SEMINAR

2
LECTURE
VIBRATION ANALYSIS
SUB - OBJECTIVE
At the end of the lesson the Trainee ill !e a!le to de"onstrate an #nderstandin$
!asi%s of &i!rations'
(('( INTRO)UCTION TO VIBRATION
*+AT IS VIBRATION,
Vibration is simply the motion of a machine or machine part back and forth from its
position of rest.
The simplest way to show vibration is to follow the motion of a weight suspended on
the end of a spring as shown in Fig. 2-1. This is typical of all machines since they,
too, have weight and spring-like properties.
ntil a force is applied to the weight to cause it to move, we have no vibration. !y
applying an upward force, the weight would move upward, compressing the spring.
"f we released the weight it would drop below its neutral position to some bottom
limit of travel where the spring would stop the weight. The weight would then travel
upward through the neutral position to the top limit of motion and then back again
through the neutral position. This motion will continue in e#actly the same manner
as long as the force is reapplied. This is vibration.
*+AT CAUSES VIBRATION,
$ith few e#ceptions mechanical troubles in a machine cause vibration. To list all
the possible troubles in a machine would be impossible, so we have listed only
those most common problems which we know produce vibration. They are %
nbalance of rotating parts.
&isalignment of couplings and bearings.
!ent shafts ' $orn, eccentric or damaged gears.
!ad drive belts and drive chains. ' !ad bearings ( anti-friction type.
Tor)ue variations.
*lectromagnetic forces.' +erodynamic forces.' ,ydraulic forces
-ooseness ' .ubbing ' .esonance.
+/V+01*/ 12.3* &*1,+0"1+- &+"0T*0+01*
V"!.+T"20 +0+-43"3 -*3320 25+6* 1

+ll of these causes can be reduced to one or a combination of five types of trouble.
*ither one or more parts will be unbalanced, mis-aligned, loose, eccentric or out-of
tolerance dimensionally, or reacting to some e#ternal force.
.egardless of how the causes of vibration are listed, one basic thing must always
be true% The cause of vibration must be a force which is changing in either its
direction or its amount. "t is the force which causes vibration, and the resulting
characteristics will be determined by the manner in which the forces are generated.
This is why each cause of vibration has its own peculiar characteristics.
-i$' 2-(' Vi!ration of a si".le s.rin$-"ass s/ste"'
T+E C+ARACTERISTICS O- VIBRATION
+ lot can be learned about a machine7s condition and mechanical problems by
simply noting its vibration characteristics. $hat are the characteristics which
identify a vibration8
.eferring to the weight suspended on a spring, we can study the detailed
characteristics of vibration by plotting the movement of the weight against time.
This plot is shown in Fig. 2-2.
The motion of the weight from its neutral position to the top limit of travel back
through the neutral position to the bottom limit of travel and its return to the neutral
position represents one cycle of the motion. This one cycle of motion, Fig. 2-9, has
all the characteristics needed to identify the vibration. 1ontinued motion of the
weight will simply be repeating these characteristics.
&*1,+0"1+- &+"0T*0+01* +/V+01*/ 12.3*
-*3320 2 5+6*2 V"!.+T"20 +0+-43"3 : 12.*1T"20
-i$' 2-2' The "o&e"ent of the ei$ht .lotted a$ainst ti"e'
VIBRATION -RE0UENCY
4ou will note from the plot in Fig. 2-9 that the amount of time re)uired to complete
one cycle of the vibration is the ;period< of the vibration. "f a period of one second is
re)uired to complete one cycle of vibration, then during one minute the cycle will be
repeated => times or, => cycles per minute. This measure of the number of cycles
for a given interval of time ?minute, second, hour, etc.@ is the ;fre)uency< of the
vibration and is more useful than the period. For vibration work, fre)uency is
usually e#pressed in terms of cycles per minute, abbreviated 15&.
-i$' 2-1' Chara%teristi%s of &i!ration'
+/V+01*/ 12.3* &*1,+0"1+- &+"0T*0+01*
V"!.+T"20 +0+-43"3 -*3320 25+6* 9

VIBRATION )IS2LACEMENT
The total distance traveled by the vibration part, from one e#treme limit of travel to
the other e#treme limit of travel is referred to as the ;peak-to-peak displacement<.
5eak to peak vibration displacement is normally e#pressed in mils, where 1 mil
e)uals one-thousandth of an inch ?>.>>1 inch@. "n &etric units, the peak to peak
vibration displacement is usually e#pressed in microns, where 1 micron e)uals one-
millionth of a meter ?>.>>>>>1 meter@ or one-thousandth of a millimeter ?>.>>1
millimeter@.
VIBRATION VELOCITY
3ince the vibrating weight, Fig. 2-1, is moving, it must be moving at some speed.
,owever, the speed of the weight is constantly changing. +t the top limit of the
motion the speed is Aero since the weight must come to a stop before it can go in
the opposite direction. The speed or velocity is greatest as the weight passes
through the neutral position. The velocity of the motion is definitely a characteristic
of the vibration but since it is constantly changing throughout the cycle, the highest
or ;peak< velocity is selected for measurement. Vibration velocity is normally
e#pressed in terms of inches per second peak. "n &etric units, vibration velocity is
e#pressed in millimeters per second peak.
VIBRATION ACCELERATION
/iscussing vibration velocity, we pointed out that the velocity of the part approaches
Aero at the e#treme limits of travel. 2f course, each time the part comes to a stop at
the limit of travel, it must ;accelerate< to pick up speed as it travels toward the other
e#treme limit of travel. Vibration acceleration is another important characteristic of
vibration. Technically, acceleration is the rate of change of velocity.
.eferring to the motion plot, 2-9, the acceleration of the part is ma#imum ?B@ at the
e#treme limit of travel where the velocity is Aero, point ;+<. +s the velocity of the
part increases, the acceleration decreases. +t point ;!<, the neutral position, the
velocity is ma#imum and the acceleration is Aero. +s the part passes through the
neutral point, it must now ;decelerate< as it approaches the other e#treme limit of
travel. +t point ;1<, acceleration is at peak ?-@.
Vibration acceleration is normally e#pressed in ;g7s< peak, where one ;g< is the
acceleration produced by the force of gravity at the surface of the earth. !y
international agreement, the value of CD>.==E cm'sec'sec F 9D=.>DG inches'sec'sec
F 92.1G9C feet'sec'sec has been chosen as the standard acceleration due to
gravity.
2+ASE
+nother important characteristic of vibration is ;phase<. 5hase is defined as ;H..the
position of vibration part at a given instant with reference to a fi#ed point or another
vibrating part.<
"n a practical sense, phase measurements offer a convenient way to compare one
vibration motion with anotherI or, to determine how one part is vibrating relative to
another part. For e#ample, the two weights in Fig. 2-J are vibrating at the same
fre)uency and displacementI however, weight ;+< is at the upper limit of travel at the
same instant weight ;!< is at the lower limit.
$e can use phase to e#press this comparison. !y plotting one complete cycle of
motion of these two weights, starting at the same given instant, we see that the
&*1,+0"1+- &+"0T*0+01* +/V+01*/ 12.3*
-*3320 2 5+6*J V"!.+T"20 +0+-43"3 : 12.*1T"20
points of peak displacement are separated by 1D>K ?one complete cycle F 9=>K@.
Therefore, we would say that these two weights are vibration 1D>K out of phase.
"n Fig. 2-E, weight ;#< is at the upper limit at the same instant weight ;4< is at the
neutral position moving towards the lower limit. These two weights are vibration C>K
out of phase. "n Fig. 2-=, weights ;1< and ;/< are ;in-step<. These weights are
vibration in-phase.
5hase readings are normally e#pressed in degrees ?>K to 9=>K@ where one complete
cycle of vibration e)uals 9=>K.
-i$' 2-3' *ei$hts Vi!ration (456 o#t of .hase'
+/V+01*/ 12.3* &*1,+0"1+- &+"0T*0+01*
V"!.+T"20 +0+-43"3 -*3320 25+6* E

-i$' 2-7' *ei$hts &i!ration 856 o#t of .hase'
SI9NI-ICANCE O- VIBRATION C+ARACTERISTICS
The real significance of the characteristics of vibration lies in the fact that they are
used to detect and describe the unwanted motion of a machine. *ach of the motion
of a machine. *ach of the characteristics of vibration tells us something significant
about the vibration. Therefore, the characteristics might be considered to be
symptoms used to diagnose inefficient operation r impending trouble in a machine.
IM2ORTANCE O- VIBRATION -RE0UENCY
$hen analyAing a machine7s vibration to pinpoint a particular problem, it is essential
to know the vibration fre)uency. Lnowing the fre)uency allows us to identify which
part is at fault and what the problem is.
The forces which cause vibration are generated through the rotating motion of the
machine7s parts. Therefore, these forces change in amount and direction as the
rotating part changes its position with respect to the rest of the machine. +s a
result, the vibration produced will have a fre)uency dependent upon the rotating
speed of the part which has the trouble. Thus, by knowing the fre)uency of the
vibration, we can identify which part is at fault.
"t is also important to recogniAe that different machinery troubles cause different
fre)uencies of vibration. This makes it possible for us to identify the nature of the
problem. For e#ample, unbalance of a rotating part will produce a fre)uency of
vibration e)ual to the rotating speed ?1 M .5&@ of the part. 2n the other hand,
mechanical looseness produces a vibration at a fre)uency e)ual to twice the
rotating speed ?2 # .5&@. +nti-friction bearings which have flaws on the raceways,
balls or rolls will cause a very high fre)uency of vibration, usually at several times
the .5& of the shaft.
&*1,+0"1+- &+"0T*0+01* +/V+01*/ 12.3*
-*3320 2 5+6*= V"!.+T"20 +0+-43"3 : 12.*1T"20
-i$' 2-:' *ei$hts &i!ratin$ in .hase'
&ore detailed information on the techni)ues for measuring vibration fre)uency and
identifying the various machinery problems is presented in vibration analysis?11-2@.
IM2ORTANCE O- )IS2LACEMENT; VELOCITY AN) ACCELERATION
The displacement, velocity and acceleration characteristics of vibration are
measured to determine the amount or severity of the vibration. The displacement,
velocity or acceleration of a vibration is often referre9d to as the ;amplitude< of the
vibration.
"n terms of the operation of a machine, the vibration amplitude is the indicator used
to determine how bad or good the operation of the machine may be. The greater
the amplitude, the more severe the vibration.
)IS2LACEMENT; VELOCITY OR ACCELERATION < *+IC+ S+OUL) *E USE
3ince the amplitude of vibration can be measured in terms of displacement, velocity
or acceleration, the obvious )uestion isI ;which parameter should we use8<
+ctually, the displacement, velocity and acceleration of a vibration are directly
related. For e#ample, f the peak to peak displacement and fre)uency of a vibration
are known, the peak velocity of the vibration can be found as follows%
3 -
10 x
1000
F
D 52.3

