Batteries

M46MAE - Alternative Propulsion Systems

Ingrid Peter Travassos
21/03/13




Abstract
This journal is about batteries for electric vehicles and hybrid electric vehicles
applications. First of all, the basic concepts of batteries will be introduced. Then,
factors that influence performance and efficiency of the batteries and useful models
that help to predict it will be analysed. Advantages and disadvantages among some
types of batteries will also be studied as well as batteries practical aspects such as
battery charging and safety. Finally, environmental considerations related with battery
manufacturing and recycling will be made.

Keywords: batteries, battery performance, advantages and disadvantages, safety, CO
2

considerations.






Contents
1.0 Introduction ...................................................................................................................... 1
2.0 Factors that influence performance and efficiency and their equations.......................... 2
2.1 Electrochemical battery models.......................................................................................... 3
2.2 Equivalent circuit battery models ....................................................................................... 6
2.3 Temperature influence ........................................................................................................ 7
2.4 Other influences .................................................................................................................. 8
3.0 Advantages and Disadvantages ............................................................................................. 10
3.1 Hybrid Systems .................................................................................................................. 10
3.2 Types of Battery ................................................................................................................ 10
4.0 Practical Aspects.................................................................................................................... 15
4.1 Charging ............................................................................................................................ 15
4.2 Packaging ........................................................................................................................... 16
4.3 Safety ................................................................................................................................. 16
5.0 Well-to-wheel energy / CO
2
considerations .......................................................................... 17
6.0 Conclusion ............................................................................................................................. 18
Bibliography ................................................................................................................................ 19


1
Batteries
1.0 Introduction
Batteries convert stored chemical energy into