UNIVERSITY OF CAPE COAST

EPS 403: GUIDANCE AND COUNSELLING

THE RELEVANCE OF GUIDANCE AND COUNSELLING TO THE
STUDENT
The student needs to know what guidance and counselling is because of
these:
1. To enable- the student to fulfil or meet the,, requirements for certification
or graduation.
2. To prepare students for the masters degree ours in guidance and
counselling.
3. To equip students with the requisite skills, knowledge and for deliering
guidance and counselling sebices to children, adolescents and adults.
!. To motiate students to seek guidance and counselling"wheneer""the#"
hae difficulties and concerns.
$. To enable students to sere as consultants to parents, families, schools,
churches and non-goernmental organisations.
%. To enable students to adocate for the establishment of guidance and
counselling centres in schools, hospitals, industries, communities and
churches.
UNIT 1
&'()* +,- ,+T./* (0 1.2-+,'* +,- '(.,&*332,1
Definitiona I!!"e!
GUIDANCE DEFINED
1uidance is usuall# defined to cone# author opinion and iews and the
multiplicit# of authors cashing in on the new field, the word has come4 to be
rendered irtuall# meaningless. +ccording to dictionar# definition, to guide
means to direct, pilot, manage, steer, assist, lead, inform, and instruct, etc.
This made most parents and other la# persons to iew the guidance personnel
as one who directs or steers children into or awa# from certain occupations or
educational endeaours. This is er# much an. inadequate iew.
+rbuckle 516%%7, )etecs and 0arewell 516%87 hae drawn attention to the
implicit distinctions in the usage of the term 1uidance. +ccording to them,
1uidance can be used as a concept, as an educational construct and as an
educational serice. +s a concept 1uidance means using an idea or iew
point to help another person. 1uidance as an educational construct refers to
the proision of e9periences that lead to total personal growth and self-
acceptance. +s a serice, 1uidance denotes the procedure organised to
achiee a helping relationship.
1uidance has also been used to refer to a means of assisting or empowering
indiiduals to deal with personal problems and to make the right choices.
:ones, &teffle and &teward 5168;7 thus state <1uidance is the assistance gien
to indiiduals in making intelligent choices and ad=ustment in their lies<. The
definitions underscores the fact that man alwa#s has a choice to make and a
problem to sole, but the abilit# to make wise choices is not innate, neither
can one instinctiel# alwa#s handle efficientl# the m#riad of problems he
faces. 1uidance therefore proides the assistance indiiduals need to deelop
the qualities of managing problems effectiel# and making well-informed
decisions.
The +merican )ersonnel and 1uidance +ssociation5+)1+7 states that
1uidance can best be defined as the serices aailable to each student to
facilitate his academic success in school, to help him better understand his
limitations and to aid him in planning for and attaining realistic goals.
2saken and >ink 516%37 describe 1uidance as a programme of serices to
indiidual students proided b# teachers, administrators and guidance
specialists based on:
1. The need of each student
2. The understanding of his immediate enironment which includes his peers,
teacher, parents, etc.
3. The effects of these influences on the student, and
!. The unique features of each school.
&hert?er and &tone 5168%7 are of the iew that 1uidance is <the process of
helping an indiidual to <understand himself and his world<. Their definition
implies that 1uidance inoles actiities that consistentl# facilitate the
indiidual4s appreciation of his personal identit# as @ell as his enironment.
3et us now attempt to glean from the aboe some of the elements 5features7
that will help us understand what 1uidance is
5+7 )rocess, i.e. impl#ing that guidance is not a single episodic eent but that
it takes place oer a period of time, inoling a series of actions or steps
which are goal-oriented.
5A7 Belping, i.e. guidance must be seen as aiding, assisting or aailing. >an#
helping professions and occupations such as ps#chiatr#, ps#cholog#, social
work, ps#chotherap# and ps#choanal#sis hae as their ma=or purpose: the
preention of human difficulties, improement of human situations and the
proision of specialised help. 2ndiiduals are therefore prepared 5or alert7 to
1. face impending difficulties
2. deal with preailing negatie tendencies
3. come to terms with their own capabilities, weaknesses and uniqueness and
to contribute positiel# to societ#.
5'7 2ndiidual, i.e. the student, client or helpee in the gien conte9t.
5-7 .nderstanding himself and his world, i.e. implies bringing the indiidual
to set awareness, clearl# perceiing the nature of his person and his world-
the world being the aggregate of surroundings including the people with
whom he comes into contact.
COUNSELLING DEFINED
'ounselling is a distinctie serice of its own and is therefore taken out for
special treatment. The ordinar# meaning attached to counselling is that of
consultation, discussion, deliberation, e9change of ideas, +dice or process of
decision making. 'ounselling among other things is a serice designed to help
an indiidual anal#se himself b# relating his capabilities, achieements,
interest and mode of ad=ustment to what new decision he had made or has to
make.
To /ogers 516%17, counselling is a series of direct contacts with the indiidual
which aims to offer assistance in changing attitudes and behaiour.
<*ffectieness counselling< consists of a definitel# structured permissie
relationship which allows the client to gain an understanding of himself to a
degree which enables him to take positie steps in the light of new
orientation.
:oseph )ere?516tf$7 summarised the definition of counselling as an <
interactie process co-=oining the counselee, who is ulnerable and who
needs assistance, and the counsellor who is trained and educated to gie this
assistance, the goal of which is to help the counselee learn more effectiel#
about himself and the realit# of his enironment.
The broad ob=ectie of counselling is to help the indiidual to clear awa# the
entangling and hampering tentacles so that he can be what he reall# is and
contribute more both to self and his fellows 5+rbuckle, 168;74.
To 1ibson and >itchell 516C%7 counselling is a one to one helping
relationship which focuses upon the indiidual4s growth and achieement and
problem- soling and decision-making needs.
-enga 516C%7 also defines counselling as <a personalised dialogue, interiew
or interaction between the client or counselee e9periencing a problem and the
counsellor who tries to render help<.
'ounselling serice is the heart of the work of guidance counsellors. 2t has
been so since the earl# da#s of the schoolD guidance moement. 2t is the core
actiit# through which all other actiities become meaningful, while other
aspects of guidance ma# be concerned emotional disposition of the indiidual
and the situations which he is facing.
'ounselling is a process that demands confidentialit#. 2t is a process initiated
b# establishing a state of ps#chological contact or relationship between the
counsellor and counselee and will progress on certain conditions, essentials to
the success of the counselling process. These conditions include counsellor
genuineness or congruence, haing respect and empathic understanding for
the counselee, and counsellor responses being specific.
*ffectie counselling requires that counsellors are trained well and possess
certain specific personalit# traits. 'ounselling programmes will suffer in
effectieness and credibilit# unless counsellors e9hibit the traits of
understanding, warmth, humanness and positie attitudes towards mankind.
DIFFERENCES AND SI#ILARITIES $ET%EEN GUIDANCE AND
COUNSELLING
Diffe&en'e!
No( GUIDANCE
1.1uidance embraces a number of serices rendered in the educational
s#stem
2.1uidance is knowledge based. 2t deals with facts, principles, methods and
cognition.
3. 1uidance is less personal and less intimate. 2t is usuall# structured and
more public.
!. 1uidance is informatie and didactic
$. 1uidance is usuall# initiated b# counselor
No COUSELLING
1.'ounselling is one of the serices in 1uidance. 2t is the core serice of
1uidance.
2.'ounselling is affectie 2t is alue oriented, it deals with perception.
motiation, needs and feelings.
3.'ounselling is more personal ,intimate and less structured .2t is inter-
personal,priate and confidential.
!. 'ounselling is largel# emotionall# fle9ible and less didatic.
$. 'ounselling is usuall# initiated b# the client.
Si)ia&itie!
17. The# are both person centred.
27. The# all make use of qualified personnels
37. +ll are geared towards positie change in the indiidual
!7. Aoth endorse client4s own choice and satisfaction
$7. Aoth emplo# non- compulsion on clients.
%7 The# both take place oer a period of time
THE NEED FOR STUDENT COUNSELLING ON CA#PUSES
'ounselling aims at dealing with the needs and problems of student as there
are numerous human needs and problems all oer. The# therefore need
counselling because of
1. There is the need to understand their immediate enironment and the world
2. There is the need to understand themseles as indiiduals
3. The need to achiee academic e9cellence
!. The need to ad=ust well whereer the# are.
$. There is the need for decision making in life
%. There is the need to achiee realistic goals
THE COUNSELLOR AND HIS*HER CHARACTERISTICS AND
ATTRI$UTES
EFFECTIVE COUNSELLOR CHARACTERISTICS
The +merican ,ational Eocational 1uidance +ssociation has proposed that
general characteristics should include:
F a deep interest in people
F patience with them and sensitiit# to the attitudes and behaiours of others
F should possess emotional stabilit#
F hae ob=ectiit#
F a capacit# for being trusted b# others and
F respect for facts.
The +ssociation for 'ounsellor *ducation and &uperision identifies si9 basic
qualities effectie counsellors must possess as:
F Aelief in each indiidual,
F 'ommitment to indiidual human alues,
F +lertness to the world,
F (pen-mindedness,
F .nderstanding of self and
F )rofessional commitment.
(ko#e, +de=umo and +chebe 5166;7, also suggest the following:
1( Co"n!eo&! +,o ,a-e a.o-e a-e&a/e intei/en'e a&e )o&e effe'ti-e
t,an t,o!e +it, e!! intei/en'eD *ffectie counsellors must possess
problem-soling skills and knowledge about human beings and how the#
respond to arious enironmental situations. This comes about through a
stud# of the ps#chologial principles guiding the human mind and behaiour.
*en more important is the functional abilit# of the counsellor4s intelligence
This comes about as a result of allowing hisGher intelligence to interact with
arious enironmental stimuli. The higher the counsellor4s functional
intelligence, the more effectie he or she is likel# to be.
(ko#e et al sa# that it is out of the store of the guidance officer4s knowlege
that he or she draw out the facts needed for guiding and counselling his client.
2. A ,")ane an0 !en!iti-e a11&oa', to ,")an 1&o.e)! ena.e!
'o"n!eo&! to ,an0e 'ient! an0 a''o&0 t,e) +it, 0i/nit2 an0
'on!i0e&ation: The abilit# to handle clients with care and <feel the pulse< of
their problems is another important characteristic of effectie counsellors.
+mong other things, the facial e9pressions and oerall component of
counsellor should be appropriate to the stor# or problem being narrated b# the
client.2t is important howeer, that in striing to be humane and sensitie, we
must not be carried awa# b# our emotions.
3( An e)1at,i' a11&oa', to 1eo1e +,o ,a-e 1&o.e)! i! '&iti'a to
Co"n!eo& effe'ti-ene!!: *mpathic refers to the abilit# to perceie other
people4s problems from their own point of iew. 2t means understanding the
background or perspectie from hisHher problems. 2t connotes a readiness and
abilit# to effect partial and 4 the client4s problems.
4( Patien'e : + patient to people and their problems is ital for counsellor
effectieness. 2f the counsellor rushes, interrupts or communicate boredom, a
sensitie client ma# recoil into his shell like a snail. Thus an effectie
counsellor will be patient een when the client appears to be narrating
winding and irreleant stories.
3( A t&an!1a&ent inte&e!t in 1eo1e: + genuine interest in people and how
people behae will attract the counsellor to stud# and understand people
more. This will make him more accessible to clients. >ost people, b# nature,
are quick to identif# people who hae genuine interest in them and will be
drawn to such people. &uch reciprocation in guidance and counselling
facilitates the deelopment of rapport.
4( A !t&on/ +i 1o+e&: This characteristic ensures that the guidance
counsellor will perseere and not gie up in the problem-soling process-
een when the desired solution does not easil# appear. 2t also helps the
guidance counsellor to adopt a determined stand as regards confidentialit#.
S"))a&2
'ombs 516%67 concluded from a series of studies that, two ma=or areas of
differences between effectie and ineffectie counsellors had to do with their
personal beliefs and traits. Be found that effectie counsellors:
F )erceied other people as able rather unable to sole their own problems
and manage their own lies.
F )erceied people as dependable, friendl# and worth#.
F @ere more likel# to identif# with people rather than things.
F &aw people as haing an adequate capacit# to, cope with problems.
F )erceied people to be more self-reealing rather than self-concealing.
The literature also suggests that another approach to determining counsellor-
effectieness would be to look for characteristics of personal effectieness.
The effectie counsellor in this regard,is the person who is on relatiel# one
who is relatiel# good terms with his own emotional e9perience and the
ineffectie counsellor is one who is relatiel# uneas# in regard to the
character of his inner life.
(er the #ears a number of human effectieness has been suggested. The
model presented for diacuuion below is not a 4perfection modelD rather it is a
suggestion of characteristics that should be found in effectie counsellors.
The# are qualities that counsellors should continuall# strie to attain, The list
is incomplete and still eoling and should be seen as a stimulant for present
and prospectie counsellors to refer to and use as the# e9amine their own
ideas of the personal qualities the# need to become effectie counsellors.
Pe&!ona 5"aitie!:
1. The personal qualities of the indiidual counsellor hae greater impact
with regard to effectieness than the gender of the counsellor.
2. Iounger counsellors tend to be more effectie 5Bopke, 16%6, and
/ochester, 16827.
3. )erceied attractieness, e9pertness and persuasieness are important
attributes of counsellors 5&trong 16%C7.
!. The best therapist are those who posses a good sence of humour and read#
with 53abrent?,16837
$.The more congruent and s#mpath# a counsellor, the greater hisHher
effectieness. +lso, counsellors who effectiel# communicate unconditional
positie regard tend to be more effectie than those who do not.
'ombs and &uper 516%37 found that effectie counsellors perceied their
clients as capable, and worth#. The# perceied themseles as altruistic and
non-dominating. /ogers d from his e9perience and research that the
counsellor4s theor# and methods were far the client4s perception of the
counsellor4s attitudes. /ogers was pointing out that must be an attractie,
friendl# person-someone who inspires confidence and trust in others
UNIT II
GUIDANCE AND COUNSELLING(
DEVELOP#ENT OF GUIDANCE AND COUNSELLING IN GHANA
Int&o0"'tion
The purpose of this chapteris to gie #ou a brief histor# for 1uidance and
'ounselling in 1hana to enable #ou appreciate the deelopment of school
guidance and counselling in 1hana, the concern for the deelopment of the
indiidual 1hanaian and the attempts made to get school counselling
established. 2t is e9pected that this chapter will help #ou to:
+nal#se the status of guidance and counselling in #our school or district.
&tart guidance and counselling in #our school or schools in #our district as
#our indidual contribution to the deelopment of guidance and counselling in
1hana. Aefore we embark on out trip into the histor# of 1uidance and
'ounselling in 1hana, let us reiew the two terms, guidance and counselling.
G"i0an'e: The basic aim of guidance is helping indiiduals to help
themseles to deelop effectiel# an# potentialities the# ma# possess.
1uidance is a process and as a process, helps indiiduals towards a better
understanding of both themseles and their potential, and of their relationship
to the word in which the# lie. The help gien is done through the offering of
serices such as appraisal or pupil inentor#, information, counselling,
orientation or placement, consultation, follow-up and ealuation.
G"i0an'e i!
F for all students
F concerned primaril# with the growth of the whole indiidual 5intellectual,
ph#sical, social and emotional7
F based on recognising the dignit# and worth of indiiduals as well as their
right to choose
F oriented towards co-operation, not compulsion
F a continuous educational process, with programme releant to the needs of
the students.
Co"n!ein/ is one of the serices through which guidance is offered but it is
a special one around which all the other serices eole. 2t is a process of
giing assistance to a person in need to enable him or her take decisions as
well as make choices, plans, or ad=ustments with regard to his or her
situation. 'ounselling is a relationship between two people, i.e. the counsellor
and the counsellee or client, which is e9pected to result in a more rewarding
change in behaiour of the latter.lt inoles communication between the two.
Their communication does not impl# talking, it is more than t is an interaction
because the# are communicating een if the counsellee does not utter a word.
'ounselling ma# be done on indiidual or group basis
The importance of guidance and counselling in the life of the student cannot
be oeremphasised. 2t is in recognition of this importance that 1hana
*ducation &erice has a whole directorate in charge of 1uidance and
'ounselling in schools.
Ea&2 2ea&! of /"i0an'e in G,ana
The beginning of guidance and counselling in 1hana dates as far back as
16$$ when the goernment attempted to organise a national s#stem of
ocational guidance b# establishing Iouth *mplo#ment &erices for ail #outh
under 2; #ears who hold the >iddle &chool 3eaing 'ertificate. The s#stem
was designed to gie ocational guidance to help #oung people find suitable
emplo#ment. A# 16%;, there was such a strong need for ocational guidance
that the 'hief *ducation (fficer and the >inister of 3abour agreed to the
establishment of a ,ational &#stem of Eocational 1uidance, following
recommendations in 16%1 b# a isiting consultant from Aritain. Be
recommended the following ob=ecties:
1. 2ntroduce occupational literature into the schools through the >inistr# of
*ducation.
2. -eelop lines of communication between arious >inistries and the
*mplo#ment &erices 'entre.
3. )roide officers emplo#ed in the public emplo#ment centres with course
work in counselling and superised e9periences.
!. 2ncorporate clerical labour to ensure selection that is more efficient and
placement procedures.
$. 2mproe contact between the >inistr# of 3abour and the >inistr# of
*ducation. The two bodies were to establish the Iouth *mplo#ment
'ommittee.
The establishment of a ,ational &#stem of Eocational 1uidance was an
attempt to make the education s#stem reflect the economic deelopment and
the manpower needs of the countr# because the e9pansion of the econom#
was not keeping pace with the educational e9pansion and the educational
facilities were out of balance with the manpower needs of the countr# 5)ecku,
16827. Aesides, man# #outh were becoming dissatisfied and frustrated
because the# could not get the =obs the# wanted since their training did not
prepare them for specific =obs. +s &uper 516$3, 16%17, quoted b# (sipow
516837 points out,work is a wa# of life and adequate ocational and personal
ad=ustment result when both the
nature of the work and its concomitant wa# of life are congenial to the
aptitudes,interest and alues of the indiidual.
T,e nee0 fo& /"i0an'e
The need for meaningful education led to the proposed ,ew &tructure and
'ontent of *ducation in 1hana 5 168!J which stressed, among other things,
the needs of the indiidual, the communit# in which heHshe lies and the
countr# as a whole. 2t sought to bring out the best of eer# indiidual and
equip himHher with useful skills. Therefore, in addition to the e9isting content,
ocational, technical and business sub=ects were added to the school
curriculum. The students then had a wide choice but needed guidance to make
the right choice.
A'ti-it2
&ummarise in fie points what the proposed ,ew &tructure and 'ontent of
*ducation in 1hana 5168!7 sought to do.
E!ta.i!,)ent of !',oo /"i0an'e
The 1hana *ducation &erice 51*&7 issued the first directie on ,oember
!,168% to establish guidance and counselling programmes in second c#cle
institutions in 1hana i.e. &econdar#HTechnicalH'ommercialHEocational
&chools and Training 'olleges. Two more directies were issued. The first
was in 16C; for the second was in 16C2 for the introduction of guidance and
counselling in first c#cle schools 5+ckumme#, 16CC7.
@ith the introduction of guidance and counselling in first c#cle schools, the
1uidance and 'ounselling .nit 1*&, which hitherto was part of the
'urriculum /esearch and -eelopment -iision 5'./.-.-.7 was transferred
to the )h#sicalH&pecial *ducation -iision to be in charge of all matters
concerning guidance and counselling in pre-uniersit# institutions
5+ppendices 1+, 2A and 1' gies the full contents of the three directies7.
T,e nee0 fo& t&aine0 /"i0an'e an0 'o"n!ein/ 1e&!onne
The directies did not spell out how the organisation of guidance and
counselling in schools or institutions should be done but recognised the need
for counselling personnel and made proision for that. The 168% directie, in
addition to establishing guidance and counselling in institutions, also made
the .niersit# of 'ape 'oast 5.''7 responsible for the training of
counselling personnel. +s a temporar# measure the 2nstitute of *ducational
)lanning and +dministration 52*)+7 of the .niersit# of 'ape 'oast started
conducting intensie C-week in-serice training courses in guidance and
counselling for teachers of second c#cle institutions who on completion
became school counsellors in second c#cle institutions and were designated
1uidance and 'oordinators. The directie which established guidance and
counselling in first c#cle schools also suggested the organisation of inserice
training courses in 1uidance and 'ounselling for Beadteachers to equip them
to pla# the role of 1uidance 'oordinators in their schools. This attempt did
not work since the headteachers were full# occupied and could not therefore
take on the additional responsibilities of 1uidance 'oordinators. Aesides,
the# were seen as agents of discipline and so students did not feel
comfortable going to them.