=
peak
V
+/V+01*/ 12.3* &*1,+0"1+- &+"0T*0+01*
V"!.+T"20 +0+-43"3 -*3320 25+6* G

$here % V
peak
F Vibration velocity in inches per second peak.
/ F 5eak to peak displacement in mils ?1 mil ( >.>>1<@
F F Fre)uency in cycles per minute ?15&@
02T*%
The find velocity in millimeters per second ?metric units@, / F peak to peak
displacement in microns.
Further , the vibration acceleration ?g7s peak@ can be found as follows%
3 -
10 x
1000
F
D 14.1

=
peak
g
$here %
g F +cceleration due to gravity
/ F 5eak to peak displacement in mils ?1 mil F >.>>1<@
02T*%
For finding the vibration acceleration where displacement is measured in microns
the following formula is used%
4 -
2
10 x
1000
F
D 5.6

=
peak
g
The calculations referred to above for finding velocity and acceleration are not
re)uired for most vibration workI however, they are presented here simply to
illustrate the important relationship between the amplitude parameters (
displacement, velocity and acceleration.
Vibration amplitude readings taken for checking overall machinery condition indicate
the severity of the vibration. !ut which is the best indicator of vibration severity%
displacement, velocity or acceleration8 To answer this )uestion, consider what
happens when a wire or piece of sheet metal is bent repeatedly back and forth.
*ventually, this repeated bending causes the metal to fail by fatigue in the area of
the bend. This is similar in many respects to the way a machine or machine
compoCnent fails from the repeated cycles of fle#ing caused by e#cessive vibration.
2f course, the amount of time re)uired to fail the wire or sheet metal can be
reduced by %
1. "ncreasing the amount of the bend ?displacement@. The farther the metal is
bent each time, the more likely it is to fail.
2. !y increasing the rate of bending ?fre)uency@. 2bviously, the more times per
minute the metal is fle#ed, the )uicker it will fail.
Thus, the severity of this bending action is a function of both how far the metal is
bend ?displacement@ and how fast the metal is bent ?fre)uency@. Vibration severity,
then, appears to be a function of displacement and fre)uency. ,owever, since
vibration velocity is also a function of displacement and fre)uency it is reasonable to
conclude that a measure of vibration velocity is a direct measure of vibration
severity. Through e#perience we have found this to be basically true. Vibration
velocity provides the best overall indicator of machinery condition.
&*1,+0"1+- &+"0T*0+01* +/V+01*/ 12.3*
-*3320 2 5+6*D V"!.+T"20 +0+-43"3 : 12.*1T"20
/isplacement and acceleration, readings are sometimes used to measure vibration
severity. ,owever, when displacement or acceleration is used, it is also necessary
to know the fre)uency of the vibration. 1harts like those shown in Fig. 2-G : 2-D are
often used to cross-reference the displacement or acceleration with fre)uency to
determine the level of severity. 0ote from Fig. 2-G that a displacement of 1.> mil
occurring at a fre)uency of 12>> 15& ?1ycles per minute@ is in the ;622/< rangeI
however, the same displacement of 1.> mil at a fre)uency of 2>,>>> 15& is in the
;V*.4 .26,< range. 0ote also, that the diagonal lines dividing the Aones of
severity are constant velocity lines. "n other words, a velocity of >.E inches per
second peak is in the ;.26,< range regardless of the fre)uency of the vibration.
.eferring to the chart, Fig. 2-D, you will note that an acceleration of 1.> g at a
fre)uency of 1>>,>>> 15& is in the ;622/< region of the chartI however, 1.> g at a
fre)uency of 1D,>>> 15& is in the ;3-"6,T-4 .26,< region.
+/V+01*/ 12.3* &*1,+0"1+- &+"0T*0+01*
V"!.+T"20 +0+-43"3 -*3320 25+6* C

-i$' 2-=' This %hart %an !e #sed to %ross-referen%e dis.la%e"ent ith
fre>#en%/ to deter"ine &i!ration se&erit/'
&*1,+0"1+- &+"0T*0+01* +/V+01*/ 12.3*
-*3320 2 5+6*1> V"!.+T"20 +0+-43"3 : 12.*1T"20
-i$' 2-4' This %hart %an !e #sed to %ross-referen%e a%%eleration ith
fre>#en%/ to find the ?one of se&erit/'
+/V+01*/ 12.3* &*1,+0"1+- &+"0T*0+01*
V"!.+T"20 +0+-43"3 -*3320 25+6* 11

SEVERITY O- COM2LE@ MAC+INERY VIBRATION
nfortunately, the vibration of machine is not usually simpleI that is, occurring at Nust
one fre)uency like the weight on the end of a spring. &ost machinery vibration is
comple#, consisting of many fre)uencies. 3ee Fig. 2-19. "n general, the overall or
total peak-to-peak displacement of the machine will be the sum of all the individual
vibrations.
For e#ample%
"f the machine in Fig. 2-19 has 1 mil vibration occurring at 1 # .5& due to
unbalance.
1 mil at 2 # .5& because of looseness.
1 mil at a high gear fre)uency and 1 mil at a high anti-friction bearing, fre)uency.
The total peak to peak displacement will probably be around J mils.
!ut, we cannot apply this reading of J mils to the 3everity 1hart, Fig. 2-G, because
that displacement is not occurring at Nust one fre)uency. $here the vibration is
comple# like this, to apply displacement to the 3everity 1hart it would be necessary
to first determine the individual displacements and their fre)uencies.
This is done using a vibration analyAer with a tunable filter. The analyAer7s tunable
filter works in much the same way as the tuner on a radio in that is allows us to look
at one fre)uency of vibration ?radio station@ while reNecting all the others.
,owever, even if we can measure the individual displacements and their
corresponding fre)uencies, it should be obvious that in many cases a single filtered
reading alone may not indicate the overall severity of the vibration. "n reality, only
an unfiltered, overall amplitude measurement will reveal the total condition of a
machine. +nd, since velocity combines the functions of displacement and
fre)uency, only an unfiltered velocity measurement will provide a general indication
of overall vibration severity.
A S2ECIAL 2LACE -OR )IS2LACEMENT MEASUREMENT
+lthough displacement readings are not widely recommended for determining
overall machinery condition, there are times when amplitude readings should be
taken in displacement. For e#ample, under conditions of dynamic stress,
displacement may be a better indicator of severity. *arlier, we discussed the effects
of repeated bending related to the failure of a piece of wire or sheet metal, but the
wire and sheet metal did property of most rigid machinery components, and that
property is brittleness. !rittleness is simply the tendency of a material to break of
;snap< when stressed beyond a given limit.
To illustrate the important relationship between displacement and stress, consider a
very large, slow rotating machine such as a heavy mine hoist rotating at E> .5&.
+ssume for a moment that this hoist is vibration 1>> mils peak-to-peak displacement
at a fre)uency of E> 15& ?1 # .5&@ due to unbalance. "n terms of vibration
velocity, 1>> mils occurring at E> 15& is e)ual to a vibration velocity of only >.2=
inches per second peak. .eferring to the 3everity 1hart.
&*1,+0"1+- &+"0T*0+01* +/V+01*/ 12.3*
-*3320 2 5+6*12 V"!.+T"20 +0+-43"3 : 12.*1T"20
Fig. 2-G, >.2= inches per second appears in only the ;3-"6,T-4 .26,< region
which may give little cause for immediate concern. ,owever, keep in mind that the
bearing of this machine is being deflected 1>> mils or one-tenth of an inch. nder
these conditions, failure may occur due to stress ?displacement@ rather than fatigue
?velocity@. "n other words, the machine7s structure or bearing pedestal may crack or
break simply because it is being bent too far rather than failing from the repeated
cycles of fle#ing.
!ecause of the importance of displacement measurements at very low fre)uencies
where stress is of maNor importance, it is suggested that displacement readings be
taken on those machines which may be subNect to low fre)uency vibration. + ;low<
fre)uency vibration is generally regarded as one below =>> 15&. 2f course, an
overall velocity measurement should also be taken to determine overall machinery
condition at the higher vibration fre)uencies ( above =>> 15&.
A S2ECIAL 2LACE -OR ACCELRATION MEASUREMENT
Vibration acceleration measurementsHHHHHHHHHHHHHH.satisfactory
forces being applied to the machine, and relatively large forces can occur at high
fre)uencies even though the displacement and velocity of the vibration may be
small. This is clearly indicated by noting that acceleration is a function of the
displacement and fre)uency s)uared.
For e#ample, consider a machine with a measured vibration of 1.> mil peak-to-peak
displacement at a fre)uency of =>>> 15&. This corresponds to a velocity reading
of >.9 inches per second peak which may be considered ;3-"6,T-4 .26,< for
general machinery. Fig. 2-G. This also corresponds to a vibration acceleration of
>.E g. 0e#t, consider a vibration >.>>>>1 mil peak-to-peak displacement occurring
at a fre)uency of =>>,>>> 15&. +lthough this vibration also corresponds to a
velocity reading of >.9 inches per second peak, it also represents a vibration
acceleration of E> g7s which, according to the chart in Fig. 2-D, is ;V*.4 .26,<.
For the vibration occurring at a fre)uency of =>>> 15&, failure would most likely
result from fatigue ?velocity@I however, at the higher fre)uency of =>>,>>> 15&,
failure would most likely result from the e#cess forces ?acceleration@ being applied.
*#cessive force may result in breakdown of the lubrication and ultimate surface
failure of bearings.
6enerally, vibration acceleration measurements are recommended for vibration
fre)uencies above =>,>>> 15&, although e#perience has shown that velocity
measurements can also be used.
IM2ORTANCE O- 2+ASE
5hase, defined earlier, provides a convenient way to compare one motion with
another. 1omparing the relative motion of two or more parts of a machine or
diagnosing specific machinery defects. For e#ample, if analysis reveals that the
vibration of a machine is ;out-of-phase< with base or foundation vibration, we may
want to look for loose mounting bolts, improper grouting or other signs of looseness
between the machine and its base.
5hase measurements are also important for balancing. $hen the machinery
problem is unbalance, being able to measure phase allows us to balance the part
+/V+01*/ 12.3* &*1,+0"1+- &+"0T*0+01*
V"!.+T"20 +0+-43"3 -*3320 25+6* 19

