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How reactive power is helpful to maintain a system healthy
We always in practice to reduce reactive power to
improve system ef f iciency. This are acceptable at
some level, if system is purely resistively or
capacitance it make cause some problem in Electrical
system. AC systems supply or consume two kind of
power: real power and reactive power.
Real power accomplishes usef ul work while reactive
power supports the voltage that must be controlled f or
system reliability. Reactive power has a prof ound
ef f ect on the security of power systems because it
af f ects voltages throughout the system.
Find important discussion regarding importance about
Reactive Power and how it is usef ul to maintain
System voltage healthy.
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COVERED TOPICS:
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Need of Reactive Power
Voltage control in an electrical power system is important f or proper operation f or electrical power
equipment to prevent damage such as overheating of generators and motors, to reduce
transmission losses and to maintain the ability of the system to withstand and prevent voltage
collapse. In general terms, decreasing reactive power causing voltage to f all while increasing it
causing voltage to rise. A voltage collapse occurs when the system try to serve much more load than
the voltage can support.
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When reactive power supply lower voltage, as voltage drops current must increase to maintain
power supplied, causing system to consume more reactive power and the voltage drops f urther . If
the current increase too much, transmission lines go of f line, overloading other lines and potentially
causing cascading f ailures.
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If the voltage drops too low, some generators will disconnect automatically to protect themselves.
Voltage collapse occurs when an increase in load or less generation or transmission f acilities causes
dropping voltage, which causes a f urther reduction in reactive power f rom capacitor and line
charging, and still there f urther voltage reductions. If voltage reduction continues, these will cause
additional elements to trip, leading f urther reduction in voltage and loss of the load. The result in
these entire progressive and uncontrollable declines in voltage is that the system unable to provide
the reactive power required supplying the reactive power demands.
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Importance of Present of Reactive Power
Voltage control and reactive-power management are two aspects of a single activity that both
supports reliability and f acilitates commercial transactions across transmission networks.
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On an alternating-current (AC) power system, voltage is controlled by managing production and
absorption of reactive power. There are three reasons why it is necessary to manage reactive power
and control voltage.
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First, both customer and power-system equipment are designed to operate within a range of
voltages, usually within5% of the nominal voltage. At low voltages, many types of equipment
perf orm poorly; light bulbs provide less illumination, induction motors can overheat and be damaged,
and some electronic equipment will not operate at. High voltages can damage equipment and shorten
their lif etimes.
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Second, reactive power consumes transmission and generation resources. To maximize the amount
of real power that can be transf erred across a congested transmission interf ace, reactive-power
f lows must be minimized. Similarly, reactive-power production can limit a generators real-power
capability.
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Third, moving reactive power on the transmission system incurs real-power losses. Both capacity
and energy must be supplied to replace these losses.
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Voltage control is complicated by two additional f actors.
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First, the transmission system itself is a nonlinear consumer of reactive power, depending on system
loading. At very light loading the system generates reactive power that must be absorbed, while at
heavy loading the system consumes a large amount of reactive power that must be replaced. The
systems reactive-power requirements also depend on the generation and transmission
conf iguration.
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Consequently, system reactive requirements vary in time as load levels and load and generation
patterns change. The bulk-power system is composed of many pieces of equipment, any one of
which can f ail at any time. Theref ore, the system is designed to withstand the loss of any single
piece of equipment and to continue operating without impacting any customers. That is, the system
is designed to withstand a single contingency. Taken together, these two f actors result in a dynamic
reactive-power requirement. The loss of a generator or a major transmission line can have the
compounding ef f ect of reducing the reactive supply and, at the same time, reconf iguring f lows such
that the system is consuming additional reactive power.
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At least a portion of the reactive supply must be capable of responding quickly to changing reactive-
power demands and to maintain acceptable voltages throughout the system. Thus, just as an
electrical system requires real-power reserves to respond to contingencies, so too it must maintain
reactive-power reserves.
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Loads can also be both real and reactive. The reactive portion of the load could be served f rom the
transmission system. Reactive loads incur more voltage drop and reactive losses in the transmission
system than do similar-size (MVA) real loads.
