294941 Gomez 1

Don Gomez
Origins and Early Development of Islam: Problems and Perspectives
January 21, 2011
Portrayals of Khalid b. al-Walid in early Islam
Khalid b. al-Walid is a sort of folk hero in the Islamic tradition. A sahabi of the prophet
Muhammad, he is known as the sword of god (sayf allah) due to his battlefield exploits,
particularly during the ridda wars and early expansion campaigns. Details of his tactics are
chronicled in the Islamic history, and he is personally credited with turning the tide of many
battles.
Yet despite his vigor and popularity, Khalid b. al-Walid remains a controversial figure. In
her article on Khalid b. al-Walid in the Encyclopedia of Islam Second Edition, Patricia Crone
writes that early Islamic tradition is extraordinarily eager to discredit him due to a number of
misdeeds committed during his lifetime. This paper will address that assertion.
1
As Crone states, there are major concerns in the early tradition in regards to Khalid b. al-
Walid. However, these concerns are usually tempered and explained (within the tradition) in a
manner that suggests ambivalence, rather than an eagerness to discredit. There are many
instances where Khalid appears to be shunned by Muhammad and the rashidun caliphs, but he is
always forgiven and sent back out to lead troops shortly thereafter. Reading these misdeeds
divorced from Khalids greater narrative may lead one to suspect that he is a figure reviled. A
complete reading of Khalids narrative suggests a complicated character and a tradition that is
not eager to discredit him, but one that struggles to fully embrace him.
See Crone, Khalid b. al-Walid in EI
2
.
1
294941 Gomez 2
Following Crones suggestion of an early Islamic tradition eager to discredit Khalid b. al-
Walid, this paper will explore the portrayals of Khalid b. al-Walid within the Islamic tradition
(especially al-Tabaris Tarikh and al-Waqidis Kitab al-Maghazi) to demonstrate a conflicted,
ambivalent depiction. After beginning with a general background on Khalid, I will then discuss
his significant accomplishments, followed by his major misdeeds. Concerning his misdeeds,
there are two specific episodes that I will focus on. The first is Khalids raid on the Banu
Jadhima as told in al-Waqidis maghazi. It is here that Khalid is believed to have slaughtered a
community of believers. The second is Khalids actions in al-Butah during the ridda wars, as
told in Tabaris tarikh, where again Khalid is accused of killing Muslims in addition to adultery.
Looking at these two events, I will demonstrate that the tradition takes an ambivalent view
towards Khalid and his actions, rather than discrediting him outright.

Khalid b. al-Walids first appears in the tradition with his brother Hisham, negotiating
with the muhajirun in Medina to release his third brother, al-Walid al-Walid following the Battle
of Badr in 624, in which he did not participate. He later appears at the Battle of Uhud in 625,
2 3
leading a cavalry detachment prominently against the Muslims. During Uhud, Muhammad
commands his archers to remain on a hill to protect the rear of Muhammads main force. After
4
realizing an initial success, Muhammads troops began plundering the slain quraysh.
Muhammad warned the archers to remain on the hill regardless of the outcome of the battle.
Ignoring these commands, the archers abandoned the hill and joined in plundering the dead
See Watt, Badr in EI
2
.
2
See Robinson, Uhud in EI
2
.
3
See Muhammad b. Umar al-Waqidi in Faizer, R. 2011 The Raid of Uhud. The Life of Muhammad: Al-
4
Waqidis Kitab al-Maghazi. p. 111.
294941 Gomez 3
quraysh. Seizing this opportunity, Khalid led his cavalry against the archers, killing many of
5
them. This turned the battle towards the advantage of the quraysh and the Muslims would suffer
defeat at Uhud.
Khalid appears again at Battle of the Trench (al-Khandaq). During the night, with a
detachment of cavalry, he is found probing the trench-line, looking for a weak spot to cross over
to attack the muhajirun. He is specifically looking for Muhammads tent, in order to kill the
prophet himself. When he finally locates the tent, he orders his archers to shoot the tent. The
6
prophet had been informed of the impending attack, and had snuck away.