2n 166;, the 1uidance and 'ounselling .nit of the 1hana *ducation &erice
started organising oneweek in-sericing training courses for school and
district-based guidance co-ordinators since the 2*)+ of .'' had stopped the
C-week courses it was organising. The need for more counsellors became
more urgent with the implementation of the new educational s#stem and the
inception of the 0'.A* programme.
A'ti-it2
'ontact #our head and ask for an# directies concerning guidance and
counselling on file. Bas there been an# change from the ones quoted aboeK
T,e &oe of t,e /"i0an'e 'oo&0inato&
The directies did not state the specific roles of the co-ordinators but the
stud# of the proposals of :enson, Luashie and Mpakpo-+&lote# 5168;7 and
)ecku 516827 state the role of the secondar# schoolHcounsellor as:
F Belping to plan and deelop the guidance programme according to the
needs of students
F 'ounselling
F )roiding leadership in the school4s programme of pupil appraisal,
information and placement serices to help students make realistic
educational and ocational choices within the conte9t of the manpower needs
of the countr#
F +ssisting in bringing about curriculum change and working on attitudes of
all students towards education
F>aintaining liaison and co-operatie working relationships with Iouth
*mplo#ment &eric the &ocial @elfare -epartment, the >inistr# of Bealth,
local emplo#ers and other agencies ar finall#
F)roiding consultation serices
Co"n!eo& t&ainin/ in!tit"tion! an0 fo'"!
2n 1hana toda#, the .niersities are the ma=or proiders of counsellor training
which is still school focused and career-oriented een though the needs of the
1hanaian societ# and the school child are becoming more comple9.
Uni-e&!it2 of Ca1e Coa!t
.ndergraduate *ducation studies in all the programmes at the .niersit# of
'ape 'oast included 2ntroduction to 1uidance in the second #ear 5in the first
#ear b# 16C%7. The ).1.'.*. 5now ).1.-.*7 and -.+.&.*. programmes also
included 2ntroduction to 1uidance as well as 1uidance ar 'ounselling as an
electie. The >.*d programme, started in 168% has 1uidance and
'ounselling one of the areas of specialisation. The A.*d programme, apart
from the 2ntroduction to 1uidance fN all students includes 'ounselling
Techniques and )ractice in the third #ear and 1uidance ar 'ounselling as an
electie in the final #ear. +part from guidance and counselling being a course
for undergraduates it has been taught as an electie to )1'* students from
1682. +ll these programmes mentioned were geared towards school
counselling.
Uni-e&!it2 of E0"'ation6 %inne.a
.ntil the programme was phased out, all -iploma students did 2ntroduction to
1uidance and 'ounselling in the third #ear. )ost-diploma students hae it in
the second #ear and !-#ear A.*d students hae it in the third #ear. There is
also a )ost-diploma A.*d 1uidance and 'ounselling programme, which
proides the student with in-depth knowledge and practice in counselling. The
.*@ counselling courses are also school-focused.
S"))a&2
The establishment of school guidance and counselling in 1hana has not been
eas#. The attention gien has depended largel# on the 1hana *ducation
&erice leadership or headship during each period. 2ts responsibilit# has, oer
the #ears moed from directorate to directorate but now has its own
directorate. (ne would think that with all these attempts to produce guidance
and counselling personnel, almost all second c#cle institutions, district and
circuit education offices hae counsellor to organise guidance actiities in
both second and first c#cle schools but the real situation is different.
@hereer #ou find #ourself #ou ma# be faced with the challenge of starting
guidance and counselling in #our school or schools.
APPROACHES TO GUIDANCE AND COUNSELLING
There are four general t#pes of counselling when it comes to approaches as
identified b# )ietrofes et al 5168C7. These are 'risis 'ounselling, 0acilitatie
/emedial 'ounselling, )reentie 'ounselling and -eelopmental
'ounselling.
a7 C&i!i! Co"n!ein/: 2n the crisis approach, the counsellor waits until there
is some t#pe of crisis and then leaps into action to help the person in crisis
deal with the problem. 'risis counselling occurs when the counsellor is
confronted b# a client who is in a state of 0i!o&/ani!ation. The person is
unable to cope with eents in hisHher life and, consequentl#, ma# be wracked
b# destructie feelings of self- doubt, an9iet#, or guilt and ma# be engaging in
hurtful behaiours. This crisis needs immediate attention otherwise there is
the risk of further personalit# or behaioural deterioration. 'ommon crises
ma# inole a famil# death an imending diorce, infidelit#, drug-abuse, run
awa# child,or =ob-loss.
.nquestionabl#, since the situation does inole intense emotion, it offers the
greatest single challenge to the counsellor. (n the other hand, if he or she
meets the challenge, the counsellor establishes an effectie relationship, and
the client4s growth ma# be surprising. The client faced with a crisis perhaps
has the greatest reason to change.
.7 Fa'iitati-e o& Re)e0ia Co"n!ein/: @hen a counsellor engages in the
remedial approach, he or she focuses on measurable weakness and tries to
remediate them 5>#rick,16637. 2t attempts to achiee Oclient action on a
clarified concern<. The concern does not inole a crisis, but it still presents a
problem to the indiidual. The purpose of this interention is to aoid a
possible crisis in that particular area.
'7 P&e-enti-e Co"n!ein/: 2n the preentie model of guidance and
counselling, the counsellor tries to anti'i1ate /ene&i', problems and to
preent them from happening 5>#rick, 16637. programmatic and directs its
attention to a specific concern. D&"/ a+a&ene!! an0 !e8 e0"'ation
programmes attempt to preent the deelopment of problems in the future. +n
e9ample is a counsellor presenting information to a group or referring
indiiduals to releant programmes such as drug abuse, smoking, stress,
marriage problems, teenage pregnanc#, and the likePproblems that could
potentiall# affect large numbers of people.. This could also be done with onl#
one person on indiidual basis, The preentie model is based on the idea that
if the counsellor can educate people about the dangers of certain actiities
and the methods of aoiding them before the# begin to indulge in these
problem behaiours, the counsellor will be able to preent them from doing
so.
07 De-eo1)enta Co"n!ein/: This is designed to occur throughout one4s
lifetime. 2t is more proactie than the other three approaches to guidance and
counselling. The counsellor attempts to aid indiiduals of a a/e! deelop
growth in a rela9ed non pressured and non crisis atmosphere. +ll the t#pes of
counselling are not mutuall# e9clusie. 2n man# instances more than one t#pe
is used with the same client. 0or e9ample, while attempting to help clients
faced with an immediate crisis, counsellors also attempt to improe a client4s
decision-making skills. The counsellor who uses the deelopmental approach
has identified specific skills and e9periences that children need to hae in
order to be successful in school and in life 5>#rick, 16637.
+ well-designed deelopmental guidance and counselling programme will
encompass a balance of the other three approaches, as well as the
deelopmental approach. The counsellor who chooses to emplo# the
deelopmental approach will want to use elements of crisis interention:skill
building remedial workD and a comprehensie deelopmental guidance
curriculum 5Aaker, 1662D >#rick, 16637.
$ASIC PRINCIPLES OF GUIDANCE
-ifferent disciplines hae their own principles on which practice is based.
1uidance and counselling as a helping profession operate on principles that
guide the actiities of its practitioners.
+ principle is a fundamental truth accepted b# most authorities as
characteristic of the guidance function. These principles in most cases,
include statements of assumptions, aims. and practices. +lthough scholars
approaches to guidance and counselling ma# differ, these basic principles
form the bedrock on which practice is based.
)s#chologists like 1ibson, >itchell, &hert?er and &tone, )ecku, >iller, )eters
etc., hae outlined the following as basic principles of 1uidance and
counselling practice.
1( G"i0an'e i! 'on'e&ne0 1&i)a&i2 an0 !2!te)ati'a2 +it, t,e 1e&!ona
0e-eo1)ent of t,e in0i-i0"a:
This principle implies that the guidelines concept should seek to deelop the
totalit# of the indiidual. +lso, the attitude and behaiour of the indiidual
must be looked at due to the comple9it# of personalit#. 2t is also important for
the indiidual to marshal intelligence about the self through s#stematic
enquir#. The focus of the school lies on intellectual deelopment of the
indiidual which is a limitation to the total deelopment of a person. 1rowth
in this instance implies total growth of indiidual the academic,social moral,
etc.
9( G"i0an'e i! fo& a:
The notion that guidance should be proided for all #outh in the school
situation is often taken for granted. The fact is, it is too often offered onl# to
the troubled #outh or those who ma# be identified as such. This should,
howeer, not be the case. 2t must be planned in such a wa# that all
studentsHchildren in the school benefit from the programme. (ne should also
not lose sight of the fact that education is meant for all educable members of
the societ#. 2f guidance is a necessar# part of education, then it is necessar#
for all those who stand to be educable to benefit from guidance serices. &uch
a polic# will ensure that deelopment issues of all children are taken care of.
3( T,e 1&i)a&2 )o0e .2 +,i', /"i0an'e i! 'on0"'te0 ie! in
in0i-i0"a .e,a-io"&a 1&o'e!!e!:
&ince the programme is concerned with personalit# deelopment, the
practitioner4s sub=ect matter is the personal world of each student
)ractitioners utilise personal interiew counselling relationship, test
interpretation sessions etc. to adance students4 understanding of their
personalit#.
4( G"i0an'e i! a 'ontin"o"! 1&o'e!! o& /"i0an'e i! a 1&o/&a))e fo& a
a/e!:
1uidance is considered a continuous, sequential, educational process which is
deelopment in nature. To render guidance.serices preentie the
programme must start earl# from childhood and continue to adulthood and
een be#ond. To be precise, 1uidance must begin from Mindergarten through
primar#, =unior and senior high schools to uniersit#, so as to bridge the gap
from one educational leel to the other. The programme should be continuous
because the learning of certain behaioural patterns and the acquisition of
knowledge of themseles b# children are continuous.
3( G"i0an'e i! o&iente0 to+a&0 'o:o1e&ation not 'o)1"!ion:
&tudents cannot be compelled to submit to guidance. 2t takes place b# the
mutual consent of the indiidual inoled. 'onsent is gien either e9plicit#.
The absence of coercion or pressure is the hallmark of guidance.
&tudentsHchildren hae a right to decide whether the# wish to aail
themseles of the facilities proided. The# ma# be compelled to participate in
a guidance actiit# but that does not guarantee compliance with the
suggestions of the programme 5)ecku, 1661:217. 2t is important to note that
when unwilling students are referred the resentment and resistance usuall#
present must be taken into account and resoled.
46 G"i0an'e i! .a!e0 "1on &e'o/ni!in/ t,e 0i/nit2 an0 +o&t, of t,e
in0i-i0"a a! +e a! t,ei& &i/,t to ',oo!e:
1uidance recognises that the normal indiidual has the right to choose what
he wants to do. /espect must be accorded the choice because of the worth
and dignit# of the person and the fact that he is human. 1uidance rests on the
belief in the fundamental dignit# and the importance of the indiidual in the
essence of equalit# of human beings and their need to e9ercise freedom. @ith
this recognition, the guidance personnel can help the indiidual b# proiding
information and alternaties that would enable him to select his own purposes
in life.
8. G"i0an'e i! a tea) effo&t:
The needs to be met b# the programmes are aried and numerous. 2t is a stark
fact, that the guidance co-ordinator cannot be equipped with all the
techniques to enable him satisf# these needs. The co-ordinator must know his
strengths and weaknesses so as to inite other resource personnel to assist
where necessar# 1uidance cannot be iewed solel# as the responsibilit# of
the counsellor. Teachers, ps#chologists, social workers, administrators, etc.,
are also part of the process.
;( De'i!ion )a<in/ i! e!!entia in /"i0an'e:
The programme is directed towards helping the indiidual make informed
choices and decisions. 2nformation giing and proiding alternaties pla#
important role in decision making. @hen these are made aailable in
guidance, indiiduals are helped to make wise and effectie decisions to
achiee their goals and fulfil their needs and aspirations,
=( G"i0an'e e)1,a!i!e! t,e 1o!iti-e:
2ndiiduals frequentl# conceie of guidance in a negatie sense. Too often
guidance has been iewed as a wa# to depress aspirations or eradicate
dreams. 1uidance must emphasise strengths and success because it is in this
wa# <we build positie iews of self <.1uidance is encourage an opportunit#
to change and grow.*en in instances in which an indiidual,after
consideration of personal potential and cultural opportunit#, decides to
pursue an endeaour that ma# appear out of reach, that person has eer# right
to do so. @e do not onl# hae the right to succeed, but also right to fail. Aut
these decisions must be weighed carefull# and the responsibilit# for the
choice must also be accepted.
10( G"i0an'e 'an .e 1&o-i0e0 in )"ti1e !ettin/!:
2t was mentioned earlier that guidance is cradle- to-grae
concept,consequentl# it can be offered in a number of settings. 2t inoles
personal-social and occupational, as well as educational settings. 1uidance
can be as aried as one4s life situations demand.
ETHICAL ISSUES IN COUNSELLING.
*thics are the dos and don4ts of a profession. The# are the agreed standard or
code goerning the profession. *er# profession such as teaching, law,
medicine and nursing, has its own ethics. 'ounsellors are increasingl#
searching for professional status and as such need to satisf# the criteria for
eer# profession. 2n 1hana the counselling profession is still #oung and does
not hae an# specific code of conduct like the teaching profession but there
are general uniersal guidelines to which eer# counsellor is e9pected to
conform.
G"i0eine!
*thical guidelines based on the principles of guidance are as follows:
The counsellor must:
1.T,e 'o"n!eo& )"!t .eie-e in ,")an 0i/nit2:
*er# human being is entitled to respect and must be treated humanel#. *en
though indiidual differences should be considered in relating to the students,
each student should hae equal opportunit# for counselling, must be respected
as a human being regardless of his or her gender, social status of his or her
parents, the indiidual4s appearance, or age. .nder no circumstance should a
counsellor refuse to offer guidance to a student because he or she is different
or has offended a teacher.
Aelief in human dignit# also implies that the student should be accepted for
what sheHhe is. This fulfils 'arl /ogers4 condition of unconditional positie
regard or caring, the second of his three core conditions 5unconditional
positie regard, warmth and empath#7.
2t is obiousl# much easier for counsellees or for an#one to discuss sensitie,
personal or intimate issues when the person the# are talking to is clearl#
showing attitudes of warmth and acceptance. +cceptance implies a non-
=udgemental altitude b# counsellors.
+nother significant aspect of warmth and acceptance is that when these are
present, counsellees are more likel# to gain confidence in themseles, and in
their own abilit# to cope, The feeling that someone else cares for and alues
us prompts a sense of confidence almost immediatel#. This, in turn, lead to
greater courage and self-assurance in talking problems.
+cceptance of students does not mean that #ou should approe of eer#thing
the# sa# and do, This raises the issues of counsellor self-awareness, and the
importance of being able to separate #our own iews and opinions from those
of the counsellee. + student4s iews, e9periences and behaiour ma# be
ariance with the counsellor4s own alue s#stem but the counsellee as a
person is entitled to acceptance and positie regard, especiall# when heHshe
has place hisHher trust in the counsellor and made himselfHherself ulnerable
in the process. The counsellor must be committed to increasing the
counsellee4s understanding of himselfHherself and others.
9(T,e 'o"n!eo& )"!t 1&ote't t,e +efa&e of t,e 1e&!on +,o i! !ee<in/
,i!*,e& ,e1:
The ultimate purpose of the guidance and counselling programme in schools
is to seek the well being of the students. +ctiities should be seen as working
towards this purpose. 2n collecting information about the student to help them
know themseles and others, are should be taken not to intimidate them.
'ommittee members and peer counsellors need to be prepared well to do
their work without causing concern and stress to the students the# seek to
help.
T,e 'o"n!eo& )"!t not a."!e ,i!*,e& 1&ofe!!iona 1o!ition o&
&eation!,i1!:
+n# misconduct b# the counsellor or guidance personnel can be particularl#
damaging because the nature of the relationship between a counsellee and a
counsellor leaes counsellees ulnerable to an# inappropriate conduct on the
part of a counsellor. This misconduct ma# be financial, as in the case of
counsellorHguidance personnel engaging in business deals with the counsellee
or using confidential information for personal profitD or it ma# inole social
or se9ual contact. 2t is essential that a counsellee4s treatment needs come first.
The introduction of an# other purpose into the treatment relationship
undermines its outcome.
The counsellee4s ulnerabilit# results in part from a phenomenon called
transference. Transference is the tendeac# to e9perience people in the present
wa#s similar to important indiiduals in childhood, such as parents. 2t is
especiall# powerful in the er# intimate relationship that occurs in
counselling. (ften transference prookes intense, but unrealistic, feelings for
the counsellor, including anger, idealised loe, or se9ual attraction.
+ commitment to the ethics of the profession means the counsellor person
will not succumb to the counsellee4s transference feelings in an# wa# other
than as an important source of information that can assist him or her to
understand and help the counsellee. &e9ual contact is neer a alid method of
treatment, een if the counsellee has se9ual problems. &e9ual contact is
unethical een if the client consents to it and een if a counseliee initiates it.
&tudents should not be taken adantage of because the# need help. This
e9tends to their parents and siblings as well. Aorrowing mone# from students
or parents of students or asking for faours or using ones position to coerce
students or siblings of students into unhealth# relationships are unacceptable.
4( Co"n!eo& )"!t not6 an0e& an2 'i&'")!tan'e inf&in/e on t,e
f&ee0o) an0 inte&e!t of t,e 'o"n!eee o& 'ient!:
Though guidance is oriented toward cp-operation and not compulsion, the
indiidual should not be forced to engage in an# actiit# against hisHher will.
The indiidual is entitled to hisHher priac# and is not obliged to diuige
information whether personal or about siblings or other members of famil#.
)riac# is a er# important ingredient of counselling and the client must be
gien freedom of choice and indiidualit#. 2nasion of priac# occurs when
some action or communication of the counsellor reeals the feelings, words or
attitudes of counsellee to third parties,
$. T,e 'o"n!eo& )"!t )aintain t,e ,i/,e!t !tan0a&0! in t,e !e&ie!
offe&ed:
The counsellor4s approach to issues can make or mar the counselling
relationship, counsellor must be knowledgeable, competent and efficient.
'ounsellors are encouraged to constantl# update their skills through
conferences, workshops and sharing e9periences with their senior colleagues.
Aelow are some critical attributes of effectie counsellors:
i. Mnowledge
ii. /esourceful
iii. + self-learner
i. Tolerant
. Bumorous
i. &ensitie to other people4s iews
ii. (utgoingHopenHwarm
iii. /ela9ed and calm
i9. Trustworth#
9. +ttentie
9i. +ppreciatie
9ii. 'ourteous
9iii. *mpathic
9i. Bonest
9. 1enuineH&incere
9i. Tactful
9ii. &elf-controlled
9iii. /esponsible
9i9. (b=ectie
99. 'o-operatie
99i. /espectful
99ii. 2maginatie
4( T,e 'o"n!eo& )"!t !,o+ &e/a&0 to t,e !o'ia 'o0e! an0 )o&a
e81e'tation! of t,e 'o))"nit2:
2f the counsellor will be effectie in the school, heHshe must be an accepted
and respected member of the communit#. Iour respectabilit# and acceptance
b# the communit# is closel# related to how well #ou conform to the social
and moral codes of the communit#. 'hristian counsellors liing in >oslem
communities who look down on the 2slamic religion and practices, do not
conform to ethical standards. Areaking taboos in the communit# with
impunit# will generate hostilit# from the communit#. 'ounsellors must lie
aboe reproach.
This must be taken into consideration when selecting members of the
counselling committee.
>( Safe/"a&0 info&)ation a.o"t an in0i-i0"a o.taine0 in t,e 'o"&!e of
'o"n!ein/:
2nformation on students can be diided into two main categories:
Q >atters ofiudgemerit i.e., data that are both descriptie and ealuatie of
the indiidual and that require interpretation.
Q >atters of record i.e.. data that are purel# descriptie. >atters of data ma#
also be classifielTal0restricted data i.e., health and disciplinar# records, or
unrestricted dataname, se9 etc.
@hen collecting information about students, the following should be noted:
,o information should be collected without the prior consent of the person
inoled
or the parents. &ometimes representation consent can be gien.
2nformation collected b# the school should be classified and different
arrangement made for securit# and access to the data.
The school should establish procedures to erif# the accurac# of all data
maintained in the records.
)arents should hae full access to their children4s records.
,o agenc# or person other than school personnel who deal directl# with
students
should hae access to student data unless in the case of a minor.
The counsellor should make proision for the maintenance of confidentialit#
in the preseration and ultimate disposal of confidential records.