)uickly and easily without trial and error techni)ues. sually, parts can be balanced
in-place eliminating the need for costly disassembly.
0UALITY JU)9MENT
V"!.2T"5 measures the overall vibration severity ?effective .&3 velocity@ of your
machine. 4ou can then rate your results according to "32 29G2. This standard
rates the vibration level on a scale from good to unacceptable for the particular
machine class of your machine.
-i$' 2-8' To e&al#ate the %ondition of /o#r "a%hine; si".l/ read off the
&i!ration &elo%it/ on the ri$ht-hand s%ale and $o a%ross the ta!le #ntil the
%orre%t "a%hine %lass is rea%hed'
)E-INITION O- MAC+INE CLASSES
"n order to show how the recommended method of classification may be applied,
"32 29G2 has compiled e#amples of specific classes of machines as given below.
*#perience suggests that these classes are appropriate for most applications.
CLASS I
"ndividual parts of engines and machines, integrally connected with the complete
machine in its normal operating condition. Typical e#amples of machines in this
category are production electrical motors of up to 1E k$.
CLASS II
&edium siAed machines, ?typically electrical motors with 1E to GE k$ output@ without
special foundations, rigidly mounted engines or machines ?up to 9>> k$@ on special
foundations.
CLASS III
-arge prime movers and other large machines with rotating masses mounted on
rigid and heavy foundations which are relatively stiff in the direction of vibration
measurement.
CLASS IV
&*1,+0"1+- &+"0T*0+01* +/V+01*/ 12.3*
-*3320 2 5+6*1J V"!.+T"20 +0+-43"3 : 12.*1T"20
-arge prime movers and other large machines with rotating masses mounted on
foundations which are relatively soft in the direction of vibration measurement.
Turbo generator sets, for e#ample, especially those with light weight substructures.
CLASS V
&achines and mechanical drive systems with un-balanceable inertia effect ? due to
reciprocating parts@, mounted on foundations which are relatively stiff in the direction
of vibration measurement.
CLASS VI
&achine and mechanical drive systems with unbalanceable inertia effects ?due to
reciprocating parts@, mounted on foundations which are relatively soft in the
direction of vibration measurementsI machines with rotating slack coupled masses
such as beater shafts in grinding millsI machines, like centrifugal machines, with
varying unbalances capable of operating as self contained units without connecting
componentsI vibrating screens, dynamic fatigue testing machines and vibration
e#citer used in processing plants.
I)EAL MEASUREMENT 2OSITION
$hen taking vibration measurements using V"!.2T"5, care must be taken to
position it correctly. "f V"!.2T"5 is held improperly against the machine, unreliable
measurement values and damage can occur. 3o be sure to observe the following%
The measurement surface must be flat and clean ?or, preferably, prepared with
the V"! D.=1> countersink@. 2therwise, are fre)uency range could be reduced
due to poor mounting techni)ue.
-i$' 2-(5'
+/V+01*/ 12.3* &*1,+0"1+- &+"0T*0+01*
V"!.+T"20 +0+-43"3 -*3320 25+6* 1E

*+ERE TO MEASURE
3everal measurements must be taken to obtain complete information for vibration
analysis% four radial readings ?offset by C>K from each other@ and two a#ial readings
?one taken at each end of the machine@. 3ee "32 standard 29G2 for further
information.
-i$' 2-((' -or &i!ration anal/sis to !e as %o".lete as .ossi!le; fo#r radial
readin$s and to aAial readin$s "#st !e taBen' Note that it is not
re%o""ended to taBe "eas#re"ents on the end !ell of the "a%hineC
&ost machine manufacturers vibration limits are based upon readings taken directly
at the bearing housing. 5ractical limitations, however, often prevent access to this
ideal location, so that points some distance away must be chosen. 6enerally,
though, measurements should still be taken as close as possible to the bearings on
the stiffest available section of the machine casing. 2f course, cantilevered or
poorly supported housing sections are particularly resonance prone and therefore
unsuitable as measurement locations.
2nce the e#act measurement locations have been determined, be sure to mark
them clearly so that all subse)uent measurements can be taken at the same points.
This is especially important as the vibration readings can vary greatly when the
probe location is moved slightly.
+O* MUC+ VIBRATION IS TOO MUC+
3ince vibration amplitude ?displacement, velocity or acceleration@ is a measure of
the severity of the trouble in a machine, your ne#t )uestion may beI ;how much
vibration is too much8< To answer this )uestion, it is important to keep in mind that
our obNective should be to use vibration checks to detect trouble in its early stages
for scheduled correction. The goal is not to find out how much vibration a machine
will stand before failure, but to get a fair warning of impending trouble so it can be
eliminated before failure.
+bsolute vibration tolerances or limits for any given machine are not possible. That
is, it is impossible to select a vibration limit which, if e#ceeded, will result in
immediate machinery failure. The development of mechanical failure is Nust far too
&*1,+0"1+- &+"0T*0+01* +/V+01*/ 12.3*
-*3320 2 5+6*1= V"!.+T"20 +0+-43"3 : 12.*1T"20
comple# for such limits to e#ist. ,owever, it would be impossible to effectively utiliAe
vibration as an indicator of machinery condition unless some )uestionnaires are
available, and the years of e#perience of those familiar with machinery and
machinery vibration has provided some realistic guidelines.
Ta!le 2-(2' Vi!ration Velo%it/ DIn%hesESe%ond 2eaBF
+/V+01*/ 12.3* &*1,+0"1+- &+"0T*0+01*
V"!.+T"20 +0+-43"3 -*3320 25+6* 1G

-i$' 2-(1' Most "a%hiner/ &i!ration is %o".leA; %onsistin$ of "an/
fre>#en%ies'
4ou will recall that vibration velocity provides a direct measure of machinery
condition for the intermediate vibration fre)uencies =>> to =>,>>> 15&. The
velocity values in Fig. 2-1J are offered as a guide for overall ?unfiltered@ velocity
readings. $hen vibration amplitude is measured in displacement or acceleration,
the charts in Figs. 2-G : 2-D apply to machinery such as motors, fans blowers,
pumps and general rotating machinery where vibration does not directly influence
the )uality of a finished product. +mplitude readings should be those taken on the
bearings or structure of the machine.
2f course, the vibration tolerances suggested in these references will not be
applicable to all machines. For e#ample, so machines such as hammer mills or rock
and coal crushers will inherently have high levels of vibration. Therefore, the values
selected using these guides should be used only so long as e#perience,
maintenance records and history proves them to be valid.
For machines such as grinders and other precision machine tools where vibration
can affect the )uality of a finished product, the ;6uide To Vibration Tolerance For
&achine tools,<, Fig. 2-1J, may be used. +pplying vibration tolerances to machine
tools is rather easy because they can be based on the machine7s ability to produce
a certain siAe or finish tolerance. The values shown in Fig. 2-1J are the result of
years of e#perience with vibration analysis of machine tools, and represent the
vibration levels for which satisfactory parts have been produced. 2f course, these
values may vary depending on specific siAe and finish tolerances re)uired. +
comparison of the normal pattern of vibration on the machine and the )uality of
finish and siAe control re)uired will reveal what level of vibration is acceptable.
The first time the )uality of finish or siAe control deteriorates, an unacceptable
vibration level would be indicated. The initial values selected from Fig. 2-1J, can
then be modified to the new, more realistic ones.
&*1,+0"1+- &+"0T*0+01* +/V+01*/ 12.3*
-*3320 2 5+6*1D V"!.+T"20 +0+-43"3 : 12.*1T"20
&aking the decision to correct a condition of vibration is often a very difficult one
indeed, especially when it involves downtime of critical machinery. Therefore, when
establishing acceptable levels of machinery vibration, e#perience and factors such
as safety, labor costs, downtime costs and the importance of a machine7s operation
to your company7s profits must be considered.
-i$' 2-(3' Tentati&e $#ide to &i!ration toleran%es for "a%hine tools'
((- 2 )ETERMININ9 *+AT IS *RON9 *IT+ T+E 2ART
+/V+01*/ 12.3* &*1,+0"1+- &+"0T*0+01*
V"!.+T"20 +0+-43"3 -*3320 25+6* 1C

Finding the part of the machine causing the vibration or noise is easy. The
fre)uency of noise and vibration is normally some multiple of the .5& of the part in
trouble, and the part responsible will appear to stand still under the strobe light.
/eciding what is wrong with the part is the ne#t step. To do this we need to know
the characteristics of vibration for each type of trouble.
VIBRATION )UE TO UNBALANCE
nbalance is perhaps the most common cause of vibration. The vibration caused
by unbalance occurs at a fre)uency e)ual to 1 # .5& of the unbalanced part, and
the amplitude of vibration is proportional to the amount of unbalance present.
0ormally, the largest amplitudes will be measured in the radial ?horiAontal or vertical@
directionI however,

VIBRATION )UE TO MISALI9NMENT
&isalignment is almost as common a problem as unbalance, and the reason is )uite
simple. "n spite of self aligning bearings and fle#ible couplings, it is difficult to align
two shafts and their bearings so that no forces e#ist which will cause vibration. Fig.
19-J-1C illustrates the three possible types of coupling misalignment%
1. +06-+. ( where the center line of the two shafts meet at an angle.
2. 2FF3*T ( where the shaft center lines are parallel but displaced from one
another.
9. + 12&!"0+T"20 of angular and offset misalignment.
+ bent shaft acts very much like angular misalignment, so its vibration
characteristics are included with misalignment.
&isalignment, even with fle#ible couplings, results in two forces, a#ial and radial,
which result in a#ial and radial vibration. This is true even when the misalignment is
within the limits of ;fle#ibility< of the coupling.
The siAe of the forces and therefore the amount of vibration generated will in crease
with increased misalignment. The significant characteristics of vibration due to
misalignment and bent shafts is that it will be in both the radial and a#ial directions.
This is the reason that a#ial vibration readings are taken.
0ormally, the vibration fre)uency is 1 # .5&I however, when the misalignment is
severe, second order ?2 # .5&@ vibration fre)uencies may appear.
1onditions of misalignment can e#ist which do not involve a coupling. The
misalignment of a bearing with its shaft is one e#ample. "n the case of a mis-
aligned sleeve type bearing, Fig. 2-9, no vibration will result unless there is also
unbalance. + radial vibration will be present as well as an a#ial vibration which
results from the reaction of the mis-aligned bearing to the force due to unbalance.
The real cause of this vibration is unbalance, and both the a#ial and radial readings
will be reduced when the part is balanced.
$hen an antifriction bearing is mis-aligned with a shaft, Fig. 2-2, then a#ial vibration
will e#ist even when the part is balanced 5roper installation of the bearing is
necessary to eliminate the vibration.
+nother condition of misalignment which results in high a#ial vibration is the
misalignment of sheaves and sprockets used in ;V< belt drives and chain derives.
The angular and offset misalignment conditions illustrated in Fig. 2-J not only result
&*1,+0"1+- &+"0T*0+01* +/V+01*/ 12.3*
-*3320 2 5+6*2> V"!.+T"20 +0+-43"3 : 12.*1T"20
in destructive vibration but will also result in accelerated wear of sheaves, sprockets,
chains and drive belts.
+#ial vibration is the best indicator of misalignment or a bent shaft. "n general,
whenever the amplitude of a#ial vibration is greater than one-half of the highest
radial ?horiAontal or vertical@, then misalignment or a bent shaft should be
suspected. Fig. 2-E is an e#ample of the vibration readings typical of a
misalignment or bent shaft condition. Further on in this 1hapter under the heading
5hase +nalysis a procedure is outlined for utiliAing phase measurements to further
distinguish between misalignment, a bent shaft or other mechanical problems which
may produce high a#ial vibration.
+/V+01*/ 12.3* &*1,+0"1+- &+"0T*0+01*
V"!.+T"20 +0+-43"3 -*3320 25+6* 21