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Vertically integrated utilities of ten include charges f or provision of reactive power to loads in their
rates. With restructuring, the trend is to restrict loads to operation at near zero reactive power
demand (a 1.0 power f actor). The system operator proposal limits loads to power f actors between
0.97 lagging (absorbing reactive power) and 0.99 leading. This would help to maintain reliability of the
system and avoid the problems of market power in which a company could use its transmission lines
to limit competition f or generation and increase its prices.
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Purpose of Reactive Power
Synchronous generators, SVC and various types of other DER (Distributed energy resource)
equipment are used to maintain voltages throughout the transmission system. Injecting reactive
power into the system raises voltages, and absorbing reactive power lowers voltages.
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Voltage-support requirements are a f unction of the locations and magnitudes of generator outputs
and customer loads and of the conf iguration of the DER transmission system.
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These requirements can dif f er substantially f rom location to location and can change rapidly as the
location and magnitude of generation and load change. At very low levels of system load,
transmission lines act as capacitors and increase voltages. At high levels of load, however,
transmission lines absorb reactive power and thereby lower voltages. Most transmission-system
equipment (e.g., capacitors, inductors, and tap-changing transf ormers) is static but can be switched
to respond to changes in voltage-support requirements
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System operation has three objectives when managing reactive power and voltages.
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First, it must maintain adequate voltages throughout the transmission and distribution system f or
both current and contingency conditions.
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Second, it seeks to minimize congestion of real-power f lows.
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Third, it seeks to minimize real-power losses.
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However, the mechanisms that system operators use to acquire and deploy reactive-power
resources are changing .These mechanisms must be f air to all parties as well as ef f ective. Further,
they must be demonstrably f air.
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What is Reactive Power?
While active power is the energy supplied to run a motor, heat a home, or illuminate an electric light
bulb, reactive power provides the important f unction of regulating voltage.
If voltage on the system is not high enough, active power cannot be supplied.
Reactive power is used to provide the voltage levels necessary f or active power to do usef ul work.
Reactive power is essential to move active power through the transmission and distribution system
to the customer.
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Why Do We Need Reactive Power?
Reactive power (VARS) is required to maintain the voltage to deliver active power (watts) through
transmission lines.
Motor loads and other loads require reactive power to convert the f low of electrons into usef ul work.
When there is not enough reactive power, the voltage sags down and it is not possible to push the
power demanded by loads through the lines.
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Reactive Power is a Byproduct of Alternating Current (AC) Systems
Transf ormers, transmission lines, and motors require reactive power
Transf ormers and transmission lines introduce inductance as well as resistance:
1. Both oppose the f low of current
2. Must raise the voltage higher to push the power through the inductance of the lines
3. Unless capacitance is introduced to of f set inductance
The f arther the transmission of power, the higher the voltage needs to be raised
Electric motors need reactive power to produce magnetic f ields f or their operation
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How Are Voltages Controlled?
Voltages are controlled by providing suf f icient reactive power control margin to modulate and
supply needs through:
1. Shunt capacitor and reactor compensations
2. Dynamic compensation
3. Proper voltage schedule of generation.
Voltages are controlled by predicting and correcting reactive power demand f rom loads
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Voltage must be maintained within Acceptable Levels
Under normal system conditions, both peak or of f peak load conditions, the voltages need to be
maintained between 95% and 105% of the nominal.
Low voltage conditions could result in equipment malf unctions:
1. Motor will stall, overheat or damage
2. Reactive power output of capacitors will be reduced exponentially
3. Generating units may trip.
High voltage conditions may:
1. Damage major equipment insulation f ailure
2. Automatically trip major transmission equipment
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Voltage and Reactive Power
Voltage and reactive power must be properly managed and controlled to:
1. Provide adequate service quality
2. Maintain proper stability of the power system.
Reactive Power and Power Factor
Reactive power is present when the voltage and current are not in phase:
1. One wavef orm leads the other
2. Phase angle not equal to 0o
3. Power f actor less than unity
Measured in volt-ampere reactive (VAR)
Produced when the current wavef orm leads voltage wavef orm (Leading power f actor)
Vice versa, consumed when the current wavef orm lags voltage (lagging power f actor)
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Reactive Power Limitations
Reactive power does not travel very f ar.