'ounsellors are ethicall# obliged to keep the communications of counsellees
'onfidential. 'onfidentialit# inoles retention of information receied
in a personal interaction with a counsellee. Boweer, not all information
termed confidential is absolutel# confidential. The counsellor is e9pected to
use his or her discretion to determine what is and what is not absolutel#
confidential. 2n the school situation, the counsellor ma# need to agree
with the head on the limits confidentialit#.
@hen student data is used for professional purposes, discussion could take
place with people who hae some understanding of the meaning of the
information. 2n such cases counsellors must not disclose the identities of the
student5s7 inoled- e9cept in cases where e9amination or terminal results are
concerned.
?A0o1te0 f&o) A'<"))e26 90037
Et,i'a P&in'i1e! of Co"n!ein/
The following principles are e9pressions of these core alues in action. The#
form the foundation for ethical practice.
Co"n!eo&! !,a:
- +ct with care and respect for indiidual and cultural differences and the
diersit# of human e9perience.
- +oid doing harm in all their professional work..
- /espect the confidences with which the# are entrusted.
- )romote the safet# and well-being of indiiduals, families, homes, societies,
communities, schools and the state as a whole,
- &eek to increase the range of choices and opportunities for clients.
- Ae honest and trustworth# in all their professional relationships.
- )ractice within the scope of their competence.
- Treat colleagues and other professionals with respect
UNIT III
THE ROLE OF GUIDANCE FUNCTIONARIES
THE HEAD#ASTER*HEAD#ISTRESS*AD#INISTRATOR
1. Beadmasters, Beadmistresses and administrators first role is to recognise
and encourage the
guidance programme in their schools.
2. To secure adequate numbers of competent counsellors for their schools.
3. To make sure that roles of counsellors are defined and that the
counsellorHstaff members are able to function in these roles.
!. To proide ph#sical facilities for the work of the counsellor e.g., office,
furniture, tape recorders, etc.
$. To establish and encourage a school guidance committee to sere as an
adisor# and polic# -recommending bod#.
%. To consult with teachers and counsellors on specific needs and problems
of the schoolD for e9ample, -iscipline, 'onflicts or diisions among staff and
+cademic problems
THE ROLE OF THE SCHOOL COUNSELLOR
1. The school counsellor is supposed to plan and deelop the guidance
programme according to the needs of students.
2. The counsellor should offer counselling to students and staff.
3. The counsellor is to offer consultation serices to teachers, parents, school
administrators and other professionals.
4. The# are to proide information serices for students. &uch information
could be in three partsD
a7 *ducational information
b7 )ersonal-social information
c7 'areerHocational information
$. The counsellor should proide placement serices and all other guidance
serices to the students, teachers and een parents of students.
%. The counsellor seres a public relations officer 5)/(7 for the school and
the communit#, agencies and organisations.
8. The counsellor also conducts research on social issues like suicide,
diorce, B2EH+2-&, teenage pregnanc#, etc.
THE ROLE OF THE TEACHER
1. To sere on the school guidance committee or appraisal committee which
ma# be directed b# the counsellor.
2. Belp to appraise students4 characteristics for purposes of ad=ustment and
placement under the superision of the counsellor
3. +ssist in identif#ing the problems of students and refer such problems to
the counsellor.
!. Belp counsellor to stud# and diagnose the problems of students
$. +rrange special guidance and remediation courses for students to oercome
their learning difficulties in specific areas.
THE ROLE OF THE HEALTH PERSONNEL
1. )a#ing isits to the homes of referred students to her to gather their
complete health histor#.
2. +ccepting referrals from teachers, case workers and counsellors
3. 1iing treatment for cases which are within her professional competence
!. /eferring difficult cases for appropriate medical attention elsewhere.
$. Belping the school administration to deelop a sound and effectie health
polic# and procedures to ensure a high standard of health conditions in the
school.
THE PARENT*TEACHER ASSOCIATION ?PTA7* S#C
1. )roiding financial help to the guidance programme
2. >aking their obserations of students or pupils undesirable behaiours in
the communit# to the counsellor for necessar# actions.
3. &ering as resource persons for giing talks to students 5career talks,
social-personal talks7
!. Belping to link the school to agencies, institutions and organisations in the
communit#..
THE ROLE OF THE DISTRICT CO:ORDINATOR
1. (rganisations and deelopment of guidance serices in the 1st and 2nd
c#cle institutions.
2. &ee to professional matters of guidance co-ordinators within hisHher
district
3. (rganisation of district in-serice courses, workshops and seminars for
school co-ordinators.
!. -eelopment and promotion on career guidance and career deelopment
programmes.
$. -issemination of information on new trends and techniques in guidance
and counselling and placement serices to guidance co-ordinators.
%. *stablishment of guidance and counselling pro=ects in the educational
institutions.
THE ROLE OF PARENTS IN GUIDANCE AND COUNSELLING
1. )roiding social and emotional support for their children or wards b#
giing s#mpath# and empath#.
2. +ssisting the counsellor to understand their children or wards
3. )arents are supposed to refer their children or wards to the counsellor for
help.
!. )arents are to cater for the moral needs of their children.
$. The# are to proide educational materials for their wards to facilitate
the academic deelopment of the wards.
THE ROLE OF THE CO##UNITIES
1. The communities are supposed to proide facilities 5e.g. librar#, health
needs, recreation, etc7
that will promote deelopment among the students.
2. The# establish scholarships, bursaries, etc., schemes for the students.
3. The opinion leaders and professionals in the communities could assist the
school as resource persons
!. )roiding financial support for guidance and counselling actiities in the
school.
THE ROLE OF NGO@
1. The# could sere as resource persons b# giing talks to students e.g.
))+1, @orld Eision etc.
2. The# proide financial support to the students.
3. (ffering internship and part time emplo#ment opportunities to facilitate
their career deelopment.
UNIT IV
GUIDANCE SERVICES
&hert?er and &tone5168%7 write that 1uidance &erices are school-based,
formali?ed actions undertaken b# the school to make guidance operational
and aailable to students. >akinde 516C87 lists these as folows:
(rientation or +daptie &erices
+ppraisal or lnentor# &erices
2nformational or-istributie &erices
)lanning and )lacement &erices
0ollow-up, /esearch and *aluation &erices.
The serices mentioned b# &hert?er and &tone are:
THE ORIENTATION SERVICE
The serice is proided to help students or new empol#ees ad=ust to new
enironment.
PURPOSE OF ORIENTATION
2. To welcome fresh students to the school,college or uniersit#.
2. To help fresh studsnts to ad=ust sociall# and ps#chologicall# to their new
enironment.
3. To let students know and understand their rights,priileges and
responsibilit# in the school.
!.To e9pose students to the serices and facilities aailable in the school.
HO% TO OPERATIONALISE*I#PLE#ENT THE ORIENTATION
SERVICE
1. (rganise talks for fresh students
2. -isseminating information to students using notice boards
3. )roiding reading materials for students
!. >aking students isit the librar#, classrooms or lecture theatres and other
important places to acquaint themseles with the facilities aailable.
THE APPRAISAL SERVICE
This is a serice in which data about indiiduals are collected and anal#sed
with the aim of making the indiidual hae better understanding of himself
and also proiding data which counsellors or guidance coordinators, teachers,
administrators and other helpers can use to assists the indiidual or student.
P"&1o!e of Data Coe't:
+ basic assumption of the appraisal serice is that in man# respects m# other
respects people are alike and in man# other respect people are different. Thus
the aim of appraising people or students is to highlight the uniqueness of each
of them. This makes it possible to show how one person
2s different from the other. + second aim is to show how similar people are.
+ ma=or aim of the appraisal serice is to collect data about indiiduals or
students that will help them in proiding self-awareness and in making wise
and useful decisions. This is important because man# indiiduals or students
hae little idea about their personalit#. &tudents depend on e9ternal sources
for direction in man# matters. These sources ma# sometimes gie conflicting
testimon# that must be resoled. &uch resolution can onl# be done b# a
person who has knowledge and skills in the application of the appraisal
serice.
2n summar#, the purpose of the indiidual inentor# spread oer the
following:
5i7 To facilitate the indiidual4s attempt to clarif# and deelop identit#. 2t is
necessar# for the indiidual to know who he is. This will enable him to know
what he wants to be.
5ii7 To proide feed-back concerning the current status of the indiidual
student 5i.e. *nable the learner to get a feed-back on his performance or
behaiour7.
5iii7 To proide a basis for =udging relatie achieements in arious areas of
interest and for comparing accomplishment with well defined norms.
5i7To enable the indiidual student to detect trends and patterns in his
behaiour 5 intellectual achieements inclusie7.
57 To proide new possibilities for e9ploration in the search for life goals-
gien the opportunit# to know the content of the appraisal data, the
indiidualHstudent is able to know where he can fit most appropriatel#.
5i7To enable the indiidual to understand his potential and to ealuate his
achieements relatie to his potential-to ealuate oneself and see where one
can perform better.
T,e &oe of t,e /"i0an'e 1e&!onne in t,i! i! to en!"&e t,at:
5a7 The aailable data are adequate for self-ealuation,
5b7 The indiidualHstudent understands the information,
5c7 The indiidualHstudent is able to interpret the information with respect to
the realities of the e9ternal world.
AREAS OF DATA COLLECTION
The appraisal serice helps in the collection of personal data in the areas of
interest and personalit# characteristics of the indiidual, in addition to his
mental abilit#, achieement and special aptitude
#enta A.iit2. This is the abilit# of the indiidual to think in abstract terms
or ideas with the aim of soling problems or learning.
A',ie-e)ent: +chieement in education refers to what or how much a
student been able to attain from his classroom learning.
Inte&e!t: 2nterest ma# be said to be the indiidual4s feelings of like or dislike
for an ob=ect or an ob=ect or an actiit#. 2t can also be referred to as a person4s
leel of curiosit# or motiation in interacting with an ob=ect.
Pe&!onait2 ',a&a'te&i!ti'!: These are the affectie traits of an indiidual
The moralit#, attitudes, sociabilit#, interests and man# others.
Te',niA"e! of 'oe'tin/ a11&ai!a 0ata
Aasicall#, there are two wa#s of collecting appraisal data from the ares
mentioned aboe.These are the Test and ,on-Test techniques.
Te!t Te',niA"e!D These comprise standardised tests and teacher made tests.
+ccording to &hert?er and &tone5 168%7, most behaiour<. 4(b=ectie as
used in the definition refers to the fact that interpretation should not depend
on an# e9aminers indiidual =udgement.The# should be such that eer#
e9aminer would use the sme methods to administer the test,score and
interpret the scores to arrie at about the same score and interpretation for
one e9aminee.0or a test to be ob=ectie its reliabilit#, alidit# and item
difficult# should be determined through research before the# are used widel#.
A# the alidit# of a test we mean the abilit# of a standardi?ed test to measure
what it is supposed to measure. The reliabilit# of a standardi?ed test refers to
the consistenc# with which a test measure what it is supposed to measure.
There are man# other qualities of a standardi?ed test, some of which are its
difficult# leel and the e9tent the items are able to determine between the
performance or characteristics of respondents, etc. Boweer, the most
important qualities are its alidit# and reliabilit#.
Non:Te!t Te',niA"e!: These comprise a number of wa#s of collecting data.
The# are more qualitatiel# based than quantitatie. + number of such wa#s
are obseration, interiews, rating scales. sociograms, anecdotes,
autobiographies and man# others. + wa# of keeping student record, called
cumulatie records also come under non-test techniques.
PURPOSE AND USES OF TESTS
The purposes of tests are related to user- ob=ecties. .sers include teachers,
counsellors and administrators. 1enerall#, there are four purposes of tests-D
for prediction. for classification, for selection and for ealuation. The first of
these is the most applied b# the counsellor in his dealing with the indiidual.
P&e0i'tion: Test scores can help us to predict how well we can perform or
behae in future. Bence the# offer a good basis for our decision-making.
@hen a person makes a decision, he in a wa#, makes predictions on his future
being, performance or behaiour.
See'tion: Test scores are used b# educational institutions, emplo#ment
agencies, scholarship boards for selecting indiiduals for admission into
higher educational institutions, =ob acancies, and for awarding scholarships.
Ca!!ifi'ation: Tests are used for classification purposes. 2n classification,
indiiduals are diided into groups or classes according to t#pes and not
leels. 0or e9ample, mental patients ma# be diagnosed and grouped into
different t#pes. :unior Bigh &chool students ma# be classified according to
their choice of senior high schools or t#pes of course 5curriculum7 the# want
to pursue in future.
'lassification is different from placement 5&hert?er and &tone, 168%1. 2n
classification tests are used to group people into different t#pes 5of =obs7 but
in placement tests are used to assign indiiduals into different leels 5of
=obs7.
E-a"ation: Tests are used to ealuate guidance programmes, the
effectienesD of counselling or classroom instructions, etc.
U!e&! of Te!t!:
+ number of indiiduals make use of tests- such as teachers, counsellors and
administrators. (nl# counsellors4 use of tests will be discussed.
Co"n!eo&!@ U!e of Te!t!:
0rom &hert?er and &tone 5168%7 and Tra9ler and ,orth 516%%7 tests can be
used in counselling:
5i7 To obtain accurate and reliable information about each studeit4s or
indiidual4s abilities, aptitudes, interests and personalit# traits. This helps
indiiduals or students to hae self-understanding.
5ii7To help predict future performance of students and thus counsel them on
which sub=ects or courses to pursue.
5iii7To help students and their parents make useful decisions with reg ard to
planning their future careers,
5i7 To diagnose indiidual4s or student4s academic, social and emotional
problems and proide appropriate treatment to resole the problem,
57To help counsellors ealuate the ob=ecties of their guidance programmes,
5i7 To proide data for testimonials to higher institutions, emplo#ers on
students, etc.
T21e! of Te!t!
There are man# wa#s of classif#ing tests. 2n this write-up howeer, we shall
look at tests classified b# purpose. @hen we go b# purpose we obtain fie
t#pes of tests 5&hert?er and &toqe, 168%7. These are:
5i7 >ental +bilit# Tests
5ii7 +ptitude Tests
5iii7+chieement Tests
5i7Eocational 2nterest 2nentories,
57 )ersonalit# 2nentories.
1( #enta A.iit2 Te!t!:
These are standardi?ed ps#chological tests used to measure the mental
functioning of indiiduals.
The# are sometimes referred to as intelligence tests, scholastic aptitude tests
or7 cognitie abilit# tests. 0or the past ninet# or more #ears, arious
definitions hae been attempted on what these tests measure. 0or e9ample:
Terman 5161%7 defined it as the abilit# to think in abstract terms. @eshler
516!!7 defined it as the aggregate or global capacit# of the indiidual to that
purposel#, to think rationall# and to deal effectiel# with his enironment.
9( A',ie-e)ent Te!t!:
+chieement tests are used to measure the outcome of pupils or student4s
learning in the classroom. The# are meant to inform the teacher or instructor
on how much pupilsHstudentsHindiiduals hae achieed from the classroom
instruction. +chieement tests ma# be used for prognosis purposes. 2n the
prognosis purpose, it is used to predict how well an indiidual ma# profit
from a future training. 2n diagnosis purpose the# are used to assess the
difficulties and problems students or pupils do hae in a preious course.
3( A1tit"0e Te!t!:
+ptitude tests are used to assess knowledge, skill and other characteristics
that sere to predict learning success 5&hert?er and &tone,5168%7.+ccording
<to (ladele 516C8R7< aptitude tests are designed to estimate the future
performance and success of a person in school work, arious (ccupations
and further education
@hat is an aptitudeK Tra9ler and ,orth 516%%7 define an aptitude as <a
present condition that is indicatie of a person4s potential for deeloping
proficienc# in a certain area<. +ccording to 3ennon 5 in &hert?er and &tone,
168%7 an aptitude is <a combination of abilities and other characteristics,
whether natie or acquired 5that is 7 known or belieed to be indicatie of an
indiidual4s abilit# to learn in some particular area<. +mong the numerous
aptitudes that hae been measured are erbal, numerical, mechanical, artistic,
musical and clerical.
4( Inte&e!t In-ento&ie!:
2nterest inentories are used to assess a person4s feelings of like or dislike,
towards an actiit# or an ob=ect. 2n particular, ocational interest inentories
are designed to deterrnine an indiidual4s e9tent of liking for an occupation
or an antiit# which is related to an occupation. Two ocational interest
inentories which are under research and trials are the (ccupational 2nterest
)rofile 5(2)7 b# *ssuman 516CC7 and the Aasic -iagnostic 2nstrument for
career )references 5A-2)7 b# >ontford 5in press7.
3( Pe&!onait2 In-ento&ie!:
These are tools for measuring the personalit# characteristics of the indiidualD
namel# the affectie or non-intellectual traits of the indiidual. &ome of the
traits which constitute personalit# are emotions, motiation, e9troersion-
introersion, moralit#, sociabilit#, etc.
-ata collected b# the use of personalit# inentories are used in the
counselling of the indiidual4s personal concerns. Boweer, it is adised that
onl# professionall# trained counsellors are to make use of personalit#
inentories because of their specialised ..nature.
So)e Non:Te!t #et,o0!
+ few non-test methods are described below. These include obseration,
intendeds, questionnaires and cummulatie records.
?176 O.!e&-ation: 2n obseration we use our natural sense of seeing, .hearing,
testing, touching. and smelling to collect data from our enironment. 2n
counselling and other fields in the social sciences, we rel# more on the isual
5seeing7 and auditor# 5hearing47 sense to collect releant information from our
enironment. The information is about the behaiour of a counsellee, student
or an indiidual.
(bseration of a person4s behaiour in counselling should be done
effectiel#. This implies that the obserer should focus all his isual and
auditor# senses, towards the behaiour being obsered. Be should gie all his
attention to the obseration. &hert?er and &tone 5168%7 gie si9 wa#s we an
improe obseration:
F before obseration takes place determine what is to be obsered,
F obsere onl# one person at a time,
F watch out for significant behaiour, ,
F better to hae a number of brief periods of obseration than one or a few
long periods of obseration 5this applies especiall# in classroom obseration
of student7.
3earn to aoid writing notes while obsering 5this is er# significant in
counselling7. /emember to write out the obseration immediatel# after the
obseration.
?97( Inte&-ie+: +n interiew is a method of obtaining information about or
from an indiidual usuall# through oral interaction with the indiidual
5*ssuman, 16C67. 'unningham 516C%7 defines an interiew as a purposeful
conersation aimed at proiding information on quasi-informal basis. The
counsellor howeer uses interiew differentl# from a researcher or a
=ournalist. The researcher or =ournalist conducts an interiew to collect facts
often times on issues outside the person of the interiewee. Thus, the
interiew tends to be highl# structured, controlled er# much b# the
interiewer.
The facts or information obtained are used for research purposes or for the
news media. The counselling interiew on the other hand is less structured
and more fle9ible. 2ts aim is to seek information about the counsellee
5interiewee7 so as to enable the counsellor help the counsellee -resole his
personal problems. &o the interiew is on the person of the counsellee 5i.e. his
emotional state, academic problems, ocational problems etc7. Thus
counselling interiews alwa#s require complete confidentialit#.
0or effectie interiewing, the counsellor must be able to:
F establish good rapport with the counsellee 5interiewee7 at the beginning
of the interiew.
F brief the interiewee about the purpose and nature of the interiew,
F skillfull# conduct the interiew with appropriate releant questions and
other responses,
F close the interiew such that the counsellee will be more prepared to come
again when called.
?37( 5"e!tionnai&e: + questionnaire is an appraisal instrument in the written
form comprising a number of items and administered to seeral people to
collect data for sure# or guidance purpose. 2n the school situation a
questionnaire ma# be used to collect data about students. &uch a
questionnaire ma# be called pupil-data questionnaire 5&hert?ef and &tone,
168%7 and can be used to collect data on the student4s home famil#, health,
stud# habits and actiities in and out of school.
?47( C"))ati-e Re'o&0!: The cummulatie record is a means of storing
information on students longitudinall#. 2t relies on the storage of the greatest
amount of information in the minimum possible space. .suall# the data found
in a cummulatie record include:
a7the personal and famil# background information of the student,
b7 the health record of the student,
c7 achieement results of the students from terminal e9aminations,
continuous assessment, etc.
d7 results from ps#chological tests taken b# the student 5aptitude, interest,
personalit# tests, etc7,
e7 hobbies of the student 5school clubs he is a member7,
f7 annecdotal reports from teachers, headmasterHmistress,
g7 date of admission into the school.
'ummulatie records are found in the form of a folder or a card. The data in
the cummulatie record can be used b# teachers for understanding students
with regard to their performance in sub=ect area and rendering help to them
if the# need such help 5remedial use7. The data in the cummulatie record
can be used b# the school staff 5counsellor and teachers7 for case
conferences on students who require special help. 'ounsellors can use
cummulatie record for counselling purposes.