-i$' 2-(' T/.es of "isali$n"ent'
&*1,+0"1+- &+"0T*0+01* +/V+01*/ 12.3*
-*3320 2 5+6*22 V"!.+T"20 +0+-43"3 : 12.*1T"20
-i$' 2-2' *hen an anti-fri%tion !earin$ is "is-ali$ned ith its shaft; aAial
&i!ration ill o%%#r hether #n!alan%e is .resent or not'
-i$' 2-1' Misali$n"ent of a slee&e-t/.e !earin$ ith its shaft ill onl/ %a#se
aAial &i!ration if a%%o".anied !/ #n!alan%e'
+/V+01*/ 12.3* &*1,+0"1+- &+"0T*0+01*
V"!.+T"20 +0+-43"3 -*3320 25+6* 29

-i$' 2-3' An$#lar andEor offset "isali$n"ent of GVH !elt .#lle/s %a#ses hi$h
aAial &i!ration and a%%elerates !elt ear'
&*1,+0"1+- &+"0T*0+01* +/V+01*/ 12.3*
-*3320 2 5+6*2J V"!.+T"20 +0+-43"3 : 12.*1T"20
-i$' 2-7' This &i!ration anal/sis data is t/.i%al of "isali$n"ent or a !ent shaft'
VIBRATION )UE TO ECCENTRICITY
*ccentricity is another common source of machinery vibration. *ccentricity in this
case does not mean out of round, but means that the shaft ?rotating@ center line is
not the same as the rotor ?geometric@ centerline. *#amples of eccentricity are
illustrated in Fig. 2-=.
+ctually, eccentricity is a common source of unbalance, resulting in more weight on
one side of the rotating centerline than on the other side. For e#ample, with the
antifriction bearing illustrated in Fig. 2-=, the bore of the inner race is not concentric
with the inner race geometric centerline. The result will be to introduce an apparent
unbalance in the part mounted on the bearing. ,owever, by balancing the rotor, the
forces causing the vibration will be compensated and the vibration will disappear. "t
is for this reason that balancing a rotor in its own bearings is recommended. "n
addition, care must be taken to assure that the position of the bearing inner race on
the shaft does not change, because the eccentricity of the bearing race is
compensated for by balance correction weights on the rotor. "f the relationship
changes, then the condition may be worse than if no balance correction had been
made.
+lthough eccentricity is a source of unbalance which can be corrected by routine
balancing techni)ues eccentricity can also result in reaction forces in some case
which cannot be corrected by simple balancing.
+/V+01*/ 12.3* &*1,+0"1+- &+"0T*0+01*
V"!.+T"20 +0+-43"3 -*3320 25+6* 2E

For e#ample, the eccentric gear illustrated in Fig. 2-= produces reaction forces
because of the cam-like action against the mating gear. The largest vibration will
occur in the direction on a line through the centers of the two gears, at a fre)uency
e)ual to 1 # .5& of the eccentric gear. "t will look like unbalance but is not.
*ccentricity of the ;V< belt sheave, Fig. 2-=, will result in reaction forces in a manner
similar to the eccentric gear. "n this case, the largest vibration will occur in the
direction of belt tension at a fre)uency e)ual to 1 # .5& of the eccentric sheave.
+gain, the vibration looks like unbalance, but cannot be corrected by applying a
balance correction.
"n the case of the eccentric motor armature, although the armature itself may be
balanced in terms of rotor weight distribution, a 1 # .5& force is generated between
the armature and stator because of varying magnetic attraction between the
eccentric armature and motor poles. "ncreasing magnetic field strength by
increasing motor load may result in increased vibration. 2ne way to check for this
condition is to measure the vibration, filter-out, with the motor operating under
power. Then, turn the power off and observe what happens to the amplitude of
vibration. "f the amplitude decreases gradually as the motor coasts down, the
problem is likely unbalance. 2n the other hand, if the vibration amplitude
disappears the instant power is turned off, the problem is electrical and possibly due
to armature eccentricity. There are other electrical problems in motors and
generators which cause vibration. For e#ample, shorted windings, broken rotor
bars, or a rotor which is not properly centered in the stator will cause vibration also.
+ visual inspection using standard motor testing procedures will reveal the nature of
the electrical problem.
*ccentric fan, blower, pump and compressor rotors may also create forces which
result in vibration. "n these cases, the forces are une)ual aerodynamic and
hydraulic forces against the rotor. These forces will be greatest on the high side of
the rotor and thus the resulting vibration will be similar to unbalance. 2n fans,
blowers, pumps and compressors there is no positive test for eccentricity e#cept to
try to balance. "f you are unsuccessful, then inspect to see if the impeller is
concentric with the shaft Nournals.
&*1,+0"1+- &+"0T*0+01* +/V+01*/ 12.3*
-*3320 2 5+6*2= V"!.+T"20 +0+-43"3 : 12.*1T"20
-i$' 2-:' EAa".les of E%%entri%it/'
VIBRATION )UE TO -AULTY ANTI-RICTION BEARIN9S
+ntifriction bearings which have flaws on the raceways, balls or rolls will usually
cause a high fre)uency vibration. This fre)uency is normally several times the
rotating speed of the part but probably not an even multiple of shaft .5&. Thus,
observation of the rotating shaft with the strobe light will probably not show a
stationary image as it would for vibration caused by unbalance, misalignment or
gears which occur at even multiples of shaft .5&. "n many cases, the bearing
vibration is not steady ( fre)uency meter may be observed to twitch slight.
The reason for the high fre)uency and occasional unsteady or twitching fre)uency
normally encountered with faulty antifriction bearings can be e#plained by
e#amining the nature of the e#citing forces generated by a faulty bearing. For
e#ample, consider the vibration generated by a bearing having a flat spot on only
one ball. +s the ball rolls, the flaw will intermittently come into contact with the
bearing inner and outer races, resulting in vibration at 1 and possibly 2 times ball
rolling fre)uency. !ecause the rolling fre)uency of the ball will be several times the
.5& of the shaft, the resulting vibration will be high compared to rotating speed
fre)uency. The amplitude of the vibration will depend on the e#tent of the bearing
fault.
+/V+01*/ 12.3* &*1,+0"1+- &+"0T*0+01*
V"!.+T"20 +0+-43"3 -*3320 25+6* 2G

"n addition to the vibration occurring at or multiples of ball rolling fre)uency, these
momentary impacts may e#cite vibration very much like the vibration created when
we ring a bell. !y striking the bell the bell is forced to vibrate at its natural fre)uency
( the fre)uency at which it likes to vibrate.
+ctually, every obNect including the inner and outer races of a bearing, the rotor
shaft and bearing housing has its own uni)ue natural fre)uencyI and a flaw on a
rotating element of a bearing can produce the intermittent, impactive type of force
which will cause these various parts to vibrate at their respective natural
fre)uencies. 0ormally, the natural fre)uencies of these parts will be )uite high
compared to the .5& of the machine. Thus, these vibration fre)uencies measured
from a faulty bearing will also be high. "n addition, it is unlikely that the natural
fre)uencies of the various parts will be e#act multiples of shaft .5&. Thus, the
fre)uency of bearing vibration will probably not be a direct multiple of shaft .5&.
Finally since there are many parts, including the inner race, outer bearing race,
bearing cage, bearing housing and rotor shaft which may be e#cited to vibrate by
the impact of a bearing fault, it is probable that several vibration fre)uencies will be
e#cited simultaneously and to varying degrees. Thus, the fre)uency of bearing
vibration may be somewhat unsteady, causing the fre)uency meter to twitch.
The analysis in Fig. 2-G was taken on a machine with faulty antifriction bearings.
0ote from the M-4 plot that there are actually several high fre)uencies generated by
the faulty bearing. These are likely the various natural fre)uencies of the bearing
and other related parts which are being e#cited. $hen a bad bearing is present
there will be little doubt for this is usually the only e#planation for such a high
fre)uency of vibration. "n addition, the vibration generated by the bearing is not
normally readily transmitted to other points on the machine. Therefore, the bad
bearing is usually the one nearest the point where the greatest vibration of this type
occurs.
3evere misalignment in machines e)uipped with antifriction bearings will sometimes
result in a high fre)uency bearing vibration which is not the fault of the bearing. For
e#ample, in one instance, a high fre)uency vibration was detected on the bottom
bearing of a C>> .5& motor driving a vertical pump. "0 this instance, it was noted
that the vibration fre)uency was steady at 12,=>> 15& or 1J times motor .5& and
high in the a#ial direction. !ecause of the high amplitude of vibration, the motor
was removed and the bearing replaced ,owever, after the motor was reinstalled, a
vibration check revealed that the high a#ial amplitude at 12,=>> 15& was still
present ( Nust as before. Further investigation disclosed that the motor mounting
flange was being distorted when the mounting bolts securing the motor to the pump
were tightened. The vibration fre)uency generated was e)ual to the number of
balls in the bearing ?1J@ times the motor .5& ?C>>@. 5roper shimming to avoid
distorting the motor flange corrected the misalignment and eliminated the high
fre)uency bearing vibration.
"t should be remembered that bearings are one of the most precisely made devices
available. They do not fail prematurely unless some force or forces are responsible.
3uch forces are often the same as those which cause vibration. + careful check for
other difficulties such as unbalance and misalignment should be made after the
bearing has been replaced, particularly where premature bearing failures have been
fre)uency. This will help to insure longer, trouble-free service.
&*1,+0"1+- &+"0T*0+01* +/V+01*/ 12.3*
-*3320 2 5+6*2D V"!.+T"20 +0+-43"3 : 12.*1T"20
-i$' 2-=' Vi!ration anal/sis of a defe%ti&e !all !earin$'
VIBRATION )UE TO SLEEVE BEARIN9S
5roblems with sleeve bearings which result in high levels of vibration or noise are
generally the result of e#cessive bearing clearance ?caused by wiping or chemical
erosion@, looseness ?babbet loose in the housing@, or lubrication problems.
+ sleeve bearing with e#cessive clearance may allow a relatively minor unbalance,
misalignment or some other vibratory force to result in mechanical looseness or
pounding. "n this case, the bearing is not the actual causeI it simply allows more
vibration to occur than there would if bearing clearances were correct. + bearing
which has been wiped can often be detected by comparing the horiAontal and
vertical amplitudes of vibration and vertical amplitudes of vibration. &achines which
are securely mounted to a rigid foundation or structure will normally reveal a slightly
higher amplitude of vibration in the horiAontal direction. "n several instances where
the amplitude of vibration in the vertical direction appeared unusually high
compared to the horiAontal, a wiped bearing was found to be the cause. $hen it is
suspected that a sleeve bearing is bad, conventional methods of inspection should
be used.
;2il whirl< is another problem associated with sleeve-type bearings. This vibration
occurs only on machines e)uipped with pressure lubricated sleeve bearings and
operating at relatively high speed ( normally above the second critical speed of the
+/V+01*/ 12.3* &*1,+0"1+- &+"0T*0+01*
V"!.+T"20 +0+-43"3 -*3320 25+6* 2C