Next, Khalid was sent by Abu Sufyan to intercept Muhammad as he and the Muslims
traveled from Medina to Mecca to perform the umra. Khalids troops formed a blocking
7
position between the Muslims and the qibla to disrupt their path. Sensing an impending attack,
but approaching prayer time, Muhammad insisted on a shorter version of the prayer so that some
could keep watch as the others prayed. It is here that the verse concerning keeping guard during
prayer, was revealed to Muhammad (Q 4:102). Impressed by the devotion of the Muslims,
8
Khalid ordered his troops to withdraw to a nearby hill to continue observing, allowing the
Muslims to carry on.
The Muslims devotion apparently convinced Khalid that they would eventually prevail
over the quraysh, and so he decided to convert. Khalids conversion is well-detailed in the
maghazi. Al-Walid, Khalids brother who converted earlier sent Khalid a letter urging him to
9
al-Waqidi in Faizer, R. 2011: 113-114
5
Ibid: 228.
6
Ibid: 282.
7
Ibid: 286.
8
Ibid: The Conversion of Amr b. Al-As.: 365-9.
9
294941 Gomez 4
join Islam. In the letter, Al-Walid relates that Muhammad had been asking about Khalid, saying
[of Khalid]:
None like him can be ignorant of Islam. If he placed his intelligence and
resoluteness with the Muslims and against the polytheists, it would be
better for him. We would prefer him over the others - or we would make
him a leader over the others.
10

This letter convinces Khalid that it is time to convert, and he sets out in the night with
Uthman b. Talha towards Medina. Along the way, they meet Amr b. al-As (another prominent
military leader, who would later lead the expansion campaign in Egypt), and there is an awkward
moment as Khalid and Amr question each others reasons for abandoning the qurasyh.
11
Eventually, they both realize that they have set out seeking Muhammad to convert to Islam, and
they decide to travel together.
When the three reached Muhammad, Khalid was the first to kneel before the prophet and
convert, reciting the shahadah. Muhammad replied with Praise be to God who guided you. I
12
have noticed your intelligence and hope that your Islam is only for the good. Khalid,
13
concerned about his actions at Uhud and the trench, asked about his standing in Islam, to which
Muhammad replied: Islam cuts off what was before it which essentially provided Khalid with
a clean slate.
On the issue of his conversion, Khalid is quoted as saying:
When God desired goodness from me, he cast the love of Islam in my
heart. Reason came to me and I said: I have witnessed these battles all
of them against Muhammad, and from every battle that I witnessed I
al-Waqidi in Faizer, R. 2011: 368.
10
Ibid.
11
One of the ve pillars of Islam and the rst step to becoming a Muslim: There is no god but Allah and
12
Muhammad is his Messenger (l! "il!ha "illall!h, Mu#ammad ras$lu-ll!h).
Ibid.
13
294941 Gomez 5
departed believing that I was on the wrong side and Muhammad would
surely be victorious.
14

With Khalids conversion, he comes into the service of Muhammad and then the rashidun
caliphs. It is here that Khalids narrative becomes trying. Before addressing his misdeeds, a
quick overview of his major accomplishments is necessary.
Khalids contributions to the Muslims are primarily military in nature. As a sahabi, there
are some hadith attributed to him, but he is usually introduced in Islamic tradition concerning
matters of war. His first major contribution was his battlefield exploits during the Battle of
Muta. This was one of Khalids first expeditions after converting in 629. According to al-
15
Waqidi, after the three appointed Muslim commanders were killed, Khalid assumed command
and rallied the shaken Muslim troops bringing the battle to a draw. The maghazi details the
16
tactics Khalid uses to effect the outcome, such as making it appear [to the Byzantines] that
Muslim reinforcements were arriving by circling his troops and changing the color of their [the
Muslims] banners. These depictions seem to be an attempt to highlight Khalids military
prowess and skill as a tactician.
Khalids actions at Muta are also depicted in the chronicle of Theophanes. Concerning
17
the events of 630, he writes that the armies of Muhammad sent four chiefs against the Arab
Christians in the areas surrounding the lands east of Jordan. He writes that the Byzantines
18
discovered this and caught the Arabs off guard, ambushing them at Muta. He confirms the
death of the three emirs and writes one emir called Chaled, whom they called Gods Sword
al-Waqidi in Faizer, R. 2011: 367.
14
Ibid: 367.
15
Ibid. The Raid of Muta. 373-8.
16
Theophanes in Mango, C. and Roger Scott. 1997. AD 630/1. The Chronicle of Theophanes
17
Confessor: Byzantine and Near Eastern history, AD 284-813. Oxford. 466-7.