Beadmasters, headmistresses, housemastersHmistresses can use the data from
the cummulatie record to write testimonials on students.
&ince the cummulatie record is aailable for use not onl# b# the counsellor
but b# other staff members also, an# intimate or sensitie information of a
siudent which is considered confidential should not be recorded in it. &uch
information should be in the counsellor4s confidential file.
THE INFOR#ATION SERVICE
This is designed to proide students with a greater knowledge of educational,
ocational and personal-social opportunities so that the#, make better
informed choices and decisions in an increasingl# comple9 societ#( The
comple9 nature of the changing world is diml# understood b# pupils due to
adances in science and technolog#, politics and the industrial world and the
competitie labour market. These comple9 changes and deelopments
complicate the making of choices, decision making and planning that confront
the indiidual. To succeed in what the# attempt, indiiduals must demonstrate
progressiel# higher leels of competence and responsibilit#. -eelopment
does not occur in episodes. The arious leels interlock and personal growth
is also a highl# integrated process each blending imperceptibl# into the ne9t.
1uidance programmes should proide the #outh with the basic knowledge
and (pportunit# to learn more about their enironmrnt and themseles and
an# guidance that fails in his direction short-changes the #outh.The useful
information serice is that which helps #oung people to meet the challenges
of toda# and tomorrow,
There are at least three ma=or reasons wh# information serice is a ital point
of an organi?ed school guidance programme. The first is, it is fundamental if
pupils are to be gien the basic knowledge needed to think through important
personal issues like the e9tent of education, choice of occupation and
maintenance of indiidualit#. Aecoming a full# functioning member of the
societ# requires that the indiidual looks out, recogni?es and uses aailable
and releant information necessar# for his deelopment. +ppropriate designed
and staffed informational serices will enable more indiiduals to reali?e their
potentialities b# becoming aware of the opportunities aailable and help in
making meaningful choices.
The second reason is that, present da# #outh are e9pected to assume, more
autonomous responsibilit# than their predecessors. This demands a well
designed informational serice to help the #outh become self-regulator#. +n
essential of being self-regulator# is that indiiduals should know what the#,
are doing as the# do it and act correctl# on the basis of known data. )lanned
behaiour is based upon accurate information, stable but fle9ible. +n actiit#
conducted b# informational serice must hae e9cellent resources and deices
for gathering releant and current information and facilities and proiding
such information to students so that the# can understand and use the
information effectiel#. 2nformation and rationalit# sere as the fundamental
sources of indiidual freedom since the# enable indiiduals to free themseles
from the tentacles and pressures of their immediate social group, the confines
of a traditional or parochial outlook and from limitations of ignorance and
incompetence. 2nformation proides freedom from as well as freedom to.
Thirdl#, an informational serice is fundamental if the students are to
e9plore, and become aware of the contingencies of stabilit# and change
that make their deelopment. )upils need to e9plore the positions which
the# are likel# to occup# as the# moe through one of more possible
pathwa#s. The# must understand their choices and the consequences and
sequence of choice. 3ack of knowledge about selfdeelopment leads to
failure, re=ection, depression and defeat. Mnowledge of self-deelopment
leads to positie images and encourages indiidual and ocational
congruence.
TYPES OF INFOR#ATION
There are three t#pes of information serice: educational, occupational and
personal-social.
a( E0"'ationa Info&)ation: ,orris, Seran and *ngelkes 516827 offer an
e9cellent definition for educational information. +ccording to them,<
educational information is alid and usable data about all t#pes of present
and probable future educational or training, opportunities and
requirements including curriculum and non-curriculum offerings,
requirements for entrance, and conditions and regulations of student life<.
The data equips the student with ital and current = knowledge about
educational programmes and opportunities.
*ducational information also includes data on:
F +ailable tertiar# or post-secondar# institutions in the countr# or region,
F 'urriculum offerings and sub=ects in these institutions,
F +dmission requirements into tertiar# or senior secondar# school institutions
F &ub=ect required for specific professions or courses in tertiar# institutions
F 'ost of going to a tertiar# or secondar# institution 5boarding and tuition
fees7
F @a#s of financing tertiar# or secondar# education: scholarships, student
loans, self and
guardian sponsorship.
.( O''"1ationa Info&)ation: This is also known as career information.
+ccording to ,orris et al 516827 <occupational or career information is alid
and usable data about positions, =obs and occupations including duties,
requirements for entrance and conditions of work, reward and sources for
further information<. 0rom the definition, it is clear that career or occupational
information includes, essentiall# but not completel# the following as listed
b# &hert?er and &tone 5168%7:
1 . The structure and ma=or groups within an occupation
2. The nature of occupations, the nature of work
3. )reparation5s7 needed for the different t#pes of occupations,
!. Lualifications necessar# for emplo#ment in arious occupations,
$. )rocedures for entering and adancing in an occupation
%. 'onditions of work in arious occupations
8. &alar# structure, wages and other benefits, and
C. (ccupational ha?ards.
Pe&!ona:So'ia Info&)ation: +ccording to ,orris et al 516827, <4
personal social information is alid. and usable data about the
opportunities and influences of the human and ph#sical enironment which
bear on personal and interpersonal relations<. &uch information is about
human beings and helps indiiduals to understand themseles better and
thereb# improe how the# relate with others.
,orris et al 516827 list broad areas of information, which ma# be said to
be part, but not the whole of personal-social information as follows:
understanding self and getting along with others. (thers which are more
specific are bo#-girl. .relations, manners and etiquette leisure time
actiities, personal appearance.,, social skills, home and famil#
relationships, financial planning and health# liing
P&in'i1e! of t,e info&)ation !e&-i'e: The principles which underscore the
information serice ma# be summari?ed as the following:
i( It i! e!!entia 1a&t of t,e !',oo /"i0an'e 1&o/&a))e: &tudents 5#outh7
hae problems to cope with academic and social decisions to make, and
careers to plan which demand information. The# need as much information
about themseles and about their world as the# can acquire. *nlargement of
awareness of their opportunities is a task for the school. &tudents need
assistance in acquiring, ealuating and using educational, ocational and
personal-social information for their own deeloping purposes. A# proiding
meaningful data at strategic times, students are helped to increase the chance
of managing their future.
ii( T,e fo'"! of t,e info&)ationa !e&-i'e i! 1e&!ona !t"02 an0 f"t"&e
t&en0! an0 ',an/e:
'hange is eer present. Trends in the labour force shifts in the nature of
occupations and new directions in educational programmes occur rapidl#.
&ometimes, subtle and deceptie change cannot be held back. The
information serice deals with change as an inherent meaningful condition in
student planning. +lthough materials ma# deal with facts and conditions as
the# were, counsellors must work with students in terms of what conditions
ma# become. Thus pro=ection into different roles are encouraged.
*ducational, ocational and personal-social information will be meaningful to
students in the measure that these are related to the pupils themseles and
their enironment.
+fter helping students to appraise their interests, their abilities, their
aptitudes, their attitudes and personal characteristics, tentatie educational
and ocational plans should result from putting these against stud# of change.
0romm 516!87 indicated that, 4there is no meaning to life e9cept the meaning
man gies his life b# the unfolding of his powers, b# liing productiel#<.
The realisation of a productie life in a comple9 societ# frequentl# rests on
wise, informsJ decisions made as earl# as possible, and appropriatel#
reiewed with changing times.
iii( $ot, /&o"1 an0 in0i-i0"a te',niA"e! a&e "!e0 to 'on-e2
info&)ationa 0ata to !t"0enS an0 to a!!i!t t,e) in inte&1&etin/ an0
"!in/ !"', 0ata:
1roup approaches represent a medium through which information about the
work world and educational decisions ma# lead to personalit# change, goal
setting, decision making and planning. )eer reaction and influence
significantl# affect an indiidual4s goals, decision, and achieement. 1roup
approaches is built upon interest, attitudinal and motiational factors
2ndiidual approaches on the other hand are designed to assist indiiduals.
/ealities of work and education for indiiduals can be considered as the# are
assisted to become aware of their deelopment and progression b# sharing
counsellor understandings Aoth groups and indiidual approaches encourage
self-anal#tic and diagnostic methods and4 both all for students to relate
impressions about themseles to enironmental findings.
i-( T,e info&)ation !e&-i'e i! )o&e t,an info&)ation /i-in/:
2nformation serice is more than securing educational, ocational and
personal-social data and handling materials to students to read. 2t implies that,
attention will be gien to the indiiduals attitudes and emotional reactions to
the information. )resentation of information must be planned in terms of
students needs, and indiiduals should be gien the opportunit# to react to
what is presented. The indiidual4s perception based upon selectie attention
to materials must be taken into account. -ata must be sought, weighed and
assessed in relation to each pupil.
-(5"aifie0 1e&!onne to !taff info&)ation !e&-i'e i! e!!entia:
The qualit# of staff will be reflected in qualit# of serice. 1uidance
administrator must accept and carr# out staff up-grading and assignments and
re-assignments.
-i(T,e info&)ation !e&-i'e )"!t 'ontain 1&o-i!ion! fo& it! e-a"ation:
There is need for both formatie and summatie ealuation of techniques and
results. )upi teacher and counsellor reactions to the serice should be
e9amined to determine if better wa= can be found to achiee the ob=ecties of
the informational serice.
#et,o0! of 'oe'tin/ an0 /i-in/ info&)ation
There are seeral wa#s through which information could be collected and
gien to pupilsHstudents.
1( %&itten So"&'e!: >an# industries, professions and institutions publish
releant informatiQ about their establishments and institutions in booklets,
catalogues, brochures, occupatior monographsHbriefsHguides and other printed
materials. 2t will be worthwhile to encourage studer to read such materials. +
lot of information on =obs and institutions could also be obtained frc
adertisements in newspapers and maga?ines.
9( Ca&ee& 'onfe&en'e! an0 'on-ention!: +nother method of collecting
information is through career conferences and conentions. These can take
different forms but the# generall# inole people on the =ob who describe
their work to the childrenHstudents.
3( Vi!it!: )upilsHstudents could further obtain information through isits. The#
can isit factories, industries, colleges, schools, pol#technics among others.
(n their return to school, the students must hae the opportunit# to discuss
the isit, focussing on =ob requirements, =ob satisfaction, admission
requirements, etc.
St&eet S"&-e2: )upilsHstudents could also undertake street sure# which will
#ield information about =obs in the local communit# or town. The, students
working in groups of two or three ma# be assigned a number of business or
shops along a street. The# isit each business or shop and collect information
about the nature of =obs aailable, the kind of preparation required for each
=ob, how to get emplo#ment there and the conditions of serice.
3( Tea',in/ O''"1ation!: (ccupations could be taught in formal lessons to
students. This helps the guidance teacher to reach man# children who ma#
hae similar problems at the same time. This would sae the time he would
use to discuss the same problem in man# indiidual counselling sessions.
4( On t,e Bo. ea&nin/: (ccupational information could also be obtained in
actual work. There are man# wa#s of doing this. 'hildren can do a lot of
partial work connected with their studies. &ome of the children can also do
acation =obs through which the# can gain e9perience.
>( Va&iet2: (ther wa#s of proiding information to children include the use of
audio-isual aid eg slides, films, radio, cassettes, notice boards and bulletin
boards. The computer could also be useful in proiding information to
children.
PLACE#ENT SERVICE
The placement serice is designed to help pupils or students choose and make
use of opportunities aailable within the school or outside the school with the
aim of improing or furthering their social or academic position or securing
emplo#ment status. Thus in the placement serices students are helped to
enter into further education, a new class, or take up a new sub=ect releant to
their future plans or enter into an occupation.
&hert?er and &tone 5168%7 talk of two forms of placement, namel# in-school
placement and out-ofschool placement. )ecku 516617 howeer, categorises
placement into three: namel#, educational, ocational and social placement.
@e shall use the categorisation b# )ecku for our studies.
a( E0"'ationa Pa'e)ent: This is placement witf#regard toT educational or
academic issues. 2n the school setting, counsellors working in collaboration
with the head and teachers ma# place children in new classes depending on
their acadernir. performance or some academic difficult# the# ma# be
e9periencing. 0or e9ample, a highl# brilliant pupil in )rimar# ! +n aerage
performing pupil in
:B& 2 haing difficult# understanding his mathematics teacher there. +
student in &B&1 GGho1 undergone counselling and therap# for an emotional or
mental problem ma# be adised to ts= the class so as to coer all the lessons
he lost.
(ften times counsellors help students to change the sub=ect or course the# are
pursuing when ft is enough eidence to show that the student will benefit
more from the new sub=ect or count terms of academic performance and
career planning. Thus, a student whose abilities and mta indicate that the# can
do much better in Ausiness and 'ommercial courses, ma# be counsellei take
this up and drop the +rts course he ma# be doing.
*ducational placement also inoles helping student to moe from :B& to
&B&, and &B& tertiar# institutions. The counsellor requires a lot of appraisal
information for such placement students. )resentl#, it will require that a :B&3
student4s achieement performance, aptitul interest and personalit# data be
known to enable the counsellor help him to select the t#pe Ur&l to attend.
&hould he attend the general, business- commercial, technical, agriculture or
ti ocational t#pesK &imilarl#, some &B&3 students are to be helped to enter
the uniersitii pol#technics, teacher training colleges and other tertiar#
institutions. The counsellor helps themi choose tertiar# institutions the# can
go for further education, after taking into account the coura profession the#
hae the abilit#, interest and the appropriate personalit# traits to pursue. 1
counsellor requires a lot of student appraisal data to do such placement. Be
also requires a lot educational information for this work.
Vo'ationa Pa'e)ent: .nlike educational placement, ocational placement
deals with career or ocational matters.The school counsellor 5guidance co-
ordinator7 helps students to sef emplo#ment, whether full time or part-time.
&tudents about to terminate their education at the h school leel require to be
placed in =obs. (ne ma=or role of the school counsellor is to help them this
placement. 'ounsellors do help students to seek part-time =obs which the#
can do dura acation. 2n tertiar# institutions, counsellors ma# take up
responsibilities of arranging ft internships for students in the arious
professions, often times the internship arrangement is dot b# the faculties or
departments.
Eocational placement like educational placement requires appraisal ,data
and ocational information from the communit#. @hile the appraisal
information would require a lot of traelli and contacts with seeral
emplo#ment centres to obtain. This takes a lot of effort and time to do.
Aesides the unemplo#ment rate in 1hana is so high that the effort of a
counsellor in seek acancies for his students ma# #ield much fruits.
So'ia Pa'e)ent: This form of placement has to do with social issues. )upils
or students placed special groups with the aim of enabling them acquire some
special social skills which readil# manifested in the group. Thus counsellors
can make use of such a purpose. + debating club for e9ample offers the forum
for making speeches. + counsellee who needs to learn to speak up can be
placed in such a club.
COUNSELLING SERVICE
Definition
'ounselling has been ariousl# defined. (rdinaril# counselling is considered
to be adice giing, consultation, discussion, e9change of ideas. Aelow are
some definitions gien to counselling b# some writersHscholars.
2. 'ounselling is a personal, face to face, relationship between two people in
which the counsellor, b# means of the relationship and his special
competencies, proides a learning situation in which the counsellee, a normal
sort of person, is helped to know himself and his present and possible future
situations so that he can make use of characteristics and potentialities in a
wa# that is both satisf#ing to himself and beneficial to societ#, and further,
can learn how to sole future problems and meet future needs 5Tolbert, 16827.
2. 'ounselling is the process b# which a counsellor assists a client to face,
understand, and accept information about himself and his interaction with
others so that he can make effectie decisions about arious life choices
5'ottle and -ownie, 168;7.
'ounselling is a process b# which a troubled person 5the client7 is helped to
feel and behae in a more personall# satisf#ing manner through interaction
with an uninoled person 5the counsellor7 who proides information and
reactions which stimulates the client to deelop behaiours which enables him
to deal more effectiel# with himself and his enironment 53ewis,
168;7.
!. 'ounselling is a series of direct contacts with the indiidual which aims to
offer assistance in changing attitudes and behaiour. *ffectie counselling
consists of a definitel# structured, permissie relationship which allows the
client to gain an understanding of himself to a degree which enables him to
take positie steps in the light of new orientations 5/ogers, 16%17.
$. 'ounselling is an interactie process co-=oining the counsellee, who is
ulnerable and who needs assistance, and the counsellor who is trained and
educated to gie this assistance, the goals of which is to help the counsellee
learn to deal more effectiel# with himself and the realit# of his enironment
5)ere?, 16%$7.
These are a few of the man# definitions that hae been gien to counselling. +
look at the definitions cited aboe indicates that counselling is
1. a process
2. a relationship
3. a help gien to people in making choices
!. a face to face interaction
$. a learning e9perience.
+ sure# of the numerous definitions gien to counselling indicates that een
though there are semantic differences, most definitions begin b# a suggestion
that indiidual counselling is a one to one relationship inoling a trained
counsellor and focuses on some aspects of a client4s ad=ustment,
deelopmental, or decision making needs. This process proides a
relationship and Vcommunication base from which the client can deelop
understanding, e9plore possibilities and initiate change. 2n this setting ilis the
skill of the counsellor that rnakes positie outcomes possible. The
counsellor4s s and knowledge proide the appropriate framework and
direction that ma9imises the client4s potential for positie results. .ntrained
and unskilled helpers, regardless of their best intentions, cannot duplicate the
functions of the professional counsellor.
AI#S OF COUNSELLING
The aims of counselling are broad. The# ma# depend on the situation and the
enironment, and 5 training. The basic aims of counselling include the
following:
1. To help students gain an insight into the origins and deelopment of
emotional difficulties, leading to an increased capacit# to take rational control
oer feeling and actions.
2. To change malad=usted behaiour.
3. To assist students to moe in the direction of fulfilling their potential, or
achiee an integration W of conflicting elements within themseles.
The fundamental goal of counselling is to effect some changed in behaiour,
which help5s7 the indiidual to lie a more productie and self-satisf#ing life.
'ounselling proides students with the skills, awareness and knowledge, that
enables them to confront social inadequac# in life.
THE NATURE OF COUNSELLING
To the la#man, counselling ma# seem no different from an# consultation. Be
ma# een consider it as a simple chat or an aimless talk. Boweer, to the
professional counsellor it ma# appear to be a m#steriousl# comple9
endeaour.
0ord and .rban 516%37 hae gien four general characteristics of
ps#chotherap# which also appropriatel# describe the nature of counselling asD
1. 'ounselling inoles two people in interacion, a generic term for e9change
of meanings between people which includes direct communication of talking
and listening as well as gestures, glances, nods or shakes of the head, frowns,
and other nonerbal features b# which meaning is transmitted from one
person to another. The interaction is highl# confidential, and since counsellees
discuss themseles in an intimate fashion, it is highl# priate and unobsered
b# others.
2. The mode of interaction is usuall# limited to the erbal realmD the
counsellor and the counsellee talk with one another. 'ounsellees talk about
themseles, their thought, feelings and actions. The# describe eents in their
life and the wa# the# respond to these eents. The counsellor listens and
responds in some fashion to what the counsellee sa#s to prooke further
responses. The two think, talk and share their ideas.
3. The interaction is relatiel# prolonged since alteration of behaiour takes
time .'ounselling has as its goal the change of behaiour. 2t is assumed that
through counselling interaction the counsellee will in time reise his
distortions and alters his behaiour.
!. The purpose of the relationship is change in behaiour of the counselee.
The counsellor locuses the interaction upon the counsellee. 'ounsellees need
not be concerned about the happiness of the counsellor but must deote their
energies to changing themseles.
)atterson approached a description of the nature of counselling b# first
describing what it is not. Be states that counselling is not.
1. 1iing information, though information ma# be gien in counselling,
2. 1iing adice, suggestion or recommendations 5adice should be
recognised as such and not camouflaged as counselling7,
3. 2nfluencing attitudes, beliefs or behaiour b# means of persuasion, leading
or conincing, no matter how directl#, subtl# or painlessl#,
!. 2nfluencing behaiour b# admonishing warning, threatening or compelling,
with or without the use of ph#sical force or coercion 5discipline is not
counselling7,
$. &election for andHor assignment of indiiduals to arious =obs or actiities,
%. 2nteriewing 5while interiewing is inoled, it is not s#non#mous with
counselling7.
The nature of counselling according to )atterson is to be found in the
following characteristics:
1. 'ounselling is concerned with influencing oluntar# behaiour change on
the part of the client
2. The purpose of counselling is to proide conditions which facilitate
oluntar# change 5conditions such as the indiidual4s right to choices, to be
independent and autonomous7.