rotor. 2il whirl vibration is often )uite severe, but is easily recogniAed because the
fre)uency is slightly less ?EO to DO@ than one-half the .5& of the shaft.
For e#ample, a machine which rotates at D=>> .5& may have an oil whirl fre)uency
of appro#imately J>>> 15&. 3ince the fre)uency is slightly less than P .5&, the
shaft will not appear to stand still under the strobe light, but will rotate.
The mechanism of oil whirl can be e#plained by referring to the diagram in Fig. 2-D.
nder normal operation, the shaft of the machine will rise up the side of the bearing
slightly as shown. ,ow far the shaft will rise depends on shaft .5&, rotor weight
and oil pressure. The shaft, operating at an eccentric position from the bearing
center, draws oil into a ;wedge< to produce a pressuriAed load-carrying film. "f the
eccentricity of the shaft within the bearing is momentarily increased from its
e)uilibrium position, perhaps due to a sudden surge, an e#ternal shock load or
other transient condition, additional oil will immediately be pumped in to fill the
space vacated by the shaft, thus increasing the oil film supporting pressure. This
additional force developed by the oil film may drive the shaft into a shrilling path
around the bearing. "f the damping within the system is sufficient, the shaft will
return to its normal position in the bearingI otherwise, the shaft will continue in a
whirling path.
The problem of oil whirl is normally attributed to improper bearing designI however,
other problems such as e#cessive bearing wear, an increase in lube oil pressure or
a change in oil viscosity are other possible causes. $henever oil whirl is
encountered, a temporary correction can sometimes be made by changing the
temperature ?viscosity@ of the lubricant. "ncreasing the loading on the bearing by
introducing a slight unbalance or misalignment is sometimes effective also.
3crapping the sides of the bearing or grooving the bearing surface to disrupt the
lubricant wedge are also successful in some cases.
3everal special sleeve bearing configurations are available to reduce the possibility
of oil whirl. 3ome of these designs are illustrated in Fig. 2-C. The a#ial groove
bearing is normally limited to smaller bearing applications such as those used in
light gas turbines and turbines and turbo chargers. The three-lobed bearing
provides improved bearing stability against oil whirl. The three individual bearing
surfaces generate pressuriAed oil films that act to center the shaft. +#ial grooves
are sometimes included at the intersection of the lobe segments to increase whirl
resistance.
The tilting pad bearing is a common choice on larger high speed industrial
machinery. "n a manner similar to the lobed-bearing, each segment or pad develops
a pressuriAed oil wedge which tends to center the shaft in the bearing. The tilting
feature allows each pad to follow the shaft, improving system damping and overall
stability.
2n occasion, a machine which would normally be completely stable will e#hibit oil
whirl vibration. This may occur when an e#ternal source transmits vibration to the
machine through the foundation or piping. "f this background vibration occurs at Nust
the right fre)uency ?i.e., the probable oil whirl fre)uency of the machine@ oil whirl will
likely occur. This condition is referred to as e#ternally e#cited whirl.
"n a similar manner, a normally stable machine may be e#cited into oil whirl by a
foundation or piping which is vibrating in resonance at a fre)uency e)ual to the
probable oil whirl fre)uency. The resonant vibration of the piping or foundation may
be the result of pulsations or flow turbulence. 2il whirl resulting from this condition
is termed resonant whirl.
&*1,+0"1+- &+"0T*0+01* +/V+01*/ 12.3*
-*3320 2 5+6*9> V"!.+T"20 +0+-43"3 : 12.*1T"20
$henever the vibration characteristic of oil whirl is found, a complete vibration
survey of the installation including background sources, foundation and related
piping should be made to determine the true cause.
+nother problem encountered on machines e)uipped with sleeve bearings is called
friction whirl or hysteresis whirl. This vibration is similar in many ways to oil whirl
e#cept that the vibration will occur on rotors operating above their first critical speed,
and the fre)uency of the vibration will always be the critical speed fre)uency of the
rotor. For e#ample, if a rotor operates at 9=>> .5& and the first rotor critical speed
is 22>> 15&, hysteresis whirl will occur at a fre)uency of 22>> 15&. +s you can
see, this vibration may not have the characteristic fre)uency of slightly less than P
.5& associated with oil whirl. ,owever, for machines operating above or near their
second critical speed, the fre)uency of hysteresis whirl may coincide with that of oil
whirl resulting in an e#tremely severe vibration problem.
"n the case of hysteresis or friction whirl, a rotor which operates above critical speed
will tend to deflect or blow in a direction opposite the unbalance heavy spot. +s a
result, the internal friction damping ?hysteresis damping@ of the rotor, which normally
works to restrict deflection, will be out of phase and this damping force will act to
further deflect the rotor. This condition is normally kept in check by the damping
provided by the bearings.
$hen hysteresis whirl is encountered, the usual solution is to increase stationary
damping of the bearings and structure. This can be done by changing to a tilting
pad bearing or other special bearing design. "n some cases, the problem can be
solved by reducing rotor damping. This may be a simple matter of replacing a gear-
type coupling with a frictionless coupling such as a fle#ible disk coupling.
"mproper lubrication can also cause vibration in a sleeve bearing. "f the bearing
lacks lubrication or if the wrong lubricant is used, the result may be e#cessive
friction between the rotating shaft and stationary bearing. This friction serves to
e#cite vibration of the bearing and other related parts of the machine in a manner
very similar to the vibration you can generate by simply moistening your finger and
rubbing it over a pane of glass. This vibration is called dry whip.
The vibration resulting from dry whip is generally high fre)uency and, thus will often
produce the associate with a dry bearing. The vibration fre)uencies generate are
not likely to occur at direct multiples of shaft .5&. Therefore they will give no
definite image under the strobe light. "n this respect, the vibration from dry whip is
similar to the vibration caused by a faulty anti-friction bearing. +n inspection of the
lubricant, lubrication system and bearing clearances is in order. This condition has
been found on bearings with e#cessive and insufficient clearance.
+/V+01*/ 12.3* &*1,+0"1+- &+"0T*0+01*
V"!.+T"20 +0+-43"3 -*3320 25+6* 91

-i$' 2-4' Oil hirl'
-i$' 2-8' S.e%ial !earin$ %onfi$#rations are desi$ned to red#%e the .ossi!ilit/
of oil hirl'
&*1,+0"1+- &+"0T*0+01* +/V+01*/ 12.3*
-*3320 2 5+6*92 V"!.+T"20 +0+-43"3 : 12.*1T"20
VIBRATION )UE TO MEC+ANICAL LOOSENESS
&echanical looseness and the resultant pounding action causes a vibration at a
fre)uency of twice the rotating speed ?2 # .5&@ and higher orders of the loose part.
The analysis data,
The vibration characteristic of mechanical looseness will not occur unless there is
some other e#citing force such as unbalance or misalignment to cause it. ,owever,
when there is e#cessive looseness, even relatively small amounts of unbalance or
misalignment will result in large vibrations. Thus, looseness simply allows more
vibration to occur than would otherwise appear. +lthough these vibrations could be
eliminated by eliminated the unbalance or misalignment forces, needed to e#cite the
loose ness condition, this solution may re)uire an e#tremely fine level of balance or
alignment which may not be possible or practical.
The nature of mechanical looseness and the reason for the characteristic vibration
at 2 # .5& can be e#plained by referring to the se)uence in Fig. 2-1>a , the heavy
spot of unbalance has rotated to the =%>> o7clock position where the unbalance
force is directed downward. This tends to force the bearing down against the
pedestal. "n fig. 2-1>-!, the heavy spot has rotated to a position at 12%>> o7clock ,
and the resultant unbalance force is not in the upward direction. This upward force
tends to lift the bearing off the pedestal as shown in Fig. 2-1>-1, the heavy spot has
rotated around to a position of 9%>> o7clock, and in this position the upward lifting
force of unbalance is Aero. Therefore, the bearing will simply drop against the
pedestal. +s you can see, this action produces two applied forces for each
revolution of the shaft ( one force is applied by the rotating unbalance and a
second force is applied when the bearing drops against the pedestal. Therefore,
the vibration fre)uency is 2 # .5&. This can be viewed )uite graphically with an
oscilloscope attached to your vibration analyAer% The waveform which appears in
Fig. 2-11 is typical of mechanical looseness.
2f course, there will usually be some clearances inherent in every machine, and it is
normal that some vibration will occur at a fre)uency of 2 # .5& whenever some
unbalance or misalignment is present. "n general, mechanical looseness should be
suspected as being the problem whenever the severity of vibration at 2 # .5& is
more than one half the severity of vibration at rotating speed ?1 # .5&@. "n addition,
where e#treme difficulty is encountered when attempting to eliminate the vibration
by balancing or realignment, a visual inspection should be made to detect possible
looseness conditions.
+/V+01*/ 12.3* &*1,+0"1+- &+"0T*0+01*
V"!.+T"20 +0+-43"3 -*3320 25+6* 99

-i$' 2-(5' Me%hanis" of "e%hani%al looseness'
-i$' 2-((' The irre$#larit/ on this a&efor" is %o""on ith "e%hani%al
looseness'
&*1,+0"1+- &+"0T*0+01* +/V+01*/ 12.3*
-*3320 2 5+6*9J V"!.+T"20 +0+-43"3 : 12.*1T"20
VIBRATION )UE TO )RIVE BELTS
V-type drive belts are popular for power transmission because they have good capacity
to absorb shock and vibration. "n addition, for many applications, V-belts offer
relatively )uiet operation compared to chain or gear drives. ,owever, V-belts can be
the source of obNectionable vibration, especially on machine tools where very low
levels of vibration must be maintained.
Vibration problems associated with V-belts are generally of two typesI 1@ belt reaction
to other disturbing forces in the e)uipment and, 2@ vibration due to actual belt
problems.
V-belts are often blamed as the source of vibration because the fle#ible strands
between the pulleys can often be readily seen to whip and flutter. 3ince belt vibration
is more visible than the vibration of other parts of the machine, and because the belts
are usually the easiest part of the machine to change, belt replacement is often one of
the first attempts to correct the vibration problem. ,owever, it may be that the belt is
reacting to other disturbing forces in the machine. For e#ample, e#cessive unbalance,
eccentric pulleys, misalignment or mechanical looseness may result in belt vibration
which is readily visible. Thus, the belt may simply be an indicator of other disturbances
in the e)uipment. Therefore, before replacing drive belts, an analysis should be made
to determine the true nature of the problem.
The fre)uency of the vibration " the L*4 factor in determining the nature of belt
vibration. "f the belt is simply reacting to other disturbing forces in the machine, such
as unbalance or eccentricity of pulleys, the fre)uency of belt vibration will likely be the
same as the disturbing fre)uency. The belt is simply amplifying or e#aggerating these
other disturbing forces. "f this is the case, that part of the machine which is actually
generating the disturbing forces will appear to stand still under the strobe light of your
analyAer. $ith multi-belt drives, it is important that all belts have e)ual tension. "f one
or more belts are slack while the other belts are under proper tension, the slack belts
may cause e#cessive vibration even from very minor disturbing forces. This condition
will also cause belt slippage and accelerate belt and pulley wear. Vibration from actual
belt defects will usually occur at fre)uencies which are direct multiples of belt .5&.
The normal fre)uencies found are 1,2,9 and J times belt .5&. The particular
fre)uency encountered will depend on the nature of the belt problem as well as the
number of pulleys and idlers over which the belt must pass.
The .5& of a belt can easily be determined if the length of the belt is known as well as
the pitch diameter and .5& of one of the pulleys. se the following formula to find
belt .5&%
RPM Pulley x
Length
3.14 x Dia. Pulley
RPM
Belt
Belt =
!elt defects that cause vibration at fre)uencies e)ual to direct multiples of bet .5&
include cracksI hard spots, soft spots or lumps on the belt facesI and pieces or chunks
which have broken off. + belt which is crooked, having taken a set shape during
packing and storing, may cause high vibration on light weight e)uipment until it has
had an opportunity to become limber. "n addition, a V-belt may have variation sin
width. This causes the belt to ride up and down in the pulley grooves, creating
vibration because of variations in belt tension.
+/V+01*/ 12.3* &*1,+0"1+- &+"0T*0+01*
V"!.+T"20 +0+-43"3 -*3320 25+6* 9E