Usually necessary to produce it close to the location where it is needed
A supplier/source close to the location of the need is in a much better position to provide reactive
power versus one that is located f ar f rom the location of the need
Reactive power supplies are closely tied to the ability to deliver real or active power.
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Reactive power caused absence of electrical supply in country-A blackout
The quality of the electrical energy supply can be evaluated basing on a number of parameters.
However, the most important will be always the presence of electrical energy and the number and
duration of interrupts.
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If there is no voltage in the socket nobody will care about harmonics, sags or surges.
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A long term, wide-spread interrupt a blackout leads usually to catastrophic losses. It is dif f icult to
imagine that in all the country there is no electrical supply.
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In reality such things have already happened a number of times. One of the reasons leading to a
blackout is reactive power that went out of the control.
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When consumption of electrical energy is high, the demand on inductive reactive power increases
usually at the same proportion. In this moment, the transmission lines (that are well loaded) introduce
an extra inductive reactive power.
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The local sources of capacitive reactive power become insuf f icient. It is necessary to deliver more of
the reactive power f rom generators in power plants.
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It might happen that they are already f ully loaded and the reactive power will have to be delivered
f rom more distant places or f rom abroad. Transmission of reactive power will load more the lines,
which in turn will introduce more reactive power. The voltage on customer side will decrease f urther.
Local control of voltage by means of autotransf ormers will lead to increase of current (to get the
same power) and this in turn will increase voltage drops in lines. In one moment this process can go
like avalanche reducing voltage to zero. In mean time most of the generators in power plants will
switch of f due to unacceptably low voltage what of course will deteriorate the situation.
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In continental Europe most of the power plant is based on heat and steam turbines. If a generation
unit in such power plant is stopped and cool down it requires time and electrical energy to start
operation again. If the other power plants are also of f -the blackout is permanent.
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Insuf f icient reactive power leading to voltage collapse has been a causal f actor in major blackouts in
the worldwide. Voltage collapse occurred in United States in the blackout of July 2, 1996, and
August10, 1996 on the West Coast.
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While August 14, 2003, blackout in the United States and Canada was not due to a voltage collapse
as that term has traditionally used by power system engineers, the task f orce f inal report said that
Insufficient reactive power was an issue in the blackout and the report also overestimation of
dynamics reactive output of system generation as common f actor among major outages in the
United States.
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Demand for reactive power was unusually high because of a large volume of long-distance
transmissions streaming through Ohio to areas, including Canada, than needed to import
power to meet local demand. But the supply of reactive power was low because some plants
were out of service and, possibly, because other plants were not producing enough of it.
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Problems of reactive power
Though reactive power is needed to run many electrical devices, it can cause harmf ul ef f ects on your
appliances and other motorized loads, as well as your electrical inf rastructure. Since the current
f lowing through your electrical system is higher than that necessary to do the required work, excess
power dissipates in the f orm of heat as the reactive current f lows through resistive components like
wires, switches and transf ormers. Keep in mind that whenever energy is expended, you pay. It makes
no dif f erence whether the energy is expended in the f orm of heat or usef ul work.
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We can determine how much reactive power your electrical devices use by measuring their power
f actor, the ratio between real power and true power. A power f actor of 1 (i.e. 100%) ideally means
that all electrical power is applied towards real work. Homes typically have overall power f actors in
the range of 70% to 85%, depending upon which appliances may be running. Newer homes with the
latest in energy ef f icient appliances can have an overall power f actor in the nineties.
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The typical residential power meter only reads real power, i.e. what you would have with a power
f actor of 100%. While most electric companies do not charge residences directly f or reactive power,
its a common misconception to say that reactive power correction has no economic benef it. To
begin with, electric companies correct f or power f actor around industrial complexes, or they will
request the of f ending customer to do so at his expense, or they will charge more f or reactive power.
Clearly electric companies benef it f rom power f actor correction, since transmission lines carrying the
additional (reactive) current to heavily industrialized areas costs them money. Many people overlook
the benef its that power f actor correction can of f er the typical home in comparison to the savings
and other benef its that businesses with large inductive loads can expect.