See Buhl, Muta in EI
2
.
18
294941 Gomez 6
escaped. This account matches the Islamic tradition, although Khalid is credited with
marshaling a draw, not simply escaping with his life.
19
Most of Khalids important contributions come after the death of Muhammad,
particularly during the ridda wars (wars of apostasy) and the expansion campaigns in Arabia,
Iraq, and Syria. Khalid leads the Muslims against the apostates in Arabia. Khalid is then sent to
Iraq, and from there to Syria. His last action as high commander of the Muslims was seizing
Damascus in 635.
20
Having briefly introduced Khalids accomplishments and contributions to the Muslims,
we will now turn to his misdeeds. If Khalid is not being mentioned for leading military
campaigns, then he is usually being addressed in regards to some transgression. Khalid commits
numerous minor misdeeds that will be introduced here to serve as a background to his two major
misdeeds, both which involve killing Muslims.
After the Battle of Muta, Khalid consistently finds himself in difficult situations. The
first of these occurs during the raid of al-Fath, as the Muslims entered Mecca. Muhammad split
his troops, each detachment entering Mecca from a different direction. Before setting off,
Muhammad specifically forbade his commanders from fighting unless they were attacked.
21
Khalids troops were met by men from the quraysh with drawn swords and arrows pointed at
them. Feeling threatened, Khalid ordered his men to attack and they killed twenty-four men
22
from the quraysh and four from the hudhay. Later, when Muhammad enters and sees that there
23
al-Waqidi in Faizer, R. 2011: 374.
19
See Elissef, Dimashk in EI
2
.
20
al-Tabari in Fishbein, M.1997. The Victory of Islam. The History of al-Tabari. Vol. 8. State University of
21
New York Press. 176.
al-Waqidi in Faizer, R. 2011: 406
22
Ibid: 407.
23
294941 Gomez 7
had been bloodshed, he says Did I not forbid fighting? When informed that it was Khalid who
had ordered the fighting after being threatened, he says God fulfills what is best. It appears
24
here that Muhammad accepts this transgression specifically because it was Khalid who ordered
the attack. Shortly thereafter, when Muhammad enters the Kaba, it is Khalid who stands guard
at the door fighting back those who would try to enter.
25
After securing Mecca, Muhammad then began destroying idols and the shrines of idols.
He sends Khalid to destroy to the shrine to al-Uzza. Khalid returns and reports to Muhammad
26
that there was nothing of interest, and no shrine. Agitated, Muhammad sends Khalid out again,
urging him to be more attentive. This time Khalid finds the shrine and cuts down a nude black
woman, supposedly the manifestation of al-Uzza, who emerges from the shrine. Although a
27
minor episode, this story demonstrates Muhammads growing agitation with Khalid, who needed
to be sent twice to destroy al-Uzza.
During the raid on Hunayn in which Muhammad rode behind Khalid who was sent
forward and involved in the fighting, Muhammad passes a dead woman on the ground and asks
What is this? One of his followers replies A woman whom Khalid killed. At this,
Muhammad sends a messenger to overtake Khalid to remind him that he is forbidden from
killing women and old men. This is another incident depicting Muhammads growing
28
frustration with Khalid.
al-Waqidi in Faizer, R. 2011: 407.
24
Ibid: 411.
25
al-Uzza is a pre-Islamic deity. The shrine was located on the road between Mecca and Taif. See
26
Nehme and Macdonald, al-Uzza in EI
2.
Ibid: 429.
27
Ibid: 448.
28
294941 Gomez 8
These relatively minor misdeeds paint Khalid as merely troublesome. Now we will turn
to his two major misdeeds: the raid on the Banu Jadhima and the killing of Malik b. Nuwayrah.
After seizing Mecca, Muhammad began to call other tribes to Islam. Muhammad sends
Khalid with members of the muhajirun, the ansar, and B. Sulaym to southern Mecca to invite
29
the B. Jadhima to Islam. Khalid is met by some of the B. Jadhima, who are carrying weapons.
