struggle for existence
natural selection: favorable variations are likely to live longer and produce
more offspring than others; driving force for evolution
leads to variation of differentiate organisms into groups and ultimately
into distinct species
Fitness: reproductive success and relative genetic contribution of an
individual to future of population
C. Neo-Darwinism (The Modern Synthesis)
mutation and genetic variation: ultimate source of hereditary variation
differential reproduction: individual with favorable genes produce more offspring
favorable genes become more pervasive in gene pool (consists of all the genes
in all individuals in a population at given time)
D. Punctuated Equilibrium
fossil record shows many organism do not have gradual change
Evolution is characterized by long periods of stasis punctuated by evolutionary
changes occurring in spurts
contrast to Darwinevolutionary changes accumulate gradually and evenly
over time

EVIDENCE OF EVOLUTION
A. Paleontology
study of fossil record
radioactive dating, age of fossils determinedchronological succession of species
B. Biogeography
distribution of life forms throughout globe
ex. Galapagos Islands: species more related to mainland than to other islands
C. comparative anatomy
homologous structures: similar in structure and share a common evolutionary origin
o ex. bat wings, whale flippers, horse forelegs, human arms
analogous structures: share functional similarity but arose form different evolutionary
origins
o ex wings of insects and birds
vestigial structures: remnants of organs that have lost ancestral function
o ex. limb bones on adult python, coccyx in tailbone of man
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D. comparative embryology
embryological development in closely related organisms resemble each other
o indicate common evolutionary origins
o earliest stage most similar
E. molecular biology
comprative DNA: detect similarities

GENETIC BASIS OF EVOLUTION
genetic variation: inheritable mutations and recombination
mutation: random changes in nucleotide sequence of DNA
recombination: novel genetic combos resulting from sexual reproduction and crossing over
A. The Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium
gene frequencies: relative frequency of a particular allele
When gene frequencies of a population are not changing, gene pool is stable, and
pollution not evolution. Only true when these conditions are met:
population very large
no mutations that affect gene pool
mating between individuals in population is random
no net migration of individuals into or out of population
genes in population are equally successful at reproducing
Under these conditions, equilibrium exist between all genes in gene pool
Hardy-Weinberg Equation
p2 + 2pq + q2 = 1
1. p2 = frequency of dominant homozygptes
2. 2pq = frequency of heterozygote
3. q2 = frequency of recessive heterozygote
p + q = 1
B. Microevolution
real population have unstable gene pool and migrating population
deviation from five conditions of hardy-weinberg
1. natural section
favorable genotypes selected; frequency increases
2. mutation
change allele frequencies, shifting gene equilibria
3. assertive mating
mates not random, selcted according to criteria such as phenotype
and proximity
relative genotype affected
on average, allele frequency in gene pool remain unchanged
4. genetic drift
changes in composition of gene pool due to chance
more pronounced in small population (founder effect)
5. gene flow
migration between populations result in loss or gain of genes,
changing gene pool
MODES OF NATURAL SELECTION
Natural selection: only evolutionary process that seembles and maintains particular gene combos over
extended periods of time
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3 modes:
A. Stabilizing selection
maintains well0adapted uniform character in a population by eliminating deviations form
the norm
reduced extreme phenotypes, reducing variations
ex. human birth weights to narrow range
B. Directional selection
Adaptive change over time, increase proportion of extreme phenotype
when organism must adapt to changing environment
Ex. DDT resistant mosquito
C. Disruptive selection
favors variants of both phenotypic extreme over intermediates
existence of two and more phenotypic forms (polymorphism)
ALTRUISTIC BEHAVIOR
benefits one individual at expense of another
Group selection: certain individuals in population inherit a gene for not reproducing, thus
controlling population size at an advantageous level
o flawed: a gene could not be passed on by its nonreproducing carrier
kin selection: increasing survival of near kin but not the individual would still help to
propagate individuals alleles
inclusive fitness: fitness as number of individuals alleles that are inherited by the next
generation
SPECIATION
evolution of new species, groups of individuals who can interbreed freel with each other, but
not with members of other species
genetic isolation. two separate groups.. different selection pressures evolve independently
if isolating mechanism persist, populations will become sufficiently different from each other as
to become reproductively isolateddistinct species
A. Prezygotic isolating mechanism
1. temporal isolation
different breeding seasons are time of day, preventing interbreeding
2. ecological isolation
same territory but different habitats rarely meet and rarely mate
3. behavioral isolation
not sexually attracted to each other due to different in such things as pheromones
or courtship display
4. reproductive isolation
genitalia incompatible
5. gametic isolation
fertilization cannot occur
B. Postzygotic isolating mechanisms
1. hybrid inviability
genetic incompatibilities between two species abort hybrid zygote development,
even if fertilization does occur
2. hybrid sterility
offspring sterile, incapable of producing functional gametes
3. hybrid breakdown
first generation fertile and viable; second not
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ADAPTIVE RADiATION
Emergence of number of lineages from a single ancestral species; difference in linked species are
those adaptive to a distinct lifestyle, or niche
finches of Galapagos; 13 species

PATTERNS OF EVOLUTION
apparent similarities between species because of close evolutionary relationship or results of
similar adaption to similar environment?
A. Convergent evolution
independent development of similar characteristics in two or more lineages NOT sharing
recent common ancestor
ex. fish and dolphins
B. Divergent evolution
independent development of dissimilar characteristic in two more lineages sharing
common ancestry
ex. seals and cats in Carnivora order
C. Parallel evolution
related species evolve in similar ways for a long period of time in response to analogous
environmental selection pressures
ORIGIN OF LIFE
first primitive life found in stromatolites: fossilized bands of sediment contain microorganism 3.5
billion ears old
A. formation of organic molecules
primordial soup: of organic precursor molecules; carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, and small
amounts of oxygen present in atmosphere and seas bonded together in various ways and
accumulated
sun lightning, radioactive decay, volcanic matter: provided energy
tested: gases pass over electrical discharge and organic compounds formed including
amino acids
hyptothezied that organic monomers were abiotically synthesized in similar way on
primitive Earth
B. formation of protobionts
molecular aggregates of organic polymers that are believed to have been primitive
ancestors of living cells
microspheres : abiotically produced polymers in aqueous soliution can spontaneously
assemble into tiny proteinaceous droplets called microspheres
o selectively permeable membrane
Coacervates: colloidal droplets from soution of polypeptides nucleic acids, and
polysaccharides
o enzymatic activity
C. formation of genetic material
protobioants can divide and grow but did not have way to transmit information to next
generation
short strands of RNA first capable of self-replication and store and transmit 411 from one
gen to next
experiments: free bases can aligh with complementary bases on pre-exiting short RNA
sequence and bind togethernew RNA chain
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evolutionary trends led to eventual establishment of DNA, which is more stable molecule
than RNA as primary warehouse for genetic information