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Most importantly, you pay f or reactive power in the f orm of energy losses created by the reactive
current f lowing in your home. These losses are in the f orm of heat and cannot be returned to the
grid. Hence you pay. The f ewer kilowatts expended in the home, whether f rom heat dissipation or
not, the lower the electric bill. Since power f actor correction reduces the energy losses, you save.
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As stated earlier, electric companies correct f or power f actor around industrial complexes, or they
will request the of f ending customer to do so, or they will charge f or reactive power. Theyre not
worried about residential service because the impact on their distribution grid is not as severe as in
heavily industrialized areas. However, it is true that power f actor correction assists the electric
company by reducing demand f or electricity, thereby allowing them to satisf y service needs
elsewhere. But who cares? Power f actor correction lowers your electric bill by reducing the number of
kilowatts expended, and without it your electric bill will be higher, guaranteed.
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Weve encountered this with other electric companies and have been successf ul in getting each of
them to issue a retraction. Electric companies do vary greatly and many show no interest in deviating
f rom their standard marketing strategy by acknowledging proven energy saving products. Keep in
mind that promoting REAL energy savings to all their customers would devastate their bottom line.
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Power f actor correction will not raise your electric bill or do harm to your electrical devices. The
technology has been successf ully applied throughout industry f or years. When sized properly, power
f actor correction will enhance the electrical ef f iciency and longevity of inductive loads. Power f actor
correction can have adverse side ef f ects (e.g. harmonics) on sensitive industrialized equipment if not
handled by knowledgeable, experienced prof essionals. Power f actor correction on residential
dwellings is limited to the capacity of the electrical panel (200 amp max) and does not over
compensate household inductive loads. By increasing the ef f iciency of electrical systems, energy
demand and its environmental impact is lessened.
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Prof ound ef f ects of Reactive Power in Various elements of Power System:
Generat ion
An electric-power generators primary f unction is to convert f uel (or other energy resource) into
electric power. Almost all generators* also have considerable control over their terminal voltage and
reactive-power output.
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Payment f or the use of this resource is the specif ic f ocus of voltage control f rom generation
service. The ability of generator to provide reactive support depends on its real-power production.
Like most electric equipment, generators are limited by their current-carrying capability. Near rated
voltage, this capability becomes an MVA limit f or the armature of the generator rather than a MW
limitation.
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Production of reactive power involves increasing the magnetic f ield to raise the generators terminal
voltage. Increasing the magnetic f ield requires increasing the current in the rotating f ield winding.
Absorption of reactive power is limited by the magnetic-f lux pattern in the stator, which results in
excessive heating of the stator-end iron, the core-end heating limit.
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The synchronizing torque is also reduced when absorbing large amounts of reactive power, which
can also limit generator capability to reduce the chance of losing synchronism with the system.
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The generator prime mover (e.g., the steam turbine) is usually designed with less capacity than the
electric generator, resulting in the prime-mover limit. The designers recognize that the generator will
be producing reactive power and supporting system voltage most of the time. Providing a prime
mover capable of delivering all the mechanical power the generator can convert to electricity when it
is neither producing nor absorbing reactive power would result in underutilization of the prime mover.
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To produce or absorb additional VARs beyond these limits would require a reduction in the real-
power output of the unit. Control over the reactive output and the terminal voltage of the generator
is provided by adjusting the DC current in the generators rotating f ield .Control can be automatic,
continuous, and f ast.
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The inherent characteristics of the generator help maintain system voltage. At any given f ield setting,
the generator has a specif ic terminal voltage it is attempting to hold. If the system voltage declines,
the generator will inject reactive power into the power system, tending to raise system voltage. If the
system voltage rises, the reactive output of the generator will drop, and ultimately reactive power will
f low into the generator, tending to lower system voltage. The voltage regulator will accentuate this
behavior by driving the f ield current in the appropriate direction to obtain the desired system voltage.
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Synchronous condesers
Every synchronous machine (motor or generator) with a controllable f ield has the reactive-power
capabilities discussed above.
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Synchronous motors are occasionally used to provide dynamic voltage support to the power system
as they provide mechanical power to their load. Some combustion turbines and hydro units are
designed to allow the generator to operate without its mechanical power source simply to provide
the reactive-power capability to the power system when the real-power generation is unavailable or
not needed.