The B. Jadhima declare that they have already turned to Islam and have built mosques in their
courtyards. Khalid presses them to submit and drop their weapons. This confrontation goes
30
back and forth, with the B. Jadhima insisting they are already Muslims and Khalid pushing for
their submission. Eventually, Khalid orders his troops to capture and tie the B. Jadhima. The
prisoners were distributed among Khalids men, with each troop responsible for one or two
prisoners. During the imprisonment, the captives pleaded with their captors to be allowed to
pray [the Muslim prayers], which they were, and when they finished they were retied. When
dawn came, Khalid orders his troops to dispatch the prisoners, to finish them off with the
sword. At this, the muhajirun and ansar release their prisoners, while the B. Sulaym kill their
31
prisoners. At the event, the muhajirun and ansar protest to Khalid that these [B. Jadhima] are
32
Muslims, and they cannot kill them. Members of the muhajirun and ansar inform Muhammad
about the incident.
Upon returning to Mecca, Khalid is called before Muhammad. He is publicly censured
by Muhammad for using the laws of jahiliyya, in this case, tribal revenge. Abu Bakr and Umar
The ansar are those who supported Muhammad in Medina. They are referred to specically to
29
differentiate between the muhajirun (emigrants) and other tribes. See al-Ansar by Watt in EI
2.
al-Waqidi in Faizer, R. 2011: 430.
30
Ibid.
31
Ibid: 430-3.
32
294941 Gomez 9
both express their anger towards Khalid, and Ali goes to the B. Jadhima to pay blood money to
the families of the slain.
Although the misdeed appears to be serious, Khalid is not dismissed and faced no real
punishment. In relation to this event, al-Waqidi informs us that Muhammad says (presumably
later) Do not curse Khalid b. al-Walid for surely he is one of the swords of God who drew his
sword against the polytheists!. Khalids actions are not explained away, but they appear to be
33
tolerated given his overall service to the Muslims.
Khalid finds himself in a similar situation during the ridda wars, in his campaign against
Malik b. Nuwayrah in al-Butah. Malik b. Nuwayrah was a leader of the B. Yarbu, and is
depicted as a brave and noble man, known for his poetry. He was appointed by Muhammad as
34
tax collector in his region and was responsible for collecting and forwarding money to Mecca.
Upon the death of Muhammad, Malik is alleged to have immediately returned the tax money he
had collected to his people, indicating his turn from Islam. Other accounts have Malik
conspiring with Sajah, a prophetess who also conspired with Musalyimah, another Arabian
prophet who challenged Islam.
35
Abu Bakr sent Khalid to call Malik b. Nuwayrah and the B. Yarbu to Islam. News of
Khalids victories during the ridda campaign spread to al-Butah, and Malik told the B. Yarbu not
to engage Khalid, but instead to disperse and avoid fighting. Malik goes into hiding with his
family in the desert. When Khalid arrives at al-Butah and calls the azzan, some come out to
36
al-Waqidi in Faizer, R. 2011: 434.
33
See Landau-Tasseron, Malik b. Nuwayra... in EI
2
.
34
al-Tabari in Donner, F. 1993: The Conquest of Arabia. The History of al-Tabari. Vol. 10. State
35
University of New York Press. 88-9.
During the ridda wars, Abu Bakr had his commanders call the azzan. If the people responded to Islam
36
(by praying), they would be accepted. If they did not respond, they were killed.
294941 Gomez 10
pray, but Malik is not present. At this, Khalid decides to pursue Malik. The ansar traveling
37
with Khalid initially refused, saying that these were not the caliphs orders. Khalid replied
saying he [Abu Bakr] did not charge you [the ansar] with this, he charged me to proceed and I
am the commander and the one to whom communications come. After initially hesitating, the
38
ansar decided that it would be best to follow Khalid onwards, and they do. They eventually
capture Malik and others of the B. Yarbu.
With Malik and some of the B. Yarbu in captivity, a disputed order is given by Khalid
during the night and the captives are killed. Tabaris report has Khalid issue the command to
keep your captives warm considering the cold night temperature. A Kinani crier echoes the
command in the local dialect, which is reported as meaning kill him. The troops dispatch
39
their prisoners, and Khalid investigates upon hearing the outcry following the executions. At
this, he says If God desires something, He effects it. Khalid then marries Maliks widow,
40
Umm Tamim.
After this, Abu Qatadah (among Khalids troops), who insisted that Malik and his
followers were Muslims, blamed Khalid for Maliks death and the deaths of the others. Abu
Qatadah went and informed Abu Bakr of this. Again, Khalid finds himself defending his actions
concerning the deaths of Muslims.
