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Mill’s Utilitarianism
Can J.S. Mill’s conception of happiness accommodate Robert
Nozick’s convictions about the “experience machine”? If so, how?
If not, what follows?
Robert Nozick’s thought experiment about an “experience machine” is explained
in his book Anarchy, State and Utopia[Nozick, 1974]. Though it is not explicitly
intended to be a direct refutation of some of the claims made by John Stuart Mill
in his essay Utilitarianism, it does present a challenge to the basic principles of
hedonistic ethics underlying Mill’s theory. This essay will attempt to argue that
Nozick’s thought experiment has no damaging implications for Mill’s conception
of happiness: the first part of the essay will constitute an explanation of Mill’s
conception as interpreted from his essay Utilitarianism, followed by an outline
and explanation of Nozick’s thought experiment; the second part will firstly
explore the possible ways in which Mill’s conception might accommodate or
dismiss Nozick’s convictions.
John Stuart Mill’s initial definition of happiness in the essay is the following: “By
happiness is intended pleasure, and the absence of pain; by unhappiness, pain,
and the privation of pleasure”[Mill, 1863]. This principle epitomises the typical
hedonistic treatment of ethics, where happiness and good are equated with
pleasure. However, beyond this initial principle Mill’s essay develops a novel
strain of hedonistic ethics; one which utilises refined concepts which earlier
utilitarian thinkers did not embrace, in an attempt to meet utilitarianism’s
traditional objections. The most significant development is the distinction
between different kinds of pleasure. Mill contends that there are certain
pleasures which are superior, ones which any rational and informed human being
would prefer over other kinds of pleasure. He says that all things which people
desire, they desire for their inherent pleasure or for their utility as a means to a
pleasurable end; he also maintains that “pleasure, and freedom from pain, are
the only things desirable as ends”. However, he argues that pleasures of the
mind or intellect are always preferable to pleasures of the body, and this truth is
demonstrated by the fact that someone who has experienced and fully
appreciates both will always choose the former: “it is an unquestionable fact that
those who are equally acquainted with, and equally capable of appreciating and
enjoying, both, do give a most marked preference for the manner of existence
which employs their higher faculties” – the ‘higher faculties’ traditionally being
identified with reason and intellect.
His second reason for not plugging in, that we desire to be a certain kind of
person rather than just have certain experiences, could be met with the same
response. It would have to be shown that the desire to be who you wish to be
stems from something other than the perceived pleasure which such a state of
being would result in. Nozick’s second reason seems to appeal to virtue ethics; a
system in which morality means the fostering of a virtuous character, rather than
the achievement of good ends. Mill makes a brief dismissal of alternative ethical
systems in the first chapter of his essay. He claims that the principle of utility
“has had a large share in forming the moral doctrines even of those who most
scornfully reject its authority”; it is ultimately the principle which has guided all
the varying ethical systems and has resulted in the consistency of their moral
beliefs. Presumably this applies to virtue ethics as well.
The final reason, that the experience machine would limit us to a man-made
reality, is simply a matter of hypothetical specification. Having already stated
that we should ignore the more technical issues about the machine, it hardly
seems consistent for Nozick to declare that the technical limitations of such an
imaginary machine prevent us from experiencing a “deeper reality”. One could
imagine, for example, that the machine is not man-made, or that it can interface
with the ‘true’ reality in some way so as to make the experiences it induces
limitless, or make any other ambitious conjectures about what it could achieve.
And again, even if people were to choose against it, it could be because they
perceive greater pleasure from reality external to the machine, so their choice
would still hinge on purely hedonistic considerations.
Elliot Sober and David Sloan Wilson, in Unto Others: the Evolution and
Psychology of Unselfish Behaviour, defend the hedonistic account of human
action against Nozick’s thought experiment [Sober, 1998]. They argue that a
person choosing against plugging in can be explained by “hedonism of the
present moment”; at the time of making the decision not to plug in, the person
believes the decision will benefit them. They claim that “the problem of suicidal
self-sacrifice and the problem posed by the experience machine can be
addressed in the same way”; in both cases, a person will apparently do
something which will, in the long run, bring them far less pleasure than the
alternative. However, at the time of the decision, they are convinced that the
decision of self-sacrifice, or to remain unplugged from the experience machine,
will be more pleasurable than the alternative. So the initial hedonistic account of
happiness offered by Mill, which equates happiness with pleasure and states that
pleasure is the only object of desire, can accommodate Nozick’s convictions. As
an isolated moral dilemma, the agent still should plug into the machine,
according to Mill’s theory, but the fact that normally one wouldn’t plug in does
not entail that they hold extra desires beyond the desire for pleasure.
Bibliography
Mill, J. (1863). Utilitarianism. In J. Mill, J. Bentham, & A. Ryan (Ed.), Utilitarianism
and Other Essays (p. 278). London: Penguin.
Sober, E., & Wilson, D. (1998). Unto Others: The Evolution and Psychology of
Unselfish Behaviour. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.