.egardless of the problem, belt defects can be readily distinguished from other
disturbing forces in the machine. The vibration fre)uency will occur at direct
multiples of belt .5&, therefore, the belt will appear to stand still under the strobe
light as shown in Fig. 2-12. The best way to detect belt vibration is to apply the
pickup on the bearing housing perpendicular to and in the direction of belt tension.
!elt defects normally result in a higher amplitude in the direction parallel to belt
tension.
"n some cases, the vibration amplitude resulting from faulty belts will be unsteady.
This is particularly true on multiple belt installations where the belts may slip to
varying degrees so that the faults on the belts will at one time add to one another
and another time subtract from one another. The net result will often be an
amplitude which increases and then decreases in a periodic or cyclic manner.
The e#tent of belt slippage on multi-belt installations can be readily observed under
the strobe light. 3imply shut the machine down and mark a line with white chalk
across the belts. Then, with the machine operating at normal speed and your
analyAer filter tuned to 1 # belt .5&, observe the white chalk marks under the
strobe light. "f the belts are slipping relative to one another, the white marks on the
individual belts will also be seen to move relative to one another.
"mproper belt tension, pulley misalignment, mis-matched belts or e#cessive load and
horsepower re)uirements which cause belt slippage may also produce high
fre)uency noise and vibration due to the friction generated as the belt rubs over the
pulleys. The result is usually a distinct s)ueal or chirp.
"n summary, smooth operation can be obtained from V-belt drives by following a
few simple precautions%
1. &ake sure belts are in good physical condition.
2. !e sure the number and siAe of belts used will meet the horsepower and
load re)uirements of the e)uipments.
9. $ith multiple belt installations, use belts which are matched set in order to
obtain e)ual tension on all belts.
J. &ake sure pulleys and sheaves are round and accurately aligned with one
another.
E. 1heck for wear of pulley grooves. *#cessive wear may allow the belt to ride
in the bottom of the groove, causing slippage and poor efficiency.
=. !e sure belts are properly installed and adNusted to proper tension as
recommended by the belt manufacturer
G. Finally, keep other disturbing forces in the machine to a minimum.
Vibration resulting from gear problems is easy to identify because the vibration
normally occurs at a fre)uency e)ual to gear meshing fre)uency, i.e., the number of
gear teeth times the .5& of the faulty gear. Fig. 2-19 is typical of analysis data
resulting from gear vibration. 0ote that the vibration fre)uency in this case is e)ual
to the product of the number of gear teeth times the .5& of the high speed pinion
gear.
&*1,+0"1+- &+"0T*0+01* +/V+01*/ 12.3*
-*3320 2 5+6*9= V"!.+T"20 +0+-43"3 : 12.*1T"20
"0 comple# gear arrangements where several meshing fre)uencies are possible,
an e#amination of drawings or blueprints of the gear bo# to determine the .5& and
number of teeth on the various gears may be re)uired in order to identify which gear
or gears are the most likely at fault.
1ommon gear problems which result in vibration at gear meshing fre)uencies
include e#cessive gear wear, gear tooth inaccuracies, faulty lubrication and dirt or
foreign material trapped in the gear teeth. "n addition to actual gear problems, the
vibration characteristic of gears may occur as the result of other disturbing forces in
the machine such as misalignment or a bent shaft.
2ccasionally, problems associated with gears and gear drives will produce vibration
at a fre)uency which is not e)ual to gear meshing fre)uency. For e#ample, if a gear
has only one broken or deformed tooth, a vibration at one # gear .5& mash result.
Viewing the vibration waveform on an oscilloscope connected to your analyAer will
enable you to distinguish this problem from unbalance because of the spike-like
signal caused by a faulty gear tooth. 2f course, if more than one tooth is deformed,
a vibration fre)uency e)ual to the number of deformed teeth times gear .5& may
result.
+ gear which is mounted eccentrically on its shaft will also cause vibration at 1 #
gear .5&, similar to unbalance. This was discussed previously under Vibration due
to *ccentricity. $here eccentricity is the problem, any attempt to balance in place
will generally prove unsuccessful. *ccentricity, unbalance and bent shafts have
also caused gear vibration at sub-multiple fre)uencies of actual gear meshing
fre)uency.
The vibration amplitude and fre)uency from gears may also be erratic in some
cases. This erratic vibration normally occurs with gears which are operating under a
very light load condition where the load may randomly shift back and forth from one
gear to another. The impacts which occur as the load is shifted will e#cite the
natural fre)uencies of the gears, bearings and associated machine components.
,owever, this gear vibration can usually be detected readily at two or more points
on the machine and, thus, can be distinguished from bearing vibration which is
predominate at the point of the faulty bearing.
!ecause of the characteristic high fre)uency, gear vibration is also a common
source of obNectionable noise. For this reason, correcting gear faults and other
disturbances to reduce e#cessive gear vibration will normally result in a substantial
reduction in noise level also.
+/V+01*/ 12.3* &*1,+0"1+- &+"0T*0+01*
V"!.+T"20 +0+-43"3 -*3320 25+6* 9G

-i$' 2-(2' *hen fa#lt/ !elts are the %a#se of &i!ration; the/ ill a..ear to
stand still #nder the stro!e li$ht'
-i$'2-(1' Vi!ration d#e to $ear .ro!le"s'
VIBRATION )UE TO ELECTRICAL 2ROBLEMS
&*1,+0"1+- &+"0T*0+01* +/V+01*/ 12.3*
-*3320 2 5+6*9D V"!.+T"20 +0+-43"3 : 12.*1T"20
Vibration of electrical machinery such as motors, generators and alternators can be
either mechanical or electrical in origin. &echanical problems including unbalance,
misalignment and looseness have already been discussed in some detail. Vibration
caused by electrical problems are normally the result of une)ual magnetic forces
acting on the rotor or stator. These une)ual magnetic forces may be due to %
1. .otor not round.
2. *ccentric armature Nournals
9. .otor and stator mis-aligned ?i.e. the rotor is not centered in the stator@
J. *lliptical stator bore
E. !roken bar
=. 2pen or shorted windings
6enerally, the fre)uency of vibration resulting from these electrical problems will be
1 # .5& and thus will appear similar to unbalance. +n easy way to check for
electrical vibration is to observe the change in vibration amplitude the instant
electrical power is disconnected from the unit. &ake this check with your analyAer
filter in the 2T position.
"f the vibration disappears the instant power is shut off, the vibration is likely due to
electrical problems. "f this is the case, conventional electrical testing procedures
can be carried out to pinpoint the true cause of the problem. 20 the other hand, if
the vibration amplitude decreases only gradually after power is removed, the
problem is probably mechanical in nature.
*lectrical problems with induction motors will often cause a swinging or pulsating
amplitude meter. This pulsating noise and vibration is caused by the slip fre)uency,
characteristic of this type motor. The slip fre)uency is simply the difference between
the .5& of the rotor and the electrical or synchronous fre)uency of the rotating
magnetic field. The synchronous fre)uency of the magnetic field is always e)ual to
or an e#act sub-multiple of the +.1. line fre)uency powering the motor. ,owever,
the rotor .5& will be slightly less due to inherent load on the motor. Therefore, if
the motor has electrical problems as well as mechanical problems such as
unbalance, there will actually be two different vibration fre)uencies present. 3ince
these two fre)uencies are relatively close, their amplitudes will alternately add
together and then subtract at a rate e)ual to the difference between their
fre)uencies. The result will be a noticeable steady beat as well as the
corresponding swing of the amplitude meter.
"f the amplitude of this pulsating vibration is e#cessive, correction should be made to
reduce the electrical and'or the mechanical problem. 2bserving the amplitude
meter the instant power is shut off will determine whether the problem is
predominantly electrical or mechanical in nature. "n many cases, the pulsation may
not be detrimental to the performance of the machine, but will have an adverse
psychological effect on personnel in the area because a noise which pulsates is
much more noticeable than one which is steady.
*lectrical motors have inherent vibration due to tor)ue pulses. These tor)ue pulses
are generated as the motor7s rotating magnetic field energiAes the poles in the
stator.
The fre)uency of vibration resulting from tor)ue pulses will be 2 times the +.1. line
fre)uency powering the motor.
+/V+01*/ 12.3* &*1,+0"1+- &+"0T*0+01*
V"!.+T"20 +0+-43"3 -*3320 25+6* 9C