3. +s in all relationships, limits are imposed upon the counselling goals which
in turn are influenced b# the counsellor4s alues and philosoph#,
!. 'onditions facilitating behaioural change are proided through
interiews 5not all interiewing is counselling but counselling alwa#s
inoles interiewing7,
$. 3istening is present in counselling but not all listening is counselling,
%. The counsellor understands the client
8. 'ounselling is conducted in priac# and the discussion is confidential,
C. The client has a ps#chological problem and the counsellor is skilled in
working with clients who hae ps#chological problems.
AREAS OF COUNSELLING
*ducational counsellingD + term first coined b# Melle#in 161!. *ducational
counselling is a process of rendering serices to pupils who need assistance in
making decisions about important aspects of their education, such as the
choice of courses and studies, decisions regarding interests and abilit#, and
choices of college or uniersities. *ducational counselling increases a pupil4s
knowledge of opportunities.
Vo'ationa 'o"n!ein/: Eocational counsellling is counselling that facilitates
career deelopment. This inoles:
F Belping students become aware of the man# occupations to consider
F 2nterpreting an occupational interest inentor# to a student
F +ssisting a teenager to decide what to do after school
F Belping a student appl# to a college or uniersit#
F /ole-pla#ing a =ob interiewing preparation for the real thing.
Pe&!ona*So'ia 'o"n!ein/: personal counselling deals with emotional
distress and behaioural difficulties, which arise when indiiduals struggle to
deal with arious deelopmental tasks. +n aspect of deelopment can turn
into an ad=ustment problem, and eer#one encounters, at some time other,
some difficult# in meeting ordinar# challenges. 0or e9ample, we sometimes
faceD
F +n9iet# oer a career decision
F 3ingering anger oer an interpersonal conflict
F 2nsecurities about getting older
F -epressie feelings when bored with work
F *9cessie guilt about a serious mistake in life
F + lack of assertion and confidence
F 1rief oer the loss of a loed one
F -isillusionment and loneliness after parents4 diorce 4
In0i-i0"a an0 G&o"1 Co"n!ein/
2ndiidual 'ounselling: 'ounselling denotes a professional relationship
usuall# between a trained counsellor and a client. This form of counselling is
called indiidual counselling. This is because it inoles a person to person
interaction between a counsellor and a counsellee. (ne ma=or adantage of
indiidual counselling is that it offers ma9imum attention and time for the
counsellee. The whole 4processTsToTthecounsellee to use to erbalise his
problem, e9amine them and learn how to oercome them with the help of the
counsellor. The disadantage of indiidual counselling is that it consumes too
much counsellor time and effort.
G&o"1 Co"n!ein/: 1roup counselling on the other hand inoles two or
more counsellees and the counsellor. 2n this t#pe of counselling, the
counsellees ma# hae a common concern like drug abuse, low academic
achieement, stud# habit, etc. 1roup counselling is highl# useful for resoling
interpersonal issues and learning interpersonal skills.
1ad?a 516C!7 suggest that group counselling can be growth engendering
insofar as it proides participation incenties, and motiation to make
changes that are in client4s best interest. (n other hand it is remedial for those
persons who hae entered into a spiral of self-defeating behaiour but who
are, neertheless, capable of reiewing the spiral with counselling interaction.
1roup couselling offers econom# of counselling time and effort.2ts
disadantage is not offering the indiidual adequate priac#, time and
attention as in the case of indiidual counselling.
CONSULTATION SERVICE
2n the consultation serice, the counsellor meets indiiduals like teachers,
school administrators, parents and curriculum e9perts with the aim of
assisting her to oercome certain difficulties she ma# hae while e9ecuting
her function. 'onsultation ma# also be thought of as assistance geared
towards enabling parents, teachers or administrators hae a better
understanding of the children or students the# handle.
2t enables helpers realise better wa#s of handling them. 'urriculum planners
are also helped to plan better curricula for students or pupils when the# come
to understand the nature of childrens deelopment.
1( Con!"tation +it, Pa&ent!: 'ounsellor consultation with parents rna# be
initiated b# the counsellor or b# parents. &hert?er and &tone 5168%7 suggest
that school counsellors often initiate consultation with parents for a number of
reasons:
F To discuss and interpret test results of their children,
F To hae discussion on their children4s placement or planning with regard to
their education,
F To get informed about and be able to interpret their children4s behaiour in
school.
F To discuss how their children are achieing and deeloping,
F To discuss or suggest the need for their children to be referred to an
appropriate agenc# or professional.
)arents ma# also all for consultation for an# of the aboe reasons. Through
consultation, counsellors often obtain rich information from parents on how
their children or wards are behaing at home, the qualit# of the parents4
relationship with their children, how siblings relate with one another and the
health conditions of the children in question. &uch information facilitates
counselling with the children or consultation with the parents themseles.
0or consultation with significant others to be effectie, counsellors should not
assume positions which look threatening to those the# consult with.
'ounsellor-interaction with parents should be non Vthreatening since man#
people alread# hae wrong perceptions about counsellors.
2n schools, consultation with parents occurs more at the primar# leel since
pupils are #ounger and their behaiour are more influenced b# parents and
guardians.
9( Con!"tation +it, tea',e&!: &chool counsellors need to consult with
teachers especiall# about the academic problems of their students.&tudents
ma# be referred to the counsellor for arious reasons. &ometimes teachers
encounter difficulties in handling pupils or students.
'onsultation ma# be initiated b# the teacher who realises heHshe needs help in
managing pupil4s classroom behaiour or it ma# be initiated b# the counsellor
when there is enough eidence to show that pupils are loosing, instead of
gaining in the learning e9perience being proided.
The counsellor, in working as a consultant should not assume a superior
position of adisor or a teacher of teachers. + positie, mutual working
relationship with consultees is necessar# if teachers are to perceie the
counsellors4 consultatie role as non-threatening.
'ounsellors can gie consultatie help to teachers b#:
F2nterpreting the child4s behaiour for the teacher to better understand the
child,
F 'ollaborating with the teacher to seek assistance for pupils or students who
requite special help, for e9ample, financial support, or
F 2nterpreting test data on students.
Teachers can also be consultants to counsellors b# proiding them with
information onD
F Bow children behae in groups 5or in class7,
F 'hildren4s st#les of learning,
F )upils reaction to classroom discipline
3(Con!"tation +it, A0)ini!t&ato&!: 'ounsellors pla# useful consultatie
roles with administrators. The school headmaster or headmistress is not in
direct touch with the student bod# 5since heHshe ma# not be in the classroom7.
The counsellor need therefore to occasionall# inform the school head about
the needs, morale, attitudes of the students and the general academic and
social atmosphere of the school.
Through this serice counsellors act as a buffer between students and
administration, thereb# diffusing tension which could erupt into riots. The
school counsellor4s consultatie role with school administrator is inaluable. 2t
helps to influence administrators policies in a positie direction. This
facilitates good academic and social life in the school.
4( Con!"tation +it, C"&&i'"") Panne&!: The counsellor has rich
knowledge on the leel of motiation of students or pupils for academic
work, the range of student abilities or achieement and their career
aspirations. 2n addition, he ma# hae facts about the changing academic
requirements for entr# into senior high and tertiar# institutions, the changing
economic, social and occupational enironment of the countr#. These are
needed for the deelopment of curricula, which will sere the needs of the
#outh and be releant to their deelopment.
EVALUATION SERVICE
*aluation serice helps the counsellor to s#stematicall# determine whether
the ob=ecties set for guidance serice or for the oerall guidance programme
is being achieed. 2n the counselling serice for e9ample, the counsellor ma#
ealuate each step in the process of counselling an indiidual. This helps to
build into the counselling process correctie measures to ensure that the
ob=ecties set are being achieed.
*aluation is also for actiities in other serices in guidance. +t the end of a
career conference actiit#, it is e9pected that the conference is ealuated to
determine the benefits students gained with regard to career information. The
ealuation is also to gie feedback to how such a conference can be improed
in future. 2n the same ein eer# actiit# in the appraisal, placement and
consultation serices can be ealuated to determine how successful it was and
how it can be improed in future.
The guidance programme, as a whole is to be ealuated after a period of
implementation. This can be done quarterl#, si9 monthl# and at the end of the
#ear, to enable the counsellor hae concrete data on the effectieness of the
guidance programme in his school. Three monthl# or quarterl# ealuation
allows for earl# corrections and changes to improe the programme. +n
annual ealuation is necessar# to enable the counsellor take stock of arious
serices and programmes implemented within the #ear and their effectieness
so as to effect the necessar# changes to improe the programme the following
#ear. 2t also proides information for writing annual reports for the
headmaster or headmistress, educational authorities and the )T+
5)arentHTeacher +ssociation7. This ensures good accountabilit# in the practice
of guidance.
FOLLO% :UP SERVICE
2n the follow-up serices, the counsellor gets in touch with the counsellee,
students he has counselled or placed in higher educational institution or in a
=ob to assess the e9tent of their progress. This happens sometimes after the
termination of counselling or placement of the counsellee 5student7<< fias
taken place.
2n counselling, the counsellor can follow-up a student or counsellee one,
three, si9 month or a #ear after the counselling has been terminated. The
counsellor ma# inite the counsellee for an interiew to obtain data on his
progress. Bas the counsellee maintained the goals he achieed successfull#K
Bas the counsellee stabilised in his new acquired behaiour 5eg. good stud#
habit7 or has he gone back to his old undesirable habits which he wanted to
eliminateK
+part from interiew, the counsellor can use, phone calls, obseration,
questionnaire and tests to collect follow-up data from counsellees. >ailed
questionnaires can be sent to counsellees who lie <far awa# from the
counsellor.
2n placement, the counsellor can follow-up his students or counsellees in the
same wa# as described aboe. &tudents placed on special courses, or classes
can be inited for an interiew or obsered to collect data on how the# are
progressing. &tudents placed into higher educational institutions or
emplo#ment in the countr# ma# be contacted through mailed questionnaires,
isits if possible or telephone interiews to assess their progress.
0ollow-up serices allow the counsellor to gie further counselling to
counsellees who hae slacked into their old undesireable behaiour or lost
their goals achieed at termination of counselling. 2t also allows the
counsellor to suggest or bring about modifications in in-school or out-school
placement of students who ma# not be benefiting from such placements.
UNIT V
ORGANISATION AND AD#INISTRATION OF GUIDANCE AND
COUNSELLING PROGRA##ES IN SCHOOLS
Lea0e&!,i1 I!!"e! in t,e S',oo G"i0an'e P&o/&a))e
(rganising guidance and counselling in #our school and making it effectie
depend on the coperatie efforts of the entire staff of #our school. This is
because guidance and counselling is <intricatel# intertwined with both the
instructional programme and the administration of #our school.
This also means, among other things, that #ou hae to deelop a programme
that is of specific releance to #our school. &uch a programme, according to
Bill and 3uke# 516%67 is characterised b# the acron#m <)3*+<.
1 . Iour programme should be )lanned- it is not a hit-or miss affair.
2. 2t should also be effectiel# 3ed- it demands constant and well-organised
management.
3. The programme should be well *9ecuted. This means- responsibilities
assigned should be carried out
!. 0inall#, the programme should be regularl# +ssessed. 2t must be ealuated
and its impact upon children is appraised.
+ll these mean that #our school guidance programme should be well planned
and effectiel# ledD ill should also be reasonabl# and rationall# e9ecuted and
it should be assessed from time to time toW determine its effectieness.
1( Pannin/:
5i7 )lanning inoles the abilit# to delineate the philosoph# of the schoolD this
in part determines the ob=ecties of the programme
5ii7 -esire to prepare clear-cut statements of ob=ecties preferabl# in
behaioural terms,
5iii7 +ssign specific duties to indiiduals and committees to make the
organisation and management of #our programme easier to e9ecute #our
programme, #ou will hae to:
F 1et each committee or indiidual to stud# the ob=ecties of the programme
and see how and where his or her own assignment fits in.
F 1et committeesHindiiduals to stud# the calendar of guidance actiities to
know when, how and where heHshe is inoled.
F *nsure close adherence to the calendar.
F -iscuss and reiew immediatel# problems that arise.
F -iscuss or reiew each completed aspect of the programme so as to plan for
the ne9t phase or stimulate suggestions for improement.
F +rrange for regular feed-back from students, staff and parents.
A11&ai!a:
+nother important aspect of the programme is the careful ealuation of what
has happened in relation to #our stated ob=ecties. Iou could hae an in built
ealuation s#stem so that as soon as an aspect of the programme is e9ecuted,
#ou would be able to ealuate the impact on the students as well as the
people who were inoled in it Aased on these, #ou would make new
decisions toD
5i7 /etain, eliminate or improe some aspect5s7 of the programmeD
5ii7 /etain, change or gie further training to person5s7 or committee5s7 that
e9ecuted particular aspects of the programme.
+ clear statement of ob=ecties is crucial to effectie ealuation because
Seran and /iio 516%27 suggest that the <ma=or purpose of ealuation is to
ascertain the current status of an actiit# within a specific frame of
referenceX The# suggest further that the bases of that knowledge would
facilitate the improement of the school4s guidance actiities in terms of
qualit# and efficienc#.
Ho+ to Eni!t t,e S"11o&t of t,e P&in'i1a
The headmaster and the assistant headmaster are the administratie heads of
the school. The headmaster in particular, has the final sa# on administratie
and polic# issues in the school, sub=ect of course, to the pleasure of the Aoard
or the >inistr# of *ducation. The support of the head and his assistant are
therefore crucial in initiating and sustaining an effectie school guidance
serices programme.
*ffectie planning would inole identif#ing the t#pes of records to be kept as
well as who would keep these records and how and where such records
would be kept.
,ote that the ob=ecties of #our programme should be based on the schools
ob=ecties. Iou ma# stud# the national ob=ectie of high school education
contained in the ,ational )olic# on *ducation. +lso, stud# #our headmaster4s
end of #ear reports for the preious fie #ears to obtain some recurrent
themes and emphases. &tud# the staff minute book and discuss alue-related
topics that focus on the school, the students, and on the goals of education.
9( Lea0in/:
Seran and /iio 516%27 emphasise the point that 4the administration must
beliee in, understand and want a programme, seminar or workshop to which
members of the Aoard are inited as participants. This wa#, members of the
school4s board would be persuaded to gie support to the concept of school
guidance serices.
Iou could get them to understand that the programme of guidance serices is
a distinct part of the total student-personnel serices of the school s#stemD
the# should understand that it is a serice for all students to all grade leels.
The# need to be coninced and made to accept the fact that though it will cost
mone#, #our programme will be worth what it costs,
*en though the Beadmaster has ultimate leadership in the running of the
guidance programme, the counsellor has his own ital management role to
pla#. Be co-ordinates the arious committees, gies needed leadership in their
assigned tasks, and encourages staff leadership to pla# their roles
appropriatel#.
3( E8e'"tion ?o& i)1e)entin/ t,e 1&o/&a))e7:
The programme must utilise the competencies of indiidual members of staff
to the ultimate. Tht i working relationship among all inoled in implementing
the programme should be defined, if possible using a flow diagram. Iou will
need the role of the counsellor in the school. -o not lecture and do not gie
the impression either that counselling can sole all problems.
+ccording to >uro 5162;J the best approach is to assure teachers of #our
awareness that some form of guidance alread# e9ists in an informal manner in
the school and that as teachers, colleagues alread7 hold a guidance-oriented
point of iew- since the# all work towards helping students to ma9imise their
potentials for full growth and deelopment.
Iou might then need to drop the hint that #ou intend to inole eer# member
of staff in the running of the programmeD that no contribution is too little and
that with their permission and co-operation a committee will be formed for
this purpose. Iou could end b# letting them know of #our intention to submit
proposals for orientation and an in-serice session for discussion at the ne9t
staff meeting.
9( T,e G"i0an'e Co))ittee
2f the school guidance programme is to succeed and be effectie, #ou will
need to work with a committee or number of committees charged with
planning, organising and implementing arious aspects of the programme. To
ensure that eer# member of staff is inoled, it is better to hae seeral small
committees entrusted with different aspects of the programme and the general
planning committee.
The +ssistant head and Beads of -epartments should be members of the
central planning committee. 2f #ou are =unior to all of them, #ou should be
secretar# of these committees since ideall#,#ou must not be chairman.
3( Int&o0"'in/ St"0ent! to an0 in-o-in/ St"0ent! in G"i0an'e A'ti-itie!
>ore than an# other group, the school guidance programme is meant for
students. The# hae to be motiated to take a keen interest and an actie part.
(ne of the most important steps in organising the programme therefore is
knowing how to introduce #our programme to #our students and how to get
them full# inoled. Iour first contacts with students in large groups small
groups or as indiiduals are er# important.
a7 At a !',oo /ene&a a!!e).2D 2t is normal practice for school heads to
introduce new members of staff to the students during the first assembl# in the
school #ear. Aefore this assembl#, #ou should discuss with the Bead #our
intention to make a short introductor# speech about 1uidance and
counselling. The speech should be er# short-lasting three to fie minutes and
touching on things that are closest to the students4 hearts.
Iour speech must be stimulating and be such that it will make students want
to ask questions. Iou could end such #our speech b# giing an indication that
#ou would be isiting the different classes and dormitories to discuss
important issues with interested students. Iou could also ask those who hae
an# questions to get them read# for #ou to answer.
2t is essential to emphasise that counselling and guidance is for all the
students. 2n this and subsequent talks with the students, it is essential to aoid
an# reference to disciplinar# issues.
b7 'lassroom EisitsD 0ollow-up the talk in the assembl# b# isiting students in
their classrooms to talk to them about #our roles. This talk should be more
detailed, illustratie and students should be gien the opportunit# to ask
questions or raise issues on which the# want further clarifications.
Iou could then ask students to fill in questionnaires suppl#ing some
information about themseles, perssonal problems the# hae and whether
the# would want to discuss such issues with #ou. 2t is <important to
emphasise confidentialit#. Tr# initiall# to aoid using the words <problems<
and <difficulties<. /ather, refer to these as <personal issues<, <matters relating
to #our studies44 and <#our interactions with others< and gie partial e9amples
of what #ou mean b# these.
A'ti-itie!:
Aefore #ou start an# guidance programme #ou need to plan. To plan
effectiel#, #ou need to know who the programme is for and wh# that target
group needs that programme. 1ood planning inoles:
a7 +ssessing the general and particular needs of the school and conduct needs
assessment sure# to help #ou plan a guidance programme for the school.
b7. 2dentif#ing resources 5human and material7 aailable in #our school and
the communit# to help #ou implement the guidance programme.
The counsellor must hae a general idea of human needs. >aslow 516$!7
classified human needs as:
1. )h#sicalH &urial needs- are basic needs for which there are no substitutes
2. &afet# or &ecurit# needs- the need for freedom from fear and an9iet#
3. &ocial or 3oe and Aelonging needs- that gies a sense that we are loed
and hae a place in the communit#
!. &elf-/espectH)ersonal -ignit#H &elf-*steem needs- that gie one a sense of
independence and confidence
$. )ersonal 1rowthK &elf +ctualisation- + sense of satisfaction with one4s self
which reflects the indiidual4s desire to grow and deelop to his or her fullest
potential.
@hen these needs are, the indiidual can deelop the talents and gifts within
himHherself and achiee his or her highest and greatest leel of personal
growth. 2f there is a problem with meeting an# of the general needs, the child
is affected and his or her academic work is adersel# affected. 0or e9ample,
unmet ph#siological need like the need for food can lead a child to steal or the
child ma# not be comfortable enough to learn well.
A'ti-it2:
The following are all human needs. Tr# to match them to >aslow4s fie leels
of needs below using the numbers 1,2,3,!, and $. *9ample: 0oodY 1
5meaning, food is a ph#sical need7.
>aslow4s fie needs:
)h#sical ,eeds Y1
&afet# and &ecurit# Y2
&ocial ,eedsH3oe and Aelonging Y3
&elf /espectH )ersonal -ignit#H&elf *steem Y !
)ersonal 1rowthH&elf-+ctualisation Y $
3ist of Buman ,eeds ,eed 'ategor# 3ist of Buman ,eeds ,eed 'ategon
)h#sical comfort 1 &helter 1
&upporter of football club 3 &elf emplo#ed business person
>embership of religious bod#3 /espected in communit# for honest#
@ar 2 &ickness and disease
/ecognition b# communit# +chieement of a personal goal
3eader communal labour pro=ect 'ertificate from correspondence school
'ertificate of achieement 0ood
/ecognised skill as an artisan TeacherH@orker on the =ob
)romotion on the =ob +ttendance without absenteeism
&elected hair of a local function +ir
3ong serice award Aest worker award
>arriage )arental loe
'lan membership (utcast from clan
@oman of the #ear, women4s club 3oe of a mate
A'ti-it2: /ead the description of :ohnson &enior Bigh &chool below and list
the peculiar needs of this school.