Upon hearing this report, Umar pleads with Abu Bakr to take retaliation on Khalid. After
considering his options, Abu Bakr defends Khalid, but also censures him (just as Muhammad had
al-Waqidi in Fazier, R. 2011: 100.
37
Ibid: 99.
38
Ibid: 101.
39
Ibid.
40
294941 Gomez 11
done). Abu Bakr says to Umar, Oh Umar, I will not sheathe a sword that God has drawn against
the unbelievers. Again, a reference to Khalids military prowess as a defense to his misdeeds.
41

There are a number of themes that run through Khalids narrative - his competency as a
warrior, the tolerance of his misdeeds, the ambiguous nature of his errors, and the praise he
ultimately receives from those who doubted him earlier. These themes taken in total inform my
disagreement with Crones assertion that the tradition is eager to discredit Khalid. There is no
question that Khalids actions, especially against the B. Jadhima and Malik b. Nuwayrah,
constituted grave sins, and the stories serve as examples to other Muslims. However, the nature
of each of these incidents allows the reader to form independent judgements concerning Khalids
guilt.
In regards to the B. Jadhima, there was an agitator among the B. Jadhima who convinced
the rest of the B. Jadhima to hold onto their weapons [in defiance of Khalids order to drop
them], even though they said they were Muslim and would not resist Khalid and his troops.
42
Khalid is presented in a tenable position and forced to make a difficult decision. Although it
appears that the B. Jadhima had indeed accepted Islam when Khalid reached them, the
conversation Khalid has with Abd al-Rahman b. Awf when he returns to Mecca adds doubt.
43
When asked to explain himself, Khalid responds to Abd al-Rahman with Who informed you
they were Muslim? We are left to wonder whether Khalid truly knew the B. Jadhima were
44
Muslims and had them killed anyway, or if he honestly believed they were polytheists.
al-Tabari in Donner, F. 1993: 102.
41
al-Waqidi in Faizer, R. 2011: 430.
42
One of the rst eight converts to Islam. See Abdal-Rahman b.Awf in EI
2
.
43
Ibid: 432.
44
294941 Gomez 12
When the ansar challenged Khalids decision to pursue, Malik. b. Nuwayrah, Khalid
responds by asserting that he was the commander and that it is the commander who receives
orders from the caliph. Further, he states that it is is within his judgement [as commander] to
pursue Malik if he believed him to be a polytheist. The ansar eventually agreed with Khalid, and
I suspect the general reader would as well. Although the ansar initially believed that Khalid was
overstepping his authority, they changed their minds when pressed and thought it better to follow
him. This is similar to the way Muhammad and Abu Bakr managed Khalid during their reigns.
Both Muhammad and Abu Bakr censured Khalid when he committed misdeeds, but immediately
sent him back out commanding troops. Their trust in Khalid seemed absolute, despite his
periodic offenses.
Umar held the strongest feelings against Khalid among the rashidun caliphs. When
Umar became caliph, his first action was to dismiss Khalid, who was in the field commanding
Muslim troops during the expansion campaign in Syria. According to al-Tabari, Umar said I
45
have not dismissed them [Khalid and al-Muthanna] because of suspicion, but the people
venerated them excessively and I was afraid that they would put their trust in them. Khalid
46
was a popular figure amongst the early Muslims, and either Umar felt threatened by him, or he
wanted to emphasize that the Muslim victories were achieved because Allah wanted it so, not
because of Khalid b. al-Walid.
Despite the deep-seated antagonism between Umar and Khalid, Umar eventually warms
to Khalid. After dismissing him from command and replacing him with Abu Ubaydah, Khalid
al-Tabari in Blankinship, K. 1993. The Challenge to the Empires. The History of al-Tabari. Vol. 11.
45
State University of New York Press. 157-9
al-Tabari in Friedman, Y. 1992: The Battle of al-Qadisiyyah and the Conquest of Syria and Palestine.
46
The History of al-Tabari. Vol. 12. State University of New York Press. 179.
294941 Gomez 13
continued to serve the Muslims and perform in battle. Umar did not call for Khalids complete
dismissal from military service, but only from high command. Further, after Khalids actions in
Qinnasrin, al-Tabari reports that Umar says Khalid has made himself amir! May God have
47
mercy on Abu Bakr! He had better understanding of people than I have. Perhaps as caliph,
48
Umar finally understood the utility of keeping Khalid in military service.