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Synchronous machines that are designed exclusively to provide reactive support are called
synchronous condensers.
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Synchronous condensers have all of the response speed and controllability advantages of
generators without the need to construct the rest of the power plant (e.g., f uel-handling equipment
and boilers). Because they are rotating machines with moving parts and auxiliary systems, they may
require signif icantly more maintenance than static alternatives. They also consume real power equal
to about 3% of the machines reactive-power rating.
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Capacit ors and induct ors
Capacitors and inductors (which are sometimes called reactors) are passive devices that generate or
absorb reactive power. They accomplish this without signif icant real-power losses or operating
expense. The output of capacitors and inductors is proportional to the square of the voltage. Thus,
a capacitor bank (or inductor) rated at 100 MVAR will produce (or absorb) only 90 MVAR when the
voltage dips to 0.95 pu but it will produce (or absorb) 110 MVAR when the voltage rises to 1.05 pu.
This relationship is helpf ul when inductors are employed to hold voltages down.
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The inductor absorbs more when voltages are highest and the device is needed most. The
relationship is unf ortunate f or the more common case where capacitors are employed to support
voltages. In the extreme case, voltages f all, and capacitors contribute less, resulting in a f urther
degradation in voltage and even less support f rom the capacitors; ultimately, voltage collapses and
outages occur.
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Inductors are discrete devices designed to absorb a specif ic amount of reactive power at a specif ic
voltage. They can be switched on or of f but of f er no variable control.
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Capacitor banks are composed of individual capacitor cans, typically 200 kVAR or less each. The
cans are connected in series and parallel to obtain the desired capacitor-bank voltage and capacity
rating. Like inductors, capacitor banks are discrete devices but they are of ten conf igured with several
steps to provide a limited amount of variable control which makes it a disadvantage compared to
synchronous motor.
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St at ic VAR compensat ors (SVCs)
An SVC combines conventional capacitors and inductors with f ast switching capability. Switching
takes place in the sub cycle time f rame (i.e., in less than 1/60 of a second), providing a continuous
range of control. The range can be designed to span f rom absorbing to generating reactive power.
Consequently, the controls can be designed to provide very f ast and ef f ective reactive support and
voltage control. Because SVCs use capacitors, they suf f er f rom the same degradation in reactive
capability as voltage drops. They also do not have the short-term overload capability of generators
and synchronous condensers. SVC applications usually require harmonic f ilters to reduce the amount
of harmonics injected into the power system.
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St at ic synchronous compensat ors (STATCOMs)
The STATCOM is a solid-state shunt device that generates or absorbs reactive power and is one
member of a f amily of devices known as f lexible AC transmission system (FACTS).
The STATCOM is similar to the SVC in response speed, control capabilities, and the use of power
electronics. Rather than using conventional capacitors and inductors combined with f ast switches,
however, the STATCOM uses power electronics to synthesize the reactive power output.
Consequently, output capability is generally symmetric, providing as much capability f or production as
absorption.
The solid-state nature of the STATCOM means that, similar to the SVC, the controls can be
designed to provide very f ast and ef f ective voltage control. While not having the short-term overload
capability of generators and synchronous condensers, STATCOM capacity does not suf f er as
seriously as SVCs and capacitors do f rom degraded voltage.
STATCOMs are current limited so their MVAR capability responds linearly to voltage as opposed to
the voltage squared relationship of SVCs and capacitors. This attribute greatly increases the
usef ulness of STATCOMs in preventing voltage collapse.
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Distributing generation resources throughout the power system can have a benef icial ef f ect if the
generation has the ability to supply reactive power. Without this ability to control reactive-power
output, perf ormance of the transmission and distribution system can be degraded. Induction
generators were an attractive choice f or small, grid-connected generation, primarily because they are
relatively inexpensive. They do not require synchronizing and have mechanical characteristics that
are appealing f or some applications (wind, f or example). They also absorb reactive power rather than
generate it, and are not controllable. If the output f rom the generator f luctuates (as wind does), the
reactive demand of the generator f luctuates as well, compounding voltage-control problems f or the
transmission system. Induction generators can be compensated with static capacitors, but this
strategy does not address the f luctuation problem or provide controlled voltage support. Many
distributed generation resources are now being coupled to the grid through solid-state power
electronics to allow the prime movers speed to vary independently of the power-system f requency.