:ohnson &enior Bigh &chool is situated near a hospital in the centre of an
urban town. This school has er# little facilities for boarders and teachers.
The Beadmaster cannot be accommodated on the compound. The result is
that most of the students are da# and come to school alwa#s late. The# are
seen bu#ing food on the streets een when the# know the# are alread# late.
The boarders troop to the hospital on the prete9t of seeing the doctor onl# to
meet their bo#friends and girl friends. There hae been cases of boarders
sneaking out at night. The enironment is often nois# thus disturbing night
studies. +cademic achieement is low and most girls who are capable of good
work get low grades.
&ome parents, especiall# the rich traders would want to see their wards at odd
times creating conflict between them and the onl# housemaster
accommodated on the school compound resulting sometimes in open
confrontation. There is er# often competition and show of wealth among the
students resulting in stealing and other antisocial behaiours.
+ctiit#:
3ist the peculiar needs of :ohnson &enior Bigh &chool
1. 0rom what four sources could a counsellor obtain information about the
needs of children and of the schoolK
2. Bow could information be collected from the sources mentionedK
A'ti-it2:
'onduct a prioritised needs assessment of one class in a senior or =unior high
school and share #our findings with the class.
A!!e!!)ent of &e!o"&'e!
+ll the means that can help or support the guidance programme are resources.
Aoth human i material resources are needed for the effectie delier# of the
guidance programme Mnowing whi resources #ou hae at #our disposal
before #ou initiate #our guidance programme is an important fits step.
A'ti-it2: 2dentif# people #ou could rel# on from the staff, )T+, and other
officials who could assist in the delier# of guidance in #our school.
2n each case indicate what help the# could gie #ou.
A'ti-it2: 2dentif# some important material resources #ou would need for #our
guidance programme
UNIT VI
SO#E THEORIES OF COUNSELLING
1( THE CLIENT:CENTRED THERAPY ?Ca& Ro/e&!7
2ntroduction
F This is a norwc:irectie approach- deeloped b# 'arl /ogers 516$17 in
reaction to the highl# diagnostic, probing and interpretie methods of
ps#choanal#sis.
F +n important focus is on the client4s immediate situation and his sub=ectie
e9periences-his feelings, 5emotions7, thoughts, fears and so on.
F The therapist or counsellor assumes role of a catal#st in assisting the client
to achiee maturit# through the client4s own insight and personal scrutin#.
F The relationship between client and counsellor is characterised b# empathic
understanding and unconditional positie regard. These are crucial for the
success of the encounter.
Eiew of Buman ,ature
/ogers4 deeloped this theor# when the preailing belief among therapists
was that man basicall# and innatel# eil, destructie, irrational and selfish.
/ogers completel# re=ected this iewpoint. Bis iew was that man was
basicall# good and that an# badness in man was the result of negatie
influences in his societ# or enironment such as poert#, ignorance, disease
and superstition, constitutes the basic h#pothesis or assumption upon which
/ogers builds his approach.
/ogers contended that if these obstacles could be reduced to a minimum, man
would find societ# acceptable and also find answers to his problems. Bis
iews can be conenientl# organised into ! basic areas:
1. Aelief in the -ignit# and @orth of *ach 2ndiidual: /ogers belieed that all
persons:
F Bae the right to their own opinions and thoughts
F &hould be free to control their own destin# and pursue their own interests-so
long as the# don4t transgress the rights of others.
2. The )erpetual iew of 2ndiidual Aehaiour: /ogers said that
F 2ndiiduals behae in a wa# that is alwa#s consistent with their sub=ectie
perceptions 5feelings, iews, etc7 of themseles and their situations
F *en an indiidual4s most ob=ectie functioning-for instance in >aths and
&cience is the result 5or certainl# not deoid7 of sub=ectie influences.
F This emphasis on one4s sub=ectie influences makes self-concept an
important aspect of one4s personalit#.
3. )eople are Aasicall# 1ood and Trustworth#:
/ogers uses of words such as trustworth#, reliable, good, and constructie to
describe man. +n# badness in man was the result of negatie influences from
his societ# or enironment.
F@here people present the contrar# behaiours of deceit, hate and cruelt#, the
source can be traced to a defensieness that has separated them from their
inherent good nature.
F The counsellor4s work is to assist the indiidual so that his defensieness
diminis and he begins to behae in a socialised and trust-worth# wa# so he
can begin agair strie for a constructie and meaning relationship with others
!. Tendenc# towards &elf-+ctualisation: /ogers iew was that
i. )eople hae specific needs, moties and inner urges for fulfilment
ii.The# hae the capacit# to meet these needs
iii. The# actiel# interact with their enironment and tend to moe in the
direction growth, ad=ustment, improed socialisation, self-realisation and
autonom#.
i. The wa# the# seek to meet these needs enhances their self esteem rather
than diminishes it.
.The capacit# and tendenc# to full# actualise oneself are released under
proper conditions
2n the client centred Theor#, /ogers simpl# attempts to specif# the conditions
that are conducie this freeing process to occur
Two ma=or emphasis of the client centred Theor# are:
1.(n the Bere and ,ow
F 2n ''T the counsellor does not need an# knowledge of the client4s histor#
or difficulties.
F @hat has happened in his past and which might hae resulted in his present
difficulties is n important to the counsellor. @hat is important is the question
of how the client is feelii now.
F Thus for instance, if a client4s problem is a feeling of hatred for a sister,
how the hatred deeloped is not an issue. The issue is how the client feels
now and how those feelings are affecting her behaiour now.
F ''T makes clients focus on present feelings b# e9pressing them erball#
F The theor# re=ects diagnosis because diagnosis implies that one indiidual
can place another indiidual into a categor# and decide what is right or wrong
for that indiidual4
F -iagnosis is re=ected also because it denies the uniqueness of indiiduals
and places them into categories. 2n ''T onl# the clients can in accurac# feel,
know or diagnose his internal frame of reference.
F To /ogers, people cannot be categorised *ach person is unique and has a
unique potential and resources for self-diagnosis.
2 (n the *motional /ather than 2ntellectual *lements in the /elationship
F 2n the ''T, pure knowledge is secondar# because intellectuall#, the client
ma# know what the problem is, but being an emotional being, this knowledge
alone ma# not help to change his behaiour.
F Therefore, the counsellor attempts to help the client to simpl# focus on his
feelings ab himself, about others or about eents
F The counsellor often reflects and gies feedback to client. The e9pectation is
that the cliei will now see things and his own self more ob=ectiel# and begin
to change his undesirab4 behaiour.
The )rocess
1. The client is allowed to freel# e9press his feelings-erball# and non-
erball#.
2. 'lient4s e9pressed feelings hae reference to self rather than non-self.
3. Bis e9pressed feelings are reflected back b# the counsellor until he begins
to see his problems in a new light.
!. 2ncreasingl#, client becomes aware of the inter-relationship been
himself others and enironment in a more ob=ectie wa#.
$. Be finall# e9periences a full awareness of feelings that were preiousl#
denied or were distorted.
%. Be now is able to re-organise his concept of self with his new feelings.
8. +s reorganisation of self continues, there is now congruence between
himself and his enironment.
2mportant conditions for the Therapeutic )rocess
F The counsellor must be a er# patient listener. +n e9pert listener in a fact.
F Be must full# accept each client in an atmosphere of unconditional positie
regard.
F Bis =ob is to help the client deelop insight, find self-understanding.
F A# helping his client to reflect on his feelings, deelop insight and self-
understanding into his problems, the client deelops new goals and new
modes of behaiour.
So)e P&o.e)! +it, t,e A11&oa',
1. The emphasis on the affectie, emotional and feeling aspects of behaiour
and the complete lack of consideration for intellectual, cognitie and rational-
factors is a problem for man# counsellors.
2. The counsellor is e9pected to be completel# neutral. Be is like a mere
reflector who clarifies and throws back to the client the thoughts and feelings
of the client. This is e9tremel# difficult because eer#one does hae his or her
own alues.
3. The use of information from ps#chological tests and inentories 5as in Trait
and 0actor Theor#7 is completel# absent
!. )ractice is not effectie with counsellors who hae difficult# in
communicating. 2t requires much skill as client ma# withdraw if the
counsellor entirel# does listening and onl# gie feedback.
2 THE RATIONAL E#OTIVE THERAPY ?A.e&t Ei!6 1=437
2ntroduction
This theor# was propounded b# +lbert *llis The theor# has been ariousl#
described as 'ognitie theor#, cognitie behaiour theor#, directie
counselling and rational emotie behaiour theor#.
Arief Bistor# of +lbert *llis
*llis was born in 1613 and grew up in ,ew Iork Be was hospitalised nine
times as a child. +t age !; he deeloped diabetes, but igorousl# took care of
his health and stubbornl# refusing to make himself miserable about it. Be
lied an energetic life. +t age four he run awa# from home and took care of
his #ounger brother and sister because his parents had neglected them. Bis
mother neer isited him at the hospital, but he neer allowed that to worr#
him 2n 163!, he graduated from the 'it# 'ollege of ,ew Iork with a A.+. in
Ausiness +dministration.
The /ational *motie Theor# is a cognitie behaioural approach. 2t
emphasises logical reasoning and cognitie-processes. +ccording to *llis, the
known ps#che is intricatel# intertwined with thoughts and feelings. 2n what is
known as his +-A- ' theor#, he sa#s that people come to therap# because of
someZ disturbing consequence 5'7.which is attributed to an actiating eent
5+7. To the client, it is as if + 13$ the direct cause of '. *llis maintains
howeer, that there is reall# no causal relationship between + [ and '.
)eople, he sa#s are not disturbed b# eents themseles, but b# the beliefs 5A7
the# hold about t those eents. /*T
F &tresses thinking, =udging, deciding and doing,
F )laces little emphasis on feeling and emotions.
Eiew of Buman ,ature
*llis points out that:
F +ll human think, feel and act and the emotions, reasoning 5thinking7 and
feeling all part ofol one4s ps#che.
F (ur thoughts affect our behaiours and create feelings
F (ur emotions affect thoughts and actions.
F (ur actions affect our thoughts and feelings
F 'ontinued self-erbalisation of irrational thoughts lead to continued states of
emotional ia disturbance because our thinking affects motions.
*llis states further that:
F *er# indiidual can behae uniquel# rationall# or irrationall#.
F /ational behaiour brings peace and happiness
2rrational or illogical thinking brings ps#chological disturbances.
2rrational thinking is acquired through one4s parents and culture
&ituations or eents do not create an9iet# 2t is the indiidual4s perception of a
situation that causes an9iet#.
)eople hae capacit# to identif#, challenge, and change their self-defeating
tendencies b# reindoctrinating themseles.
,egatie thoughts can be changed b# reorganising one4s thinkin
The goal of counselling is to help identif# illogical or irrational thoughts and
to replace such thoughts with logical or rational thoughts.
Me# 'oncepts
1. *motions and emotional disturbances are rooted in one4s thinking or
thoughts.
2. &ome emotions are appropriate and others are inappropriate
3. +ppropriate emotions include =o#, loe, pleasure, displeasure, sorrow,
regret and frustration.
!. The# are appropriate because the# help people to get more of what the#
want and in their lies.
$. 2nappropriate emotions include rage, mania, depression, self-pit# and
feelings of inferiorit# and worthlessness.
*332& identified 11 >a=or 2llogical Thoughts:-
1.*er# one should loe, appreciate and approe of me.
This is irrational because it is an unattainable goal 2t is impossible to be loed
b# eer#bod#.
&triing for this leads to self defeat.
2. 2 should be completel# perfect and completel# competent or adequate in all
aspects of life..
2rrational because it is impossible. 2t leads to an inferiorit# comple9 and
unhealth# competition rather than an en=o#ment of life.
3. &ome people are bad, wicked and should be blamed and punished
2rrational *llis sa#s, because there is no absolute standard of right and wrong
*er#bod# makes mistakes.
Alame and punishment do not necessaril# lead to less stupidit# or a better
emotional state.
)unishment rather tends to bring worse behaiour and greater emotional
disturbances.
!. 2t is catastrophicD if things do not go the wa# #ou want them to go.
2n life things don4t alwa#s go the wa# one wants them to go.
&ome frustration is normal and should not be seen to be catastrophic.
To hae seere and prolonged upset oer such things is illogical. 2t onl#
worsens the situation rather than improes it.
2f #ou can4t change a situation, the sensible or most logical thing to do is to
=ust accept it.
$. .nhappiness comes from eents, which are be#ond one4s power to control.
>ost eents are onl# ps#chologicall# harmful onl# if we let them harm us b#
our own attitudes and reactions.
2f somebod# is unkind to #ou, it will onl# disturb #ou if #ou dwell on it. Aeing
told #ou4re stupid does not make #ou stupid.
%. 2f something is dangerous or harmful #ou need to be constantl# worried
about it.
2rrational- because worr#ing or thinking will not change an# situation, it ma#
rather worsen it
8. 2t is better to run awa# from difficulties than face them.
2rrational- because running awa# does not sole problems. 2t is alwa#s better
to face and sole problems.
C. )eople need to be dependent on and hae others who are stronger to lean
on
(nl# to an e9tent, because ma9imised dependenc# onl# means loss of one4s
independence and self- e9pression plus a failure to learn, insecurit# and
greater dependence.
2t puts #ou at the merc# of those #ou depend on.
6. )ast eents determine #our present behaiour which #ou cannot change
The past ma# influence the present but it does not necessaril# determine it.
This is =ust an e9cuse for non-acceptance of responsibilit# to change or
improe oneself.
&uch change ma# be difficult but it is alwa#s possible.
1;. (ne should be concerned, worried and upset b# other4s problems
.suall#, other people4s problems are none of #our business.
*en if the# are, worr# alone is not constructie. 2t rather makes #ou less able
to help
11. There is alwa#s a perfect answer to eer# problem.
&earching for perfect solutions onl# increase an9iet#.
There is no perfect solution to an# problem
)eople are neer satisfied an# wa#.
/*T 'ounsellors:
1. +re actie diretie. The# do a lot of talking and e9plaining especiall# in the
earl# stages.
2. 'onfront clients earl# so as not to waste time.
3. Take a igorous approach in getting the client to straighten their thinking
earl# and re-ducate themseles.
!. +re persistent and repetitie in their effort to eliminate the irrational
thoughts that underlie the client4s emotional disturbances.
$. +ppeal to the client4s reasoning powers and not their emotions4 The# ma#
use books, tapes, films and direct teaching to bring about change.
%. +re didactic, philosophical and logical in their approach.
8. >a# use humour and een shame as a wa# of confronting client4s irrational
thinking.
'ounsellor4s /ole
/*T 'ounsellors
1. Belp the clients to discriminate between appropriate and inappropriate
feelings or emotions, and thoughts.
2. &how clients how their irrational thinking is the source of their
inappropriate feelings and emotional disturbances.
3. Belp clients to straighten out their irrational thinking and replace them with
appropriate ones.
*llis belieed that counsellors should not waste time in counselling. The#
must show respect for the client in a clearl# e9pressie wa# but the# must still
go on and show the client his irrational thought and help him b# re-educating
him. The# sometimes need to unmask the past.
/*T 'ounsellor use a lot of cognitie homework. This ma# be in the form of
new behaiours for the client to tr# out. 0ears are confronted with logic and
reason and persuasion and there is deindoctrination and indoctrination.
0or discussion:
1. @hat are the ke# differences between the approach to counselling and the
/*T approachK
2. @hat are some potential dangers in the practice of an /*T counsellorK
3. -*'2&2(, >+M2,1 TB*(/I 2ntroduction
+t an# point in time, students are confronted with man# important
alternaties and decisions. These decisions ma# be on educational, moral,
ocation il or personal-social issues, and the choices the# wake ma# hae
great impact on their future lies.
This makes equipping them with decision-making skills a er# important
aspect of the counsellor s
1ibson and >itchel 516C%7 refer to good decision-making as an integral part
of health# personal functioning.
*ffectie counsellors, do not aim merel# at soling their clients4 problems.
The# rather aim at helping clients acquire the necessar# skills that will enable
them to sole their own problems.
&tewart, @inborn, :ohnson, Aurkes and *ngelkes 5168C7 suggest a 8-&tep
decision making model that can be adopted b# school counsellors in teaching
students how to make decisions. The steps are as follows:
&tep 1. 2dentif# the )roblemD
2n tr#ing to identif# the problem, the following questions could be asked:
@hat isHappears to be the problemK
@hen, where, how often and how does the problem occurK
@hat preents a solutionK
-iscussion
&uggest 3 possible problems 3 students in :B& or &2 2& might face
&tudent .............................................................................................
&tudent ...................................................................................................
&tudent ....................................................................................................
&tep 2: 2dentif# the Ealues and 1oals of the client
@hat are the client4s specific aluesK
@hat motiates himHher to desire a change in behaiourK
@hat specific behaiour changes does heHshe desireK
The counsellor should not presume to know this. Be must find out from the
client.
2dentif#ing client goals is important because when the# are known, the final
solution will be consistent< with
&tep 3: 2dentif# +lternaties
+ssist the client to formulate seeral possible altei naties.
0or -iscussion
&uggest some alternaties to 'lient +4s problem.
&tep !: *9amine +lternaties
This inoles weighing the relatie adantages and disadantages of each
alternatie.
Bere, much factual information is required, such as on the client4s ocational
interest, his aptitude, personalit# and his leel of intelligence.
2nformation from books, newspapers, brochures and consultations or
interiews with e9perts or institutions and work place officials might also be
required.
0or -iscussion: @hat issues could be brought up for e9amination in 'lient +4s
caseK
2n e9amining the alternaties, the counsellor helps the client to pa# particular
attention to the utilit# and probabilit# factors.
The utilit# of, an alternatie refers to the likelihood of success of each
alternatie. The probabilit# factor also has to do with the risks inoled in a
particular eent.
2n 'lient +4s situation the chances of her being able to complete &B& or
uniersit# if she marries, and how happ# she would be are releant. Bere the
counsellor4s skill and e9perience must be wisel# used 2 to inform the client
and discuss the likel# short and long term consequences of each alternatie.
0or -iscussion:
0or 'lients + and A, some probabilit# consideration might be:
&te) $. &elect (ne +lternatie >ake a Tentatie -ecision.
+fter e9amining the alternaties, the 'ounsellor assists the client to prioriti?e
them, and select the one with the highest utilit# and probabilit# factors.
0or 'lient +, this might be:
&tep %: Take +ction on -ecision
This inoles searching for further information if one is unsure of step $. 2f
howeer the client is confident of his decision 5step$7, then he is encouraged
to implement it.
&tep 8: *aluate (utcomes
The counsellor remains aailable to assess the effectieness of the selected
option and to discuss an# problems that ma# arise from &tep %. Be ma#
simpl# gie encouragement to the client, if all seems to 2 be going well or he
ma# need to assist with the ne9t best option if the selected option presents
serious7 difficulties.
'(,'3.&2(,:
&ince the aim is to teach the client to make decisions the, counsellor must be
careful to allow the client himself or herself to select the best alternatie. The
counsellor must ,(T choose for the client, onl# acts as a guide. 2t is the
client who makes the selection or choice. The client must be allowed be er#
actie and do most of the 4work4 inoled at each stage of the process. 0inall#,
the counsellor must take care to e9pose the arious steps in the decision
making process to the client. This helps thef client to learn the process of
making.
UNIT VII
COUNSELLING SCILLS AND STAGES IN THE COUNSELLING
PROCESS
The 'ounselling )rocess
'ounselling is a process or a sequence of eents that are determined b# the
interaction of the personalit# ariables of both counsellor and counsellee.
*ach brings into the session their e9perience attitudes, alues, assumptions,
beliefs and likes and dislikes that hae been acquired from birth. 2n
counselling, the personalit# of the counsellor is of great importance if the
interaction is to be successful.
'ounselling is also a time-oriented process that has different stages or steps.
The counselling process refers to the sequence of steps that take place and the
counsellee oer a period of time 5 usuall# between $; and %; minutes7.@hat
actuall# takes place in a session depends on the client4s needs and the
counsellor4s personal approach to counselling. V1ibson and >itchel 516C%7
identif# these as:
1. /elationship establishment
2. )roblem identification and e9ploration
3.)lanning for problem soling and
!.&olution application and termination
'ourmier \ Backne# 516637 suggest a $-stage process:
1. /elationship building
2. +ssessment and diagnosis
3. 0ormulation of counselling goals
!. 2nterention and problem soling
$. Termination
%. /esearch and ealuation
+ t#pical counselling session ma# include all the % stages e9cept the
termination. 1enerall# the earlier stages inole using the counselling
interiew to rela9 the client and build rapport. 2n the middle stages both
parties look at the nature of the client4s problems and mutuall# formulate
goals to be achieed as well as the procedures b# which the# ma# be
achieed. 2n the final stages, the counsellor rounds off the interiew and
ealuate the e9tent to which the encounter has been successful.