The last narrative in the maghazi concerning Khalids actions against the B. Jadhima
eulogize Khalid by denoting in quick sequence the highlights of his career. These include
Khalids panic when his cap fell from his head in the midst of battle, and he ignored the battle to
find his headgear, which contained a forelock of the Prophets hair. Upon Khalids death, an
49
attendant describes his body saying no part of him was left unmarked by either a blow from a
sword, the piercing of a spear or the throw of an arrow head. Lastly, al-Waqidi claims that
50
Umar forgives Khalid for his actions, saying He was one of the swords of God!
51

Khalid b. al-Walids misdeeds seem to be tolerated because of his military service and his
role in spreading Islam. Time and again, Khalid makes mistakes that should have resulted in
severe punishment. In the case of Malik b. Nuwayrah, Khalid is accused of having killed a
fellow Muslim and then taking his wife - two major sins. Umar wanted Khalid to be stoned to
death. It is not clear that Abu Bakr truly believed Khalids excuse (that Khalid thought Malik
52
was an apostate), but nevertheless he pardoned Khalid with little more than a slap on the wrist
al-Tabari reports that Khalid defeated the Byzantines here and they had never suffered a defeat like
47
this. al-Tabari in Friedman, Y. 1992: 178.
Ibid. 178-9.
48
al-Waqidi in Faizer, R. 2011: 434.
49
Ibid. 434.
50
Ibid. 434.
51
al-Tabari in Donner, F. 1993: 104.
52
294941 Gomez 14
for marrying Layla bint al-Minhal (Umm Tamim), inviting unnecessary criticism and adding to
the conspiracy.

Reading through accounts of Khalids exploits chronologically, the narrative constructed

first depicts a troubled warrior, uneasy with his role opposing Muhammad and the early
Muslims. Seeing his error, he converts and joins Muhammad, using his skills as a warrior to
help bring swift victory to the Muslims. His legend is solidified through his actions at Muta.
He was not named as a leader of the campaign, but nonetheless returns to Medina as the sole
leader after the three emirs were slain. He is credited with staving off an embarrassing defeat
at Muta (non-Islamic sources indicate that the Muslims were badly defeated, and that Khalid
may have been the sole survivor - see Theophanes).
Having witnessed Khalids military proficiency, Muhammad begins to place Khalid in
positions of high command. From this point forward, Khalid is depicted as swift and ruthless.
He brings victory upon victory to the Muslims, and when he commits a misdeed (as when he
kills some quraysh after being ordered not to fight), Muhammad explains it away with God
fulfills what is best.
Khalids actions in regards to Malik b. Nuwayrah appear to draw the most criticism, most
likely because they not only involve the killing of Muslims (like with the B. Jadhima, in which
Muhammad refuses to take action against Khalid), but also the taking of Maliks wife. Even
when faced with severe pressure from Umar to take action against Khalid, Abu Bakr refused to
sheathe a sword that God has drawn against the unbelievers.
294941 Gomez 15
Seemingly, Khalid learned his lesson at al-Butah. From al-Butah forward, there are no
further major misdeeds in his narrative. When Umar becomes caliph in 634, he immediately
removes Khalid from high command (but not from military service, perhaps another nod to his
abilities). Later, when Umar receives news of Khalids accomplishments against the Byzantines
at Qinnasrin, he exclaims that Abu Bakr must have been a better judge of character. In the end
even Umar - Khalids most vocal critic - comes to appreciate Khalids abilities.
When Khalid died in 641/642, he exhorted his followers to continue their support for
Umar b. al-Khattab. Khalid is depicted as holding no grudge against Umar.
53
When presented as fragmented instances, Khalids story appears to be one of sin and
strife. Crone is correct in characterizing Khalids trajectory and narrative as contentious, but
given his complete narrative, it is unfair to claim that Muslim tradition is extraordinarily eager
to discredit him. The narrative leaves plenty of room for interpretation, and depending on the
readers starting point, Khalid can be viewed as an Islamic hero or an apostate. Within the
tradition, Khalid is always pardoned for his misdeeds, essentially because the caliphs believed he
accomplished more good deeds than bad. It is in this context that I would assert that the tradition
is much more ambivalent towards Khalid b. al-Walid.

al-Tabari in Smith, G. 1994: The Conquest of Iran. The History of al-Tabari. Vol. 14. State University of
53
New York Press. 13, 42.
294941 Gomez 16
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