For wind, this use of solid-state electronics can improve the energy capture.
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For gas-f ired micro turbines, power electronics equipment allows them to operate at very high
speeds. Photovoltaics generate direct current and require inverters to couple them to the power
system. Energy-storage devices (e.g., batteries, f lywheels, and superconducting magnetic-energy
storage devices) are of ten distributed as well and require solid-state inverters to interf ace with the
grid. This increased use of a solid-state interf ace between the devices and the power system has
the added benef it of providing f ull reactive-power control, similar to that of a STATCOM.
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In f act, most devices do not have to be providing active power f or the f ull range of reactive control
to be available. The generation prime mover, e.g. turbine, can be out of service while the reactive
component is f ully f unctional. This technological development (solid-state power electronics) has
turned a potential problem into a benef it, allowing distributed resources to contribute to voltage
control.
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Transmission side
Unavoidable consequence of loads operation is presence of reactive power, associated with phase
shif ting between voltage and current.
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Some portion of this power is compensated on customer side, while the rest is loading the network.
The supply contracts do not require a cos equal to one. The reactive power is also used by the
transmission lines owner f or controlling the voltages.
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Reactive component of current adds to the loads current and increases the voltage drops across
network impedances. Adjusting the reactive power f low the operator change voltage drops in lines
and in this way the voltage at customer connection point. The voltage on customer side depends on
everything what happens on the way f rom generator to customer loads. All nodes, connation points
of other transmission lines, distribution station and other equipment contribute to reactive power
f low.
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A transmission line itself is also a source of reactive power. A line that is open on the other end
(without load) is like a capacitor and is a source of capacitive (leading) reactive power. The
lengthwise inductances without current are not magnetized and do not introduce any reactive
components.
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On the other hand, when a line is conducting high current, the contribution of the lengthwise
inductances is prevalent and the line itself becomes a source of inductive (lagging) reactive power.
For each line can be calculated a characteristic value of power f low Sk.
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If the transmitted power is above Sk, the line will introduce additionally inductive reactive power, and
if it is below Sk, the line will introduce capacitive reactive power. The value of Sk depends on the
voltage: f or 400 kV line is about 32% of the nominal transmission power, f or 220 kV line is about
28% and f or 110 kV line is about 22%. The percentage will vary accordingly to construction
parameters.
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The reactive power introduced by the lines themselves is really a nuisance f or the transmission
system operator. In the night, when the demand is low it is necessary to connect parallel reactors f or
consuming the additional capacitive reactive power of the lines. Sometimes it is necessary to switch
of f a low-loaded line (what def initely af f ect the system reliability). In peak hours not only the
customer loads cause big voltage drops but also the inductive reactive power of the lines adds to
the total power f low and causes f urther voltage drops.
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The voltage and reactive power control has some limitations. A big part of reactive power is
generated in power plant unites. The generators can deliver smoothly adjustable leading and lagging
reactive power without any f uel costs.
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However, the reactive power occupies the generation capacity and reduces the active power
production. Furthermore, it is not worth to transmit reactive power f or long distance (because of
active power losses). Control provided on the way in transmission line, connation nodes,
distribution station and other points requires installation of capacitors or\and reactors.
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They are of ten used with transf ormer tap changing system. The range of voltage control depends
on their size. The control may consist e.g. in setting the transf ormer voltage higher and then
reducing it by reactive currents f low.
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If the transf ormer voltage reaches the highest value and all capacitors are in operation, the voltage
on customer side cannot be f urther increase. On the other hand when a reduction is required the limit
is set by maximal reactive power of reactors and the lowest tap of transf ormer.
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Voltage and reactive power planning and assessment practices
(1) Key Principles:
Reactive power cannot be transmitted over a long distance or through power transf ormers due to
excessive reactive power losses.
Reactive power supply should be located in close proximity to its consumption.