Thus, if +.1. line fre)uency is => ,A ?=> cycles per second@ or 9=>> 15& tor)ue
pulse fre)uency will be G2>> 15&. This vibration is rarely troublesome e#cept
where e#tremely low vibration levels are re)uired, or if the tor)ue pulses should
happen to e#cite a resonant condition in the machine or structure. "f resonance is
e#cited, this can also result in e#cessive noise.
VIBRATION )UE TO RESONANCE
"t was mentioned earlier that every obNect and every part of machine has a ;natural
fre)uency<. This is the fre)uency at which a part likes to vibrate. For e#ample, if we
were to strike a bell, it would continue to vibrate at its own natural fre)uency. This
continued vibration, called free vibration, will eventually diminish, as illustrated in
Fig. 2-1J, because of inherent damping.
"n addition to free vibration there are forced vibrations where the fre)uency depends
on the fre)uency of the driving force applied to the machine or structure. For
e#ample, the forced vibration of a motor may be caused by the driving force of rotor
unbalance. "n such case, the fre)uency of this forced vibration is determined by the
speed ?.5&@ of the motor.
There are several ways to confirm whether or not a part is vibrating in resonance.
2ne way is the bump test. $ith the machine shut down, simply bump the machine
structure with a force sufficient to cause it to vibrate. 3ince an obNect will undergo
free vibration at its natural fre)uency when bumped or struck, the fre)uency of free
vibration generated in this way will be indicated on the analyAer7s fre)uency meter.
4our analyAer7s filter must be in the 2T position for this test. "f the vibration
diminishes very )uickly, it may be necessary to bump the machine several times in
succession in order to sustain free vibration long enough to register on the
fre)uency meter.
"f resonant conditions do e#ist, they will be clearly identified by the characteristic
peak vibration which occurs, and by a large phase shift ?appro#imately 1D>K@.
"f a resonance problem is encountered, there are several ways this can be
corrected. 2ne way is to change the fre)uency of the e#citing force so that it no
longer coincides with the natural fre)uency of the machine or structure. This can
usually be accomplished by either increasing or decreasing the .5& of the
machine. "f the e#citing fre)uency cannot be changed, the problem can be
corrected by actually changing the natural fre)uency. Two things determine what
the natural fre)uency of an obNect will be ( stiffness of an obNect will be stiffness and
mass ?weight@. Therefore, the natural fre)uency can be increased or decreased by
increasing or decreasing the stiffness or mass of the obNect.
2f course, resonance could be avoided by eliminating the e#citing force. !alancing
to lower than normal levels will sometimes reduce the effects of vibration at
resonance.
,owever, in many cases, attempting to eliminate the e#citing force by balancing and
alignment may prove to be difficult. The best solution to a resonance problem is to
separate the natural fre)uencies and e#citing fre)uencies.
&*1,+0"1+- &+"0T*0+01* +/V+01*/ 12.3*
-*3320 2 5+6*J> V"!.+T"20 +0+-43"3 : 12.*1T"20
-i$' 2-(3' StriBin$ the !ell %a#ses it to &i!rate at its nat#ral fre>#en%/'
+oe&er; this &i!ration e&ent#all/ dies aa/ d#e to da".in$'
VIBRATION )UE TO AERO)YNAMIC AN) +Y)RAULIC -ORCES
&achines which handle fluids such as air, water, gas, etc., will often have vibration
and noise due to the reaction of the vanes or blades on the impeller striking the
fluid. Vibration of this type is common on pumps, fans and blowersI and can be
readily identified because the fre)uency will be e)ual to the number of vanes or
blades on the impeller times the .5& of the machine. For e#ample, you will note
from the analysis of the pump, Fig. 2-1E, that the vibration at 21,=>> 15& is e)ual
to the number of vanes ?=@ times the .5& ?9=>>@. This bration is due to inherent
hydraulic forces.
0ormally, aerodynamic and hydraulic vibrations are rarely troublesome unless they
e#cite some part of the machine, piping or duct work to vibrate at resonance.
$here e#cessive vibration of this type is encountered, the tests for resonance
described previously can be carried out to determine which part of the machine is
causing the problem.
"f aerodynamic or hydraulic vibration is e#cessive and no resonance condition can
be found, the problem may be due to improper design of the machine or related
piping or duct work. For e#ample, obstructions in the path of the gas or li)uid or
sharp C>K turns in the direction of flow may cause this vibration.
+dditional noise and vibration problems associated with the movement of li)uid and
gas include 1+V"T+T"20, .*1".1-+T"20 and F-2$ T.!-*01*.
These problems are listed together because their vibration characteristics are
generally )uite similar vibration and noise resulting from these problems will
normally be random in nature. nlike steady state vibration from unbalance or
misalignment, random vibration and noise has no discreet fre)uency and'or
amplitude characteristics.
For e#ample, the vibration and noise caused by cavitation in a pump may cover a
rather broad fre)uency range where individual amplitudes and fre)uencies are
constantly changing. The analysis data in Fig. 2-1= is typical of the vibration due to
+/V+01*/ 12.3* &*1,+0"1+- &+"0T*0+01*
V"!.+T"20 +0+-43"3 -*3320 25+6* J1

caviEtation. The distinct spikes at 9=>> and G2>> represent steady-state vibration
at 1 and 2 times .5& possibly due to some unbalance or misalignment. ,owe9ver,
the vibration occurring between 9>,>>> 15& and 1>>,>> 15& is random with no
steady amplitude and fre)uency characteristics.
V+V"T+T"20 normally occurs when a pump is operating with e#cess capacity or low
suction pressure. 3ince the pump is starved, the fluid coming into the pump will
literally be pulled apart in attempt to fill the void which e#ists. This creates pockets
or cavities or nearly perfect vacuum which are highly unstable and collapse or
implode very )uickly.
/ue to their impactive nature, these implosions serve to e#cite the local natural
fre)uencies of the pump housing, impeller and other related parts.
3ince these implosions may occur at random intervals at various locations within the
pump or piping, the resulting vibration and noise will also be random in amplitude
and fre)uency.
"n some cases, where the fluid undergoes a substantial pressure drop at a valve, in
the pump or at changes in piping diameter, dissolved gases may be released on the
li)uid may boil. This condition is also called 1avitation and has the same random
vibration amplitude and fre)uency characteristics.
.*1".1-+T"20 normally occurs when a pump is operating at low capacity or high
suction pressure. "n other words, restricting the capacity leaving the pump causes
capacity leaving the pump causes the e#cess fluid to return from the discharge to
the impeller. This reverse flow and the mi#ing of fluids moving in opposite directions
results in random noise and vibration similar to 1avitation.
F-2$ T.!-*01* is the result of resistance to the normal flow of li)uid or gas.
This resistance may be caused by obstructions, sharp turns or simply surface
friction between the fluid and the duct or piping. +nother cause of flow turbulence is
the mi#ing of high velocity and low velocity fluids. + good e#ample of this is the Net
engine where high velocity e#haust gases are mi#ed with the outside air. +lthough
the noise levels generated are very high, since this mi#ing takes place outside the
engine, only minor engine vibration is created.
3ome random noise and vibration from flow turbulence may be inherent in the
normal operation of fans, blowers, pumps, compressors. 6as turbines, etc. $here
vibration and noise levels are e#cessive, an inspection of the system together with
noise or vibration readings taken along the machine and related piping and duct
work will usually pinpoint the problem. "n some cases a redesign of the system may
be necessary such as the fan duct work illustrated in Fig. 2-1D.
"n the original design, the sharp right angle turn resulted in the turbulence and
e#cessive vibration of the duct. .edesigning the duct work by using two JEK
sections together with turning vanes significantly reduced the turbulence and duct
vibration.
&*1,+0"1+- &+"0T*0+01* +/V+01*/ 12.3*
-*3320 2 5+6*J2 V"!.+T"20 +0+-43"3 : 12.*1T"20
-i$' 2-(7' Vi!ration d#e to h/dra#li% for%es'
-i$' 2-(:' Ca&itation; re%ir%#lation and flo t#r!#len%e nor"all/ %a#se rando"
noise and &i!ration'
+/V+01*/ 12.3* &*1,+0"1+- &+"0T*0+01*
V"!.+T"20 +0+-43"3 -*3320 25+6* J9

-i$' 2-(=' EA%essi&e &i!ration and noise d#e to flo t#r!#len%e in air d#%torB
"a/ re>#ire a re-desi$n to .ro&ide a "ore $rad#al %han$e in flo dire%tion'
-i$' 2-(4' Man/ har"oni%all/ related fre>#en%ies are %o""onl/ fo#nd hen
anal/?in$ re%i.ro%atin$ "a%hines'
VIBRATION )UE TO RECI2ROCATIN9 -ORCES
&*1,+0"1+- &+"0T*0+01* +/V+01*/ 12.3*
-*3320 2 5+6*JJ V"!.+T"20 +0+-43"3 : 12.*1T"20
&achines such as reciprocating compressors, piston pumps, gasoline and diesel
engines will normally have vibrations which result from the reciprocating motion
inherent in the design and operation of the machine. These inherent vibrations are
the result of inertia of the reciprocating parts plus the varying pressures on the
piston which cause tor)ue vibrations.
Vibration and noise analysis of reciprocating machines can be somewhat comple#
because of the many fre)uencies which are often found. The fre)uencies normally
encountered are those at 1 and 2 times .5&I however, fre)uencies at higher orders
are also common in some designs depending on the number of pistons and their
relationship to one another. For e#ample, a si# cylinder J-cycle engine may have
three power impulses for each revolution of the crankshaft. 2f course, this will
result in a vibration at 9 # .5&. 2n the other hand, an D cylinder engine with four
power impulses per revolution will show a vibration at J # .5&. .eferring to a
vibration analysis data, Fig. 2-1C, note the many harmonically related fre)uencies
found on the J-cylinder V-type compressor.
"n general, the higher order fre)uencies found on reciprocating machines are
inherent in the machine and will rarely be a cause for concern unless, of course,
they e#cite a resonant condition in the machine or structure.
The problems with reciprocating machines which cause e#cessive vibration and
noise can be either mechanical problems or operational problems. The mechanical
problems, which have already been discussed, include unbalance, misalignment,
bent shafts, looseness, faulty bearings, etc. 2perational problems which cause
vibration include blow-by leaking or sticking valves, and inNector or ignition problems.
"0 many cases, the vibration characteristics resulting from operational and
mechanical problems will be nearly the same. Thus, it is sometimes difficult to
pinpoint the e#act problem without further evaluation of your analysis data.
There are several possible ways to distinguish between operational problems and
mechanical problems. For e#ample, an operational problem such as faulty ignition
will normally be accompanied by a significant degrease in the efficiency of the
machine as well as e#cessive vibration.
2n the other hand, a mechanical problem like unbalance may show little or no
change in overall efficiency. "n addition, operational problems tend to create
une)ual reciprocating forces and, thus, may show a much greaterJ increase in
vibration in a direction parallel to the reciprocating motion but only a small increase
in vibration in the direction perpendicular to this motion. &echanical problems such
as unbalance or misalignment will normally show a substantial increase in two or
more directions.
VIBRATION )UE TO RUBBIN9
.ubbing between the stationary and rotating parts of a machine may cause the
vibration to have, in addition to the rotating speed fre)uency, a fre)uency at twice
rotating speed. "f the rubbing is continuos, then it is unlikely that nay particular
vibration characteristics will be noted.
,owever, a very high fre)uency of vibration and noise may be present due to
friction e#citing natural fre)uencies of the system.
+/V+01*/ 12.3* &*1,+0"1+- &+"0T*0+01*
V"!.+T"20 +0+-43"3 -*3320 25+6* JE