0or -iscussion: @ho bears the greater responsibilit# for the success of
counselling -the counsellor or the clientK @h#K
@hat do #ou think would constitute three ma=or counselling aims during the
first stages o= counselling444
@hat strategies would #ou use to achiee these aimsK
&T+1* (,*: /*3+T2(,&B2) A.23-2,1 5TB* 2,2T2+3 &T+1*7
The counselling relationship is the heart of the counselling process because it
supplies the italit# and support necessar# for counselling to work 5,#stul,
16637. Motoick and Trace# 5166;7 state that establishing rapport or a
facilitatie relationship with the client in the first stage of counselling is a
critical factor associated with successful outcomes in counselling. &e9ton and
@histon 5166!7 also note that the establishment of a good relationship is the
single most important factor that has the most significant impact on successful
client outcomes.
There are two important aspects of relationship building: counsellor offered
conditions and counsellor and client- offered conditions.
'ounsellor (ffered 'onditions
These relate to how the counsellor influences the counselling process
primaril# through the use of what are known as the core conditions of
effectie counselling.
'ore 'onditions
/ogers 516$87 identified these to be emphatic understanding, unconditional
positie regard, and congruence: Be suggested that these counsellor-offered
conditions were the onl# necessar# and sufficient factors required for
constructie personalit# change to occur.'arkuff 516%6, 16817 e9panded the
core conditions to include respect, immediac#, confrontation, concreteness
and self-disclosure.
1. *mpath#
This t#picall# refers to the abilit# to put oneself into another4s shoes, to
understand the clienfs situation from the client4s perspectie or internal frame
of reference. 2t inoles the abilit# to sense and understand the e9act feelings
of the client at an# particular time as well as the abilit# to communicate these
to the client.
*mpath# is the most important core conditions as far as promoting positie
outcomes in counselling *ghan 5166!7 describes empathic understanding, as a
process that inoles, listening, understanding and communicating that
understanding to the client. /askin and /ogers 5166$7 suggest that empath#
inoles entering into and e9periencing the clients4 world, and looking with
fresh and unfrightened e#es at the elements of which the indiidual is fearful.
2t is being sensitie moment b# moment to the changing felt meanings which
flow from this other person and communicating #our sensing to the client.
/askin and /ogers 5166$7 describe this as a actie immediate-and ongoing
process in which the counsellor becomes aware of the client4s feeling
e9periences those feelings and creates a mirror through which the client can
e9plore and discoer deeper meanings associated with his or here feelings.
The counsellor communicates empath# to the client and the client feels a
sense of caring and understanding from the counsellor.
2ssues for discussion:
@hat are the implications of /askin and /ogers 5166$7 4s iews of empath#K
@hat would #ou sa# are the three most important elements of empath#K
@hat is the difference between empath# and s#mpath#, if an#K
*9ercise
.sing the rating scale below, rate the following counsellor responses
depending on whether the# indicate:
Eer# good empathic response !
1ood empathic response 3
>oderatel# good empathic response 2
&lightl# good empathic response 1
,o empath# at all ;
@oman to counsellor: 2 can4t make up m# mind whether to get a diorce or
not... there are so man# things to consider ... +lso,... 24m scared to be on m#
own ...
'ounsellor +: @ell... how long hae #ou been marriedK +re there an# children
inoledK
'ounsellor A: Iou are undecided about diorce since there are so man#
angles to think about including #our fears of being alone.
'ounsellor ': Iou are too frightened to get diorced at the moment,
2. .nconditional )ositie /egard
This is sometimes referred to as non-possessie warmth or acceptance. 2t
describes the counsellor communicating to clients that the# are of worth and
alue as indiiduals despite an# imperfections the# ma# hae. This does not
mean that the counsellor reacts permissiel# and accepts all of the client4s
behaiours. 2t means, instead that the counsellor accepts the client but is still
able to set limits on his 5client4s7 undesirable behaiours.
2ssues for discussion:
Bow would #ou demonstrate unconditional positie regard to a clientK
&uggest at least three situations under which this attribute would be especiall#
releantK
3. 'ongruence
'ongruence means being trul# oneself in relationship with others. This is
when a counsellor behaes in a wa# that is consistent with how he thinks and
feels. /ogers 516%17 e9plains that it is the abilit# o1 the counsellor to be
himself rather than to himself. This condition is also referred to a genuineness.
Tan )arrott 516687 e9plain that it refers to a health# state of unison between
one4s total organismic e9perience and a self-concept that is free to conditions
of worth. + counsellor who sa#s O42 am so glad to see #ou<, to a client who
turns up for an appointment when in actual fact he does not like the client is
not functioning congruentl#.
2ssues for discussion.
&tate with reasons whether #ou think a counsellor must alwa#s or must not
alwa#s communicate his, feelings to a clientK 2. @hen will it be appropriate
Hinappropriate for counsellor to communicate feelings to a clientK
2mplications: &ome counsellor disclosures ma# be damaging to client or to
counselling relationship
1enuineness implies counsellor transparenc# and authenticit#. 2t inoles O2
statements which ma# be confronting in nature. Boweer, statements
cone#ing genuineness should be such that the# inite discussion from the
client. 'onsider the e9amples below:
'ounsellor +: Mate, Mofi seems to be sa#ing ... 2 also think ... @hat are #our
iewsK
'ounsellor A: +ma, it seems to me that #ou ... +m i rightK
,ote: 'ounsellor congruenc# does not mean full self disclosure and that
whateer the counsellor does sa#, she sa#s it honestl# and genuinel#.
!. 'oncreteness
'oncreteness or speetfieit#, is when the counsellor helps clients to discuss
their concerns in cle specific and straight-forward terms. 2t is important
because clients sometimes feel oerwhelmed b# their problems and hae
difficult# putting things into perspectie. @hen this happens, the counsellor
uses concreteness to create focus for the client in the counselling process The
aim is to help the client to be able to identit# clearl#, the nature of her
problem5s7.
*9ample:
>other about son. 2 don4t know what his problem reall# is he leaes his socks
and shoes in the sitting room. Be comes home late at night and does not care
that 2 cannot sleep before he gets in ...
'ounsellor: @ell, it seems to me that #our son is simpl# thoughtless.
2ssues for discussion
Three adantages of concreteness are
@h# do #ou think respect is important in counsellingK
&T+1* T@(: +&&*&&>*,T +,- -2+1,(&2& 5)/(A3*>
2-*,T202'+T2(,7
This stage corresponds to -elane# and *isenberg 5168274s )roblem
2dentification stage. Bere, the counsellor e9plores the client4s concerns to help
him get an in-depth understanding of the client4s real worries. The counsellor
seeks to determine whether the stated problem is actuall# the onl# problem.
Eer# often, more comple9 underl#ing problems ma# be uncoered at this
stage.
The client at this stage-assumes more responsibilit#. Bis willingness to
communicate the actual nature is criticalK 2t determines to<a large <e9tent the
t#pe of goals that will be set and the nature of the counsellor4s assistance.
'ounsellors ma# use standardi?ed or non-standardi?ed methods at this stage.
,on-standardi?ed methods t#picall# inole the use of interiewing. 1ood
questioning skills are important here. *mbarrassing, threatening or
challenging questions must be aoided. &tandardi?ed methods inole the use
of ps#chological tests
2ssue for discussion:
&uggest giing reasons, two questions that would not be appropriate in a
gien counselling situation
&T+1* TB/**: 0(/>.3+T2(, (0 '(.,&*332,1 1(+3&
(nce the client4s problem has been understood, and the client sees the need
for change, then a plan of action must be deeloped to address the issue5s7.
'ounsellor and counsellee must mutuall# formulate goals that are releant to
the client4s problem. The# must also be specific, achieable, realistic and
measurable. -#er and Eriend 516887 describe an effectiel# structured goal as
one that the client fulli understands and can clearl# restate.
>utuall# formulated goals ma# be difficult to arrie at and ma# take time to
formulate.Techniques such as repetition, mild confrontation, interpretation,
information giing and encouragement should be applied. The temptation to
simpl# tell the client what to do must be aoided at all costs.
1oal formulation in counselling seres three functions: the# are motiational,
educational and ealuatie. 'lients work harder on goals the# help to create.
'oncrete achieable goals help clients to focus their energ# on specific
issues.
&econd, as the# are helped to set goals, the# can learn new skills and
behaiours that will enhance their functioning in the future. 0or e9ample, with
a counselling goal of becoming more assertie, a client can learn
assertieness skills that will enhance his functioning in ordinar# and difficult
interpersonal situations.
Their, clear goals allow both counsellor and client an opportunit# to ealuate
progress. The# also sere as a means of counsellor accountabilit#. The# ma#
be difficult to formulate, ma# take time, but still important.
2ssues for discussion.
&uggest 3 counselling outcome goals that satisf# the conditions discussed
aboe
&T+1* 0(./: 2,T*/E*,T2(, +,- )/(A3*> &(3E2,1
5&(3.T2(, +))32'+T2(,
(nce the counsellor and client hae formulated a counselling goal, the# can
decide what interention strateg# would be best to achiee that goal. 2t ma#
be best to begin with indiidual counselling and then moe on to group,
couples, or famil# counselling.
This stage basicall# inoles assisting the client to:
F 2dentif# possible solutions to the problem
F )ro=ect the consequences of each solution
F )rioritise these consequences and
F &elect those that will best suit the client and bring about the desired
changes.
2t is e9pected that the client will select the alternatie that possesses the
highest utilit# factor and has the highest probabilit# of success. The
counsellor4s chosen approach ma# be chent-centered /ational *motie,
Aehaioural or other depending on his inclination.
2f counselling has been effectie, prioritisation ensures that if the selected
option fails, the ne9t best option can be selected. The counsellor remains in
close contact with client as he implements the selected option and gies
support and encouragement.
&T+1* 02E*: T*/>2,+T2(, +,- 0(33(@-.)
The responsibilit# for terminating a counselling relationship is primaril# the
counsellor4s. Termination usuall# inoles:
F + discussion and summar# of the issues discussed in counselling
F + reiew of the decisions and actions taken
F + discussion of the client4s future
F 'losure of the counsellor-client relationship
2n this process, clients are helped to reiew what the# hae learned from
counselling and identif# how the# will appl# that knowledge to enhance their
lies. 'losure is important for both clients and counsellors. 2t affords them the
opportunit# to process their feelings regarding the counselling relationship.
Terminating a counselling relationship should be done with an 4open-door
polic#4 so that in the eent that the selected option5s7 fail, the client will feel
free to return for additional assistance. The ultimate goal in counselling,
howeer, is for the client to become independent of the counsellor. This is
possible onl# if the counselling relationship is consciousl# used to equip the
client with permanent problem-soling and decision-making skills. This is
more likel# to be the case if the clientls participation in the entire process has
been actie.
'ounsellors must arrange with clients to hae a brief follow-up session. 2n
follow-up, the client is gien praise and encouragement for his successes. 2f
there are still difficulties, their sources are identified and the# are further
discussed.
2ssues for discussion:
'ould a client terminate the counselling processK @h#K @h# notK
UNIT VIII
COUNSELLING TECHNI5UES
2ntroduction
'ounselling is a unique profession. 2t is unique because its prime purpose of
helping is not restricted to the four walls of a professional counsellor4s office.
'arkuff 516C37 point out that helping occurs wheneer there is a constructie
interaction between people. &uch interactions, he sa#s, alwa#s result in
improing the helpee4s or client4s abilit# to cope better and more
independentl# with life. This, after all is the ultimate aim of an# counsellor.
*ffectie helpers are agents of growth. The# should also be models for the
growth of those the# seekl to help. The effects of our interactions with those
we seek to help depend on the leel of helping skills] or techniques we use in
the helping process. These techniques or skills or strategies constitute thef
focus of this unit.
@hat are 'ounselling TechniquesK
'ounselling techniques are the enabling skills that counsellors use to arrie at
desired outcomes] in their interactions with clients. @ithout them, a client4s
problem could become worse. @hen, 2 howeer, helpers use the right skills,
the# readil# lead their clients to desired outcomes. 2n otherl words, wheneer
a helping relationship ends up for better or for worse depends er# much on
the helper4s effectie use of appropriate of skills in the helping relationship.
*ffectie counselln practice is nighl# dependent on the skills and techniques
of the helper.
This is important because sometimes clients e9perience difficult# during
counselling. 2n +frica for instance, #oung people are e9pected to be 5totall#7
submissie to authorit#. +s children, we were not encouraged to e9press our
feelings and man# still lack the e9perience of haing an adult to reall# listen
to them. &tudents ma# therefore react with suspicion or resistance to a teacher
who is a counsellor. Aecause of this, we require action oriented approaches to
facilitate counselling.
Though we can learn b# reading, writing and talking a bout counselling, if we
are to become competent counsellors, we hae to learn b# doing. @e need to
deelop our skills in practical groups prior to being gien responsibilit# for
our own clients - whether as professionals or para professionals. +s people
who counsel, it is important for us to learn how to listen so #oung people will
talk and how to talk wso the# will listen.
This unit aims at proiding a down to earth presentation of some practical
counselling 5helping7 skills. 2t will be followed b# practicum sessions. 2t
adopts the iewpoint that practical counselling and helping skills are not
restricted to the use of onl# professional counsellors and ps#chologists.
Eoluntar# counsellors and other groups of informal helpers all oer the world
can effectiel# use them. (ur initial focus will be on non-erbal skills.
,(,-E*/A+3 &M233&
+cceptance
+cceptance is the attitude of recogni?ing the alue of peop=e. There are two
forms of acceptance: &elf-acceptance and acceptance of others.
&elf-acceptance:
+ person who has a high regard for herself has self-acceptance &uch an
indiidual does not look down on herself. &he regards herself positiel#. Ber
attitude, when challenged with a task, is that she can perform and succeed.
&he sees herself as being liked, capable, wanted and accepted b# others.
(n the other hand, the person who does not hae self-acceptance tends to feel
quite the opposite. &he feels incapable when facing challenges: she is
insecure and an9ious, and she tends to think of failing instead of succeeding.
&elf-acceptance is needed for positie ps#chological growth. *ffectie helpers
need to hae self acceptance. 2t is a prerequisite for acceptance of others.
+cceptance of others:
This refers to the attitude of recogni?ing the alue, dignit# and worth of other
people. @hen a person has regard and respect for others, regardless of their
gender, colour, religious belief or ethnic background she is said to be
accepting. +ccepting others helps them see #ou as safe and rewarding to talk
to.
@hen people accept others, the#:
F &how actions that communicate their warmth and liking.
F Aehae in wa#s which show the# care - such as making themseles
aailable to help and actuall# supporting or helping others.
F +re prepared to spend time with people who need them.
F +re patient with people.
)ersons who do not accept others
F -o not pa# attention to others. The# listen inappropriatel#.
F 0ail to see from the person4s internal frame of reference.
F +ssume the# know the wa# a person is feeling and tell the person what is in
his mind. 5The# think for people7.
F 3ack understanding for others.
F +re cold and re=ecting. The# lack warmth and liking. The#:
- +re indifferent to know what others sa#,
- +re insensitie to the feelings and needs of others,
- /ush others or are impatient with them.
0or discussion @h# do #ou think it is important for clients to see counsellors
as sage and rewarding
Bow would #ou communicate acceptance 5non erbal7 to a clientK
The 2mportance of:
i. &elf-+cceptance
&elf-acceptance makes the helper to hae high self-esteem and self-
confidence. @hen helpers feel adequate the# are able to perform and achiee.
2t enables them accept challenges and deal with them adequatel#.
ii. +cceptance of 'lients
@hen clients are accepted, the#:
F -eelop positie feelings that replace their feelings of sadness, frustration,
and re=ection
F Aecome more open more transparent and rela9ed.
F 1row to hae liking for the helper, which is good because it improes the
helping relationship
F The# feel more secure and freer to talk about their problems.
2 +ttending and &howing /eceptieness
(nl# through actie attending the counsellor can reall# understand all that
clients communicates.
+s we begin to think about attending, we could ask ourseles:
F Bow do #ou know when someone is reall# interested in #ouK
+ttending is effectiel# communicating #our attention to another so that the
receier sees clearl# th #ou are a rewarding and safe person to talk to. There
are seeral wa#s we can e9press attendin, behaiour and present ourseles as
reall# safe and rewarding people to the people we seek to he 0our of these are
presented below:
a. +ailabilit#
+ll of us are bus# people. )erhaps man# of us are genuinel# oerworked. @e
simpl# do not hae tin for eer#one Iet, howeer bus# our schedules, there
are some da#s or some hours of some da#s t we can, indeed we should make
ourseles aailable to our clients. @e need to clearl# commumc our
aailabilit# to our helpees - not =ust on notice boards but b# our behaiours as
well
.nfortunatel#, we sometimes cone# contrar# messages, and create distance
rather than aailabilil#. 0or e9ample when we quickl# drop our e#es a split
second before a student 5or colleague7 sa#s <1ood morning<, when we were
er# conscious that his or her hand was in the earl# stages of being raised to
form a salute +gain, when we pretend to be more engrossed in conersation
or some other actiit# with another person than we are actuall# are, we
clearl# create distance. The informal messages we cone# about our
aailabilit# must back the formal ones we present on notice boards to our
students and clients.
b. /ela9ed Aod# )osture
+ naturall# rela9ed and comfortable bod# posture cone#s openness, interest
and approachabilit#. &itting stiffl# or tensel# ma# communicate to #our client
that #ou are so bus# with #our office work or some other business that #ou
not amused b# her decision to come to talk to #ou. The other
e9tremeslumping or slouching cone#s lack of interest.
c. 1ood *#e 'ontact
This means looking towards #our client4s direction so that the possibilit# of
#our e#es meeting is reasonabl# high. 2n using this technique we must be
careful to aoid two unhelpful e9tremes:
i. &taring unflinchingl#. This can be threatening to and ma# make #our client
feel dominated, or nerous, and
ii. 3ooking at eer#thing in the room e9cept #our client. This ma# cone#
boredom to #our client.
d. )h#sical (penness
This inoles good e#e contact and means facing #our client with both #our
face and #our bod# or at a slight angle to him or her. >aintaining such a
position enables #ou to receie all #our client4s facial and bod# messages and
ice grsa. 0or clients who are er# nerous, it ma# be better to sit at < a
slight angle. +lso, a slight forward lean cone#s #our interest and
inolement. (ccasional head nods signif# that #ou are listening and are
interested - but sitting or standing totall# sidewa#s to the one talking to #ou is
another wa# of sa#ing: <Iou are not m# centre of attraction<. /esponding
with #our arms folded communicates a barrier.
CONTINUATION #ESSAGES
)eople sometimes need encouragement or some 4human4 response from their
helpers so the# can continue talking. 'ontinuation messages are brief helper
responses that sa#: <2 am with #ou. )lease go on.< The# ma# be non-erbal -
such as responsie facial e9pressions, head nods, good e#e contact and
appropriate bod# posture and orientation.
Eerbal continuation messages might include the following:
4)lease continue4, 42 see4, 41o on4
Then< Tell me more4, 4/eall#4
4&o...4, (.M.4
VER$AL SCILLS
Int&o0"'tion
.nit ! of this course addressed the use of the non-erbal skills of acceptance,
attending and showing receptieness in the form of aailabilit#, appropriate
bod# posture, good e#e contact and ph#sical openness. 2t also addressed
continuation messages.
This unit discusses nine selected, practical erbal counselling skills4
F 3istening,
F Luestioning,
F /eassuring, encouraging and supporting
F 'larif#ing,
F /eflecting,
F 'onfronting,
F &ilent listening,
F )ersuasie initation and
F >otiating the inoluntar# client.
The important assumption underl#ing this and the preceding unit is that these
skills are not =ust used b# professional counsellors. The# ma# be successfull#
used b# oluntar# counsellors and man# other helpers such as teachers,
doctors, nurses, social workers and priest. The# ma# een be successfull# =
used b# informal helpers in their arious roles of spouses, parents and friends.
1( LISTENING
3istening constitutes the core of effectie counselling. 2t is the process of
tuning in carefull# to the client4s message and responding accuratel#.
3istening is different from hearing. 2n hearing the helper takes in the in-
coming sounds without making an# effort to make meaning of those sounds. 2t
usuall# requires no effort whatsoeer. @e hear all t#pes of sounds all the time
but we do not attend to them. @ith listening we attend to the meaning of the
sounds we hear. @e interpret them to bring out their message or meaning.