Suf f icient static and dynamic voltage support is needed to maintain voltage levels within an
acceptable range.
Suf f icient reactive power reserves must be available to regulate voltage at all time
(2) Key Implicat ions:
Metering must be in place and maintained to capture actual reactive consumption at various points.
Transmission and Distribution planners must determine in advance the required type and location of
reactive correction.
Reactive power devices must be maintained and f unctioning properly to ensure the correct amount
of reactive compensation.
Distribution reactive loads must be f ully compensated bef ore transmission reactive compensation is
considered.
(3) Transmit t ing React ive Power
Reactive power cannot be ef f ectively transmitted across long distances or through power
transf ormers due to high I2X losses
Reactive power should be located in close proximity to its consumption.
(4) St at ic vs. Dynamic Volt age Support
The type of reactive compensation required is based on the time needed f or voltage recovery.
Static Compensation is ideal f or second and minute responses. (Capacitors, reactors, tap changes).
Dynamic Compensation is ideal f or instantaneous responses. (condensers, generators)
A proper balance of static and dynamic voltage support is needed to maintain voltage levels within an
acceptable range.
(5) React ive Reserves during Varying Operat ing Condit ions
Ideally, the system capacitors, reactors, and condensers should be operated to supply the normal
reactive load.
As the load increases or f ollowing a contingency, additional capacitors should be switched on or
reactors removed to maintain acceptable system voltages.
The reactive capability of the generators should be largely reserved f or contingencies on the EHV
system or to support voltages during extreme system operating conditions.
Load shedding schemes must be implemented if a desired voltage is unattainable thru reactive power
reserves.
(6) Volt age Coordinat ion
The reactive sources must be coordinated to ensure that adequate voltages are maintained
everywhere on the interconnected system during all possible system conditions.
Maintaining acceptable system voltages involves the coordination of sources and sinks which
include:
1. Plant voltage schedules
2. Transf ormer tap settings
3. Reactive device settings
4. Load shedding schemes.
The consequences of uncoordinated operations would include:
1. Increased reactive power losses
2. A reduction in reactive margin available f or contingencies and extreme light load conditions
3. Excessive switching of shunt capacitors or reactors
4. Increased probability of voltage collapse conditions.
(7) Volt age Schedule
Each power plant is requested to maintain a particular voltage on the system bus to which the plant
is connected.
The assigned schedule will permit the generating unit to typically operate:
1. In the middle of its reactive capability range during normal conditions
2. At the high end of its reactive capability range during contingencies
3. Under excited or absorb reactive power under extreme light load conditions.
(8) Transf ormer Tap Set t ings
Transf ormer taps must be coordinated with each other and with nearby generating station voltage
schedules.
The transf ormer taps should be selected so that secondary voltages remain below equipment limits
during light load conditions.
(9) React ive Device Set t ings
Capacitors on the low voltage networks should be set to switch on to maintain voltages during
peak and contingency conditions. And
Of f when no longer required supporting voltage levels.
(10) Load Shedding Schemes
Load shedding schemes must be implemented as a last resort to maintain acceptable voltages.
(11) Volt age and React ive Power Cont rol
Requires the coordination work of all Transmission and Distribution disciplines.
Transmission needs to:
1. Forecast the reactive demand and required reserve margin
2. Plan, engineer, and install the required type and location of reactive correction
3. Maintain reactive devices f or proper compensation
4. Maintain meters to ensure accurate data
5. Recommend the proper load shedding scheme if necessary.
Distribution needs to:
1. Fully compensate distribution loads bef ore Transmission reactive compensation is considered
2. Maintain reactive devices f or proper compensation
3. Maintain meters to ensure accurate data
4. Install and test automatic under voltage load shedding schemes
Ref erences:
1. Samir Aganovi,
2. Zoran Gaji,
3. Grzegorz Blajszczak- Warsaw, Poland,
4. Gianf ranco Chicco
5. Robert P. OConnell-Williams Power Company
6. Harry L. Terhune-American Transmission Company,
7. Abraham Lomi, Fernando Alvarado, Blagoy Borissov, Laurence D. Kirsch
8. Robert Thomas,
9. OAK RIDGE NATIONAL LABORATORY