"t has been reported that rubbing in the seals of a steam turbine or similar large
machine will cause changes in amplitude and phase from one run to the ne#t when
no changes have been made to the system. For e#ample, a steam turbine running
at 9=>> .5& may have a steady amplitude and phase of vibration at rotating speed
fre)uency. ,owever, reducing the speed to, say, 1D>> .5& and then increasing the
speed again to 9=>> .5& will often produce a new amplitude and'or phase of
vibration. This seems to indicate that the point at which rubbing occurs changes
from one run to the ne#t. 2f course this condition must be corrected before
balancing could be carried out.
.ubbing, when it e#ists, is usually the result of a bent shaft, broken or damaged
parts, or distortion of the system that will usually be revealed by other vibration
characteristics.
VIBRATION )UE TO BEATS
"n addition to the common mechanical and electrical problems discussed thus far,
there is another form of noise and vibration fre)uently encountered in practice which
is termed a beat vibration or noise. + noticeable beat or pulsation may be the result
of a single e#citing force which is continually changing in amplitude or fre)uency.
,owever, more often a pulsating vibration and noise results from the interaction of
two or more steady state sources of une)ual fre)uencies.
2ne e#ample of a beat is the pulsating noise and vibration often associated with
induction type electric motors. "n this case, one force occurs at electrical fre)uency
and another at the slightly lower rotational fre)uency. This slip fre)uency,
characteristic of this type motor was discussed previously in this chapter under
vibration /ue To *lectrical 5roblems.
5ulsating noise and vibration can also occur when two or more individual machines
are involved. For e#ample, consider two machines mounted side-by-side on the
same structure with one machine operating at 9=>> .5& and the other at 9E>>
.5&. "f the vibration or noise amplitudes are significant at these two fre)uencies,
their interaction will result in a noticeable beat.
The beat or pulsation is produced by the two forces alternately and continually
coming in phase and then out of phase with one another. $hen the two are in
phase, their amplitudes will add together to give a ma#imum resultant vibration or
noise amplitude. Then, when the two forces are out of phase, their amplitudes
subtract or cancel one another to give the minimum overall amplitude.
The beat fre)uency will be e)ual to the difference between the two e#citing force
fre)uencies. For the e#ample above, the beat will occur at 9=>> 15& ( 9E>> 15&
F 1>> 15&. "n some instances, a beat will occur at a fre)uency e)ual to the sum of
the two e#citing force fre)uencies or, for our e#ample, 9=>> 15& B 9E>> 15& F
G1>> 15&.
The higher beat fre)uency is usually less noticeable than the low fre)uency beat
e#cept perhaps where a resonant fre)uency of the machine or structure is being
e#cited.
SUMMARY O- CAUSES
&*1,+0"1+- &+"0T*0+01* +/V+01*/ 12.3*
-*3320 2 5+6*J= V"!.+T"20 +0+-43"3 : 12.*1T"20
"t would no impossible to discuss every possible source of noise and vibration, so
we have limited our discussion to those which are most often encountered in
rotating machinery. "f the noise and vibration characteristics you observe do not fit
the pattern of any of those discussed, remember that vibration is caused by a force
which is changing in either its amount, direction or both. Therefore, try to visualiAe
how the machine in )uestion can generate a force which gives the kind of vibration
and noise characteristics you observe.
2+ASE ANALYSIS
The ability to determine the relative motion between the various parts of a machine
or machine structure using phase measurements can be a very valuable analysis
tool. This section outlines various techni)ues for utiliAing phase measurement and
analysis to assist in pinpointing the cause of vibration. For review, refer to 1hapter
"" under 5hase and 1hapter """ under sing the 3trobe -ight to &easure 5hase.
MISALI9NMENT VS A VENT S+A-T
+s discussed earlier, high amplitudes of a#ial vibration such as that illustrated in Fig.
2-2> may be caused by 1@ coupling misalignment, 2@ bearing misalignment, 9@ a
bent shaft of J@ unbalance of an overhung rotor. 2bviously, when a high amplitude
of a#ial vibration is detected, it would be most helpful if further tests could be made
to reduce the number of possible causes before the machine is shut down for visual
inspection and correction. This is particularly true on critical process and production
machinery where only a few hours shutdown can represent tremendous production
losses.
The first step is to select a convenient location on the machine where phase
readings can be observed. 0ormally, the end of the shaft or a visible coupling will
serve this purposeI however, it is important that all comparative phase observations
be made using the same reference mark.
The obNective of our phase analysis for detecting misalignment and bent shafts is
actually two fold%
First, to determine how each individual bearing is moving a#ially. "n other words, is
the bearing twisting, rocking or simply moving back and forth8
3econdly, to determine how the bearings are moving a#ially relative to one another.
+re the bearings vibrating together ?in-phase@ or in opposition to one another ?out-
of-phase@8
To meet our first obNective it will be necessary to make several a#ial phase
measurements on each bearing. 0ormally, J measurement positions of or each
bearing are recommended as shown in Fig. 2-2>. $ith your analyAer filter tuned to
the .5& of the machine, take and record phase measurements with the pickup in
the a#ial direction at each of the J designated points on the bearing. The recorded
phase readings will likely reveal one of two possible situations% 1@ the phase
readings will be noticeably different at the J measurement positionsI or 2@ the phase
readings will all be relatively the same at the J measurement points.
"f the phase readings on the bearing are noticeably different at the J measurement
points, this indicates that the bearing is indicates that the bearing is twisting as
illustrated in Fig. 2-21
+/V+01*/ 12.3* &*1,+0"1+- &+"0T*0+01*
V"!.+T"20 +0+-43"3 -*3320 25+6* JG

This twisting action is generally caused by a shaft which is bent through or very near
the bearing. + simple bow in the center of the shaft may not cause this twisting
action unless the bow is )uite e#treme. For machines e)uipped with anti-friction
bearings, it is possible to observe a similar twisting motion for a bearing which is
cocked on the shaft or in the bearing housing.
"f the J phase readings on the bearing are all appro#imately the same, this indicates
that the bearing is vibrating back and forth in a planar fashion as illustrated in Fig. 2-
22. This indication alone does not tell us the nature of the problemI therefore, it will
be necessary to continue the a#ial phase measurements at the other bearings of
the machine in order to diagnose the cause.
02T*%
*ven though our first a#ial readings revealed a twisting bearing, a#ial phase
measurements should be carried out at the other bearing points to see whether or
not any additional problems e#ist. +fter the phase readings have been taken and
recorded at the first bearing point, move the pickup to the ne#t bearing of the
machine and take a similar set of a#ial phase readings at J points around the shaft.
This procedure is then repeated for each bearing of the machine until a#ial phase
data has been recorded for all points as illustrated in Fig. 2-29.
CAUTION
$hen the pickup is moved from one bearing to the ne#t, it is )uite likely that the
a#is of the vibration pickup will be reversed by 1D>K. For e#ample, referring to the
machine sketch in Fig. 2-29, when readings were taken at bearing ;+< we probably
had the pickup pointing to the right. ,owever, at bearing ;!< we may have had the
pickup point toward the left. "f this is the case, a 1D>K phase shift has automatically
been introduced, and our observed phase readings are not directly comparable.
Therefore, whenever it is necessary to reverse the direction of the pickup a#is to
take phase measurements at other bearing points, a 1D>K correction must be
applied to those readings to make them directly comparable with our other readings.
"f the direction of the pickup a#is can be kept the same at all bearing points, no
correction factor should be applied.
+fter a#ial phase readings have been recorded for all bearings of the machine, the
final step is to compare these readings to determine how the bearings are moving
a#ially relative to one another. .eferring to the e#ample in Fig. 2-29, note that the
phase readings at bearings ;+< and ;!< are appro#imately e)ual. This tells us that
these bearings are vibrating in phase, as a single unit. -ikewise, bearings ;1< and
;/< are in phase. ,owever, bearings ;!< and ;1< are vibrating in opposition to one
another. $henever two adNacent bearings such as ;!< and ;1< are found to be
vibrating out of phase, this is a strong indication that the problem causing e#cessive
a#ial vibration is somewhere in between.
0ormally, if a large phase difference is noted between two bearings of direct
coupled machinery, such as ;!< and ;1< above, coupling misalignment or a faulty
coupling is usually the cause. "f the phase difference is noted between two
bearings of the same machine, the machine should be checked for a bent shaft or
severely mis-aligned bearings.
"f our phase analysis reveals that all bearings of the system are in phase the
problem may be the result of unbalance ( especially on overhung rotors, fans or
blowers. "dentical phase readings have also been the result of a foundation which
is resonant in the a#ial direction at a fre)uency e)ual to the .5& of the machine.
&*1,+0"1+- &+"0T*0+01* +/V+01*/ 12.3*
-*3320 2 5+6*JD V"!.+T"20 +0+-43"3 : 12.*1T"20
-i$' 2-(8' This hi$h aAial &i!ration "i$ht !e the res#lt of "isali$n"ent; a !ent shaft
or #n!alan%e of the o&erh#n$ fan'
+/V+01*/ 12.3* &*1,+0"1+- &+"0T*0+01*
V"!.+T"20 +0+-43"3 -*3320 25+6* JC

-i$' 2-25' AAial .hase readin$s for D3F .ositions on ea%h !earin$ are
re%o""ended'
-i$' 2-2(' 2hase readin$s hi%h are noti%ea!l/ different at the D3F
"eas#re"ent .oints indi%ate that the !earin$ is tistin$'
&*1,+0"1+- &+"0T*0+01* +/V+01*/ 12.3*
-*3320 2 5+6*E> V"!.+T"20 +0+-43"3 : 12.*1T"20
-i$' 2-22' 2hase readin$s hi%h are all relati&el/ the sa"e; indi%ate that the
!earin$ is &i!ratin$ aAiall/ in a .lanner fashion'
-i$' 2-21' AAial .hase readin$s sho#ld !e taBen and re%orded for ea%h
!earin$'
A))ITIONAL 2+ASE ANALYSIS A22LICATIONS
+/V+01*/ 12.3* &*1,+0"1+- &+"0T*0+01*
V"!.+T"20 +0+-43"3 -*3320 25+6* E1

There are other areas where phase analysis may be helpful. For e#ample, phase
measurements taken using the vibration pickup and shaft stick on both sides of a
bearing can be used to confirm a bent shaft condition. 3ee Fig. 2-2J. "f the shaft is
bent, the phase readings taken with the pickup on one side of the bearing will likely
differ by appro#imately 1D>K from that taken on the other side of the bearing.
+ comparison of amplitudes and phase at various locations on the machine and
foundation will often reveal sources of looseness and other problems. For e#ample,
the phase of vibration at the three designated measurement points in Fig. 2-2J
should be nearly the same. ,owever, if looseness e#ists, a significant difference in
phase readings between any two points would positively identify the problem.
5hase measurements are also valuable for determining the vibratory shape ?mode
shape@ of structures, foundations and piping. For e#ample, to determine the mode
shape of the structure in Fig. 2-2E, simply mark off a number of measurement points
along the structure and proceed to measure and record the vibration amplitude and
phase for each designated point.
!y comparing amplitude and phase readings, you should be able to determine
whether or not the structure is vibrating at resonance. Fig. 2-2= illustrates vibratory
mode shapes typical of resonant structures.
-i$' 2-23' 2hase readin$s o!tained #sin$ the shaft sti%B on !oth sides of the
!earin$ are hel.f#l for %onfir"in$'
&*1,+0"1+- &+"0T*0+01* +/V+01*/ 12.3*
-*3320 2 5+6*E2 V"!.+T"20 +0+-43"3 : 12.*1T"20
-i$' 2-27' Co".arati&e .hase readin$s taBen at the three "eas#re"ent .oints
ill#strated "a/ hel. in lo%atin$ looseness'
-i$' 2-2:' To deter"ine the &i!rator/ "otion of the str#%t#re; "eas#re the
&i!ration a".lit#de and .hase se&eral .oints'
+/V+01*/ 12.3* &*1,+0"1+- &+"0T*0+01*
V"!.+T"20 +0+-43"3 -*3320 25+6* E9

-i$' 2-2=' Resonate "ode sha.es'
&*1,+0"1+- &+"0T*0+01* +/V+01*/ 12.3*
-*3320 2 5+6*EJ V"!.+T"20 +0+-43"3 : 12.*1T"20