2n counselling, when we listen, we should respond accuratel# to the client4s
messages. This shows we are reall# listening. @e respond to the content and
feelings of the client. 3istening howeer inoles not onl# hearing words from
the client4s internal frame of reference, it means being sensitie to the tone of
his ocal e9pressions an obsering bod# moements and the conte9t in which
the# are made
I)1o&tan'e of i!tenin/
3istening is important, een crucial m the helping process because it
F 'reates rapport
2t creates or promotes in the client the assurance of being understood. This is
fundamental to the success of an# helping relationship.
D He1! 'ient! to o1en "1
>an# of us are familiar with the feelings that accompan# parental and other
forms of re=ection. 1ood listening helps sh#, sensitie clients to feel safe,
accepted and understood so that the# want to share more of their world with
#ou. 2t communicates to clients that it is (M to acknowledge, and e9press
their feelings.
D C&eate! a /oo0 <no+e0/e .a!e
@hen helpers listen well, most clients co-operate in proiding releant and
important information about themseles and their situation that ma# be crucial
in leading to the interentions required to resole their problem5s7.
D C&eate! a /oo0 inf"en'e .a!e
3istening accuratel# puts #ou in a better position to influence #our client. 2t
helps #our client to see #ou as competent and trustworth# and een attractie.
9( 5UESTIONING
This is basic in the counselling interiew. Belpers use questions to seek
information from their clients. This skill is used more in the earl# stages of the
counselling session. Three e9amples of wa#s m which questions ma# be
asked are:
(pen ended questions
'losed questions
>ultiple-choice questions
i( O1en en0e0 A"e!tion! encourage free e9pression. The# are best used in
the earlier stages of counselling.
*9amples: <Bow is all this affecting #ouK<
<Bow did that make #ou feelK<
ii. 'losed questions - require the client to speak briefl#. ,ormall# the# are
used when the client is required to gie some specific or factual information.
*9amples: <Bow man# times did that happenK<
<@hen did the accident occurK<
<@hat was in the letter the Bead of -epartment wrote to #ouK<
iii. >ultiple-choice questions indicate seeral possible correct alternaties for
the client to select from
E8a)1e!. <-o #ou think that #our son4s attitude to #ou has changed because
of #our new wife, or could it be that #ou no longer spend as much time with
him, or could it be bothK<
-id the *busuapa#in himself decide to hae nothing to do with the funeral or
was he acting on someone else4s suggestionsK<
There are howeer a few things we need to be careful about when using
questions in counselling.
So)e e&&o&! to A-oi0
i. -o not ask too man# questions otherwise it make the session look like a
police interrogation.
ii. -o not time #our questions poorl#. This ma# onl# make the client4s pain
worse. Thus if, for instance a client is feeling er# emotional about some
issue, do not ask4 <@ere #ou not to blame for what happenedK<
in. +oid asking leading questions - which put the answer into the client4s
mouth and leae him with no choice. -o not ask: <Iou did find me helpful
didn4t #ouK<
i. +oid asking a succession of closed questions. 'losed questions usuall#
gie onl# two options: Ies or ,o. &uch questions cut short the clients
responses.
E8a)1e:
F -o #ou like #our co-tenantK
F -o #ou go to church togetherK
F @as she with #ou that nightK
F +re #ou older than #our wifeK
'losed questions tend to create frequent silences that put great pressure on
the counsellor to ask more questions. Thus, instead of asking: <-o #ou like
co-tenantK< ask, <@hat do #ou feel about #our co-tenantK<
. +oid asking questions accusingl#, threateningl# or suspiciousl#. &uch
questions ma# increase the client4s feelings of an9iet#, nerousness, shame or
pain. 2t would be inappropriate for e9ample to ask to a client who is alread#
feeling ashamed or embarrassed either of the questions below:
F <Iou were the cause of that whole mess, weren4t #ouK<
F <-o #ou now reali?e that #ou are a simple thiefK<
Belpers are more effectie when the# ask non-threatening questions such as:
F <-on4t #ou think he behaed that wa# because of what #ou said to his
motherK<
F <@ould #ou agree with me that #ou took something that was not #ours
without permissionK<
3( REASSURING6 ENCOURAGING AND SUPPORTING SCILLS
These are skills that help to motiate clients to hae hope of achieing the
goals or outcomes e9pected from counselling The# help reduce their feelings
of an9iet# or sorrow or fear.
/eassuring skills increase the client4s hopes that hisHher problems shall be
resoled. &tatements like: #our problem is a difficult one but 2 am sure we can
work our a wa# to get things =ust want to assure #ou that 2 will stand b# #our
side until eer#thing calms down<, use of reassuring skills. The# e9pel doubts
the client ma# hae about oercoming the problem.
En'o"&a/in/ !<i! - when the client needs to be motiated to go ahead and
pursue her goals, encouraging skills =ean be used. These are in the form of
statements that build up the client4s selfconfidence and assure her that she has
the abilities required to achiee some specific goals. +n e9ample could be: <2f
:ones +dofo with all his disabilities could rise to be in charge of such a big
department 2 see noreason wh# #ou cant do the same
S"11o&tin/ !<i!. Bere the helper gies emotional support or assistance to
reduce the client4s tension, or sorrow. 0or e9ample to a client grieing oer a
lost one ,#ou could sa#: <2t4s (M to cr#<, or <There doesnt seem to be
an#thing more painful than the pain of losing a loed one. 1od understands
the wa# #ou feel.2 undersatand as well.
T,e!e !<i! a&e a11&o1&iate fo& 'ient! +,o:
5a7 +re grieing oer the loss of a loed one.
5b7 Bae difficult tasks to oercome.
5c7 +re terminall# ill.
5d7 Bae low self-esteem
5e7 Bae their personalit# damaged - perhaps b# some public embarrassment.
4( CLARIFYING* SEECING CLARIFICATION
(ne great obstacle to effectie communication is our tendenc# to think we
know what somebod# is sa#ing and what the# een intend to sa#, when in
truth, we hae the wrong end of the stick. &eeking clarification means &laking
an educated guess about #our client4s message for the client to confirm or
den# #our question. 2t is a wa# of making sure that the client4s message has
been well understood.
'ounsellors use this skill to clear an# confusion about unclear client
responses. This requires the helper to simpl# ask the client what he meant
when he said so and so. &he could also =ust repeat what she thought was said
and asks if she got the client right. The point is: -o not assume #ou know. 2f
there is a doubt,check it out. +ppropriate helper responses include: <-o #ou
mean that...K< <+re #ou sa#ing ...K< <)lease go oer that againK<
@e need to be careful that we do not oeruse this skill otherwise we
indirectl# tell the client that we were reall# not listening.
Ca&if2in/ i! ,e1f" .e'a"!e:
2nites greater interaction between counsellor and client
ii. *ncourages the client to state more clearl# what is in his mind
iii. Belps pinpoint client4s problem, and
i. 0acilitates the finding of an appropriate solution to the clients problem
1( REFLECTION
)eople are naturall# forgetful. &ometimes we forget what we want to
remember, such as where we placed our bunch of ke#s. (ther times we forget
what we don4t want to remember such as when we are narrating a painful or
embarrassing e9perience in which we said and did things we ought not to
hae. The latter instance inoles selectie inattention which could be
e9plained as a desire to forget something unpleasant.
@e need to remember that human nature is cunning. (ur memories alwa#s
function quite well in recalling other peoples irritating behaiours - not our
own. 2t is natural to be selectiel# inattentie to what we do wrong and to
remain unaware of our real feelings and moties. This is wh# reflection is
such an important technique.
2t seres as a mirror and reflects back to the client the feeling statements or
behaiours he has communicated to #ou.2t helps uncoer problems and
issues that our selectie memor# s#stem tends to ignore. 2n reflection, the
idea is to help uncoer issues that the client ma# be neglecting to see
)roblems can be soled onl# after the# hae been seen and acknowledged.
+ good reflection howeer does not mean mechanicall# repeating what the
client has =ust said, otherwise the counsellors merel# turns into a parrot] 2t is
best to slightl# rephrase the message #ou beliee #our client gae to bring out
what #ou belieed was the intended meaning. The following e9amples should
help:-
Refe'tion Of* Re!1on0in/ To Content
@e respond first to the obious part of the helpees4 e9pressions - the content.
@e respond to content in order to clarif# the critical ingredients of the
helpees4 e9periences. Baing an accurate content data base enables us to
establish our responsie base in helping: responding to feeling and meaning.
+gain the responsie base enables us to personali?e understanding and
initiates action 'arkhuff 5QQQQ7 suggests that in responding to content,
counsellors must address issues in the clients
narratie that relate to: who, what, wh#, when, where and how. Thus for
e9ample, the helper tries to establish the following:
F @ho and what are inoledK
F @hat did the# doK
F @h# and how did the# do itK
F @hen and where did the# do itK
F Bow well did the# do itK
+ good response rephrases the helpees4 e9pressions in a fresh wa#. 2t does not
simpl# the helpees4 own words. + good format for responding to content is:
<Iou4re sa#ing <
<2n other words
There are two basic wa#s we can organi?e the helpees4 e9pressions of
content. 0irst we can organi?e the e9pressions chronologicall#. The following
is a good for responding chronologicall# to content
<Iou are sa#ing that what happened to #ou is ccccccccc followed b#
ccccccccc
and finall#
3
rd
eent
Thus for e9ample, we ma# respond chronologicall# to a distraught college
student in the following manner:
<Iou are sa#ing that #ou had a quarrel with #our girl friend and then with
#our parents and finall# #ou failed #our final e9ams<
<Then #ou failed #our e9ams<
3
rd
eent
<Then #ou had a fight with #our parents<
2
nd
eent
<Iou are sa#ing #ou had a quarrel with #our girl friend<
1
st
eent
The second basic wa# organi?ing the helpees4s e9pressions inoles
responding to the content in terms of its importance. This means organi?ing
the content from the most important to the least important e9pressions. The
following is a good format for responding to importance:
Iou are sa#ing cccc followed b# cccc and finall# cccc
most important moderatel# important least important
0or e9ample, we ma# respond in the following wa# with an addicted person
as follows:
<Iou are sa#ing that #ou hae a drug problem, and it has an impact upon #our
famil# and #our =ob as well<.
<2t also has an impact upon #our =ob<.
3east important
<2t has an impact upon #our famil#<.

>oderatel# important
<Iou are sa#ing that #ou hae a drug problem
>ost important
/esponding to content facilitates the helpees4 e9ploration of an# <gaps< in his
statement of h problem. 2f an# of the interrogatie questions are unanswered,
we ma# probe them to get a more complete picture of the helpees4
e9periences. The presence of all of these essential ingredients will enable us
later to diagnose the clients4 precise needs in an# one or more of these areas.
Re!1on0in/ To Feein/
:ust as we show our empath# for the clients b# responding to the content of
his e9pressions, we ma# also show our understanding of his e9periences b#
responding to the feelings which he e9presses /esponding to content actuall#
prepares us to respond to feelings underl#ing the client4s e9pressions.
/esponding to feelings is a critical single skill in helping because it reflects
the helpees4 affectie e9perience of themseles relatie to their world.
Belpees ma# e9press erball# and directl# those feelings which dominate
them or else the# ma# onl indirectl# through their tone of oice or b#
describing the situation in which the# find themsele.@hether the helpees
e9pressions are direct or indirect, our goal as helpers will be to e9plicitl#
show the helpee our leel of understanding of his feelings. This will gie him
the chance to check out our effectieness as helpers. 2t will also gie us a
chance to check our own seles out.
To respond to the helpees feelings, we must do seeral things. 0irst as we
hae learned, we must obsere their behaiours. 2n particular we must pa#
attention to posture and facial e9pressions. These r. . will tell us a great deal
about how the client e9periences himself. Their tones of oice and facial[
e9pressions will be aluable clues to his inner feelings.
&econd, we must listen carefull# to the words used. Third, we must
summari?e what we hae seen and, heard that indicate the helpee4s feelings.
0ourth, we could ask ourseles the question <2f 2 was the i helpee and 2 were
doing and sa#ing these things, how would 2 feelK<
2n answering this question, #ou can first identif# the general feeling categor#
5happ#, angr#, sad,== surprised, scared, distressed, relieed or calm7 and the
intensit# of the feeling 5high, medium, low7 Then select a feeling word or
phrase that fits the feeling area and leel of intensit#. 0inall#, check out the
felling e9pression with #our obseration to see if it is appropriate for the
helpee inoled. 0or e9ample, it would not be appropriate to use the word
<morose< to capture the feeling of gloom of a helpee with a class si9 pupil.
,ow we can tr# to understand the feelings e9pressed b# our helpee. @e
summari?e the clues to the . helpee4s feelings and then answer the question.
<Bow would 2 feel if 2 were in his shoes and sa#ing these thingsK<
E8a)1e:
<Things are not going so good for me. ,ot in school. ,ot with m# parents. 2
=ust seem to be floundering. 2 fake it eer#da# but inside 24m reall# not m#self
because 24m not sure of what to door where 2 want to go.< The main cue to the
helpees4 feelings is that he sa#s he is not himself. 2f we were in his position,
we might er# well feel sad and confused.
0or discussion: Bow would #ou feel if:
Iou had an interiew to attend at er# short noticeK
Iou were wrongl# accused of something #ou did not do8
Iou were warned of something #ou failed to do in front of #our subordinatesK
Iou missed #our flight because of a traffic hamK
'ounsellors must respond to clients in all fullness in their moments of
sadness, happiness and anger The# reflect how the# feel and if we do not
respond to our helpees in their fullness, the implications are clear if we cannot
find them, we lose them 2f we loose them, the# cannot find themseles.
There are man# unique feelings words that could be used to capture and
respond to feelings e9perience. @e ma# practice formulating at least 1;
feeling words each for the feeling states of sadness, happiness and anger.
Fo& 0i!'"!!ion
a7 -etermine what kinds of client e9pressions might call for using the words
&ad, Bapp# or +ngr# -
b7 &uggest similar words that could describe a client who is feeling an# of
these emotions. &ad Bapp# +ngr#
@e ma# also respond to non-erbal behaiour. Aelow is an e9ample:
'lient: Iou see 24m afraid to go to his office because 2 can4t meet his demands.
'ounsellor: Iou4re sa#ing ... but it seems to amuse #ou. @hat makes it funn#K
'lient: 2t4s not funn# ... it can4t be funn#.
'ounsellor Aut #ou smiled ..
'lient *i] . 2 see ... ma#be this is wh# he thinks 2 en=o# his adances. 2t
seems 2 smile when am nerous .
,ote how the counsellor4s reflection of the client4s non-erbal behaiour
enables the client to as it were see a reflection of her behaiour in a mirror.
CONFRONTING
This refers to a.-[deliberate +ttempt to help another person to e9amine the
consequences of some aspect5s7 of his behaiour that he would rather aoid.
'arkuff and Aereson 5168%7 suggest that confrontation is an act rather than a
reaction. The# note that it is initiated b# the 5helper7 based on his ...
understanding of the client. 2t brings the client into more direct contact with
himself, his strengths and resources as well as his destructie behaiour. The
purpose of this is to reduce the ambiguities and incongruities in the client4s
e9perience and communication. 'onfronting is necessar# because sometimes
a client ma# not be aware that his behaiour or the consequences of that
behaiour could lead him into some trouble. (r else, he ma# be aware of his
behaiour but not of the consequences of that behaiour.
@hen a counsellor draws his client4s attention to either that behaiour or the
consequences of such behaiour, he is confronting that indiidual.
'onfronting is a sensitie technique because it usuall# inoles addressing
issues that the client would rather not want to be addressed. &ometimes
confronting is described as <telling it a it is<. @ith this skill, immediate helper
responses are er# important. @e shall consider
'ase 1: @ith a client who is inconsistent in what he sa#s, a helper ma# sa#: 4+
few moments ago #ou said +, now #ou are sa#ing A. @hich of these
represents the real situationK4
'ase 2: @ith a client who consciousl# or unconsciousl# wishes to aoid an
issues, such as when he complainingl# narrates how the best worker or
student was selected, the helper ma# sa#: 42t seems to me that #ou are feeling
that the pri?e should hae come to #ou4.
'ase 3: @here there is a discrepanc# between erbal, ocal and bod#
messages, a counsellor ma# sa# 4#ou are fidgeting and sweating. Iou seem to
be er# worried and #et #ou sa# #our problem is quite simple4.
'onfrontation in such instances helps the client to become aware of his
thoughts, actions and words. This awareness should help himHher to think and
face his problems more realisticall#. +fter confronting howeer, counsellors
must take care to encourage the client rather than leae him feeling <naked<
and embarrassed.
2.SILENT OR PASSIVE LISTENING
2n ordinar# social situations silence can mean defiance, re=ection or
disapproal but helpers need to know that periods of silence in the helping
relationship is not an indication of counsellor failure4.
The idea is not to speak during all the periods of silence that sometimes occur
during the counselling encounter. The helper ma#, after a while sa#: <Iou look
er# thoughtful ... would #ou like to share #our feelings with meK (/: <Iou
are reall# deepl# affected b# ...< (/: <Iou are not sure how to go on ...< (/:
<+re #ou thinking of a better wa# of...K &uch comments will assure the client
that #ou are still with him ...
1enerall# it is the helper4s responsibilit# to =udge how much of the silence is
enough or is (M. Bow long it should be would therefore depend on #our
personal =udgement and sensitiit# to the situation +s a general rule, if it is
the client who initiates the silence, the helper must respect it. 2f the silence is
too long, howeer, the client ma# feel that the helper is either oerwhelmed or
confused or that he probabl# cannot handle the issue The client ma# also feel
unwelcome. &ilent listening can be uncomfortable - especiall# for beginning
counsellor but it is a er# useful technique.
2t has seeral clear adantages:
2t gies the client the responsibilit# to choose the ne9t topic
2t gies opportunit# to both helper and client to reflect on what has alread#
been said
2t gies opportunit# to both to think about what ne9t to sa#
2t gies opportunit# to the helper to know what the client does not want to
discuss
2t gies clients who find it difficult to put their feelings into words the chance
to e9perience some emotions that are difficult to e9press.
@e need to be careful not to use this technique to manipulate or punish
clients. 2t would be er# unkind to a client if his helper 4locks up4 and
demands that the client does the entire all the talking.
3( THE SCILL OF PERSUASIVE INITIATION
>an# students are burdened with problems but are unable to oercome their
resere and ask for help. The# ma# not go to counsellors unless the# are
inited. )ersuasie initation refers to the abilit# to use the power of
persuasie concern to draw people 5students7 #ou perceie as haing
problems to come to #ou for counselling. To successfull# use this skill #ou
need to:
Ae genuinel# sensitie to and deepl# concerned about #our students and the
struggles the# go through. This is important because people b# nature are
quick to identif# those who hae a genuine interest in them. The# are
naturall# drawn to such people.
Bae a non- threatening but firm wa# of initing such students to #our office.
Bae a conincing wa# of sharing #our concern or obseration about the
student to him or her in such a wa# that he does not become more an9ious or
defensie.
The ultimate purpose of this skill is to get the student to accept #our
obserations and agree to share his struggles with #ou.
4( #OTIVATING THE INVOLUNTARY CLIENT
2noluntar# clients are those who hae been referred to us b# some significant
other person5s7 such as a parent or lecturer. &ince the# do not seek
counselling b# their own olition, the# tend to be more defensie and
uncooperatie. These characteristics tend to hinder success of counselling.
'ounsellors need to be able to <break the ice<. 0or instance, b#
communicating to potential clients the benefits the# will derie from the
counselling relationship.
Ho+ 0oe! t,e 'o"n!eo& 0o t,i!E
The first task inoles deeloping good rapport with the client. The abilit# to
<feel the pulse< of a student4s problems and handle himHher with care will
enable the student to perceie the counsellor as a helpful, supportie and non-
threatening person.
A# being accepting, warm and non-=udgemental, the counsellor would be able
to establish a good relationship with the student. @hen such a forum is
established, the counsellor can then use persuasion to inite the client for a
discussion on hisH her problem.
*ffectie counsellors will aoid <preaching< and rather encourage the student
to communicate his real feelings on the issue at stake. + client ma# be seen to
be motiated when he begins to ask questions like:
<@ill #ou help me to oercome this problemK<
<&o ... what would be the best thing for me to doK< 'onclusion
The results of seeral studies positiel# proe that the business of helping
people need not be done b# professional counsellors onl#. 'arkhuff 516%6 and
16817 and 'arkhuff and Aereson 5168%7 hae shown clearl# that man# non-
professionals can learn to be er# effectie helpers.
This unit has made an attempt to present some to the techniques and
strategies that successful counsellors and helpers the world oer hae used
and still use toda#. (ur words and interactions with our clients can hae great
effect on their lies. 2f we hae first learnt to deal with our own fears and
hurts, we can better use these skills and respond to our clients in wa#s that
open doors to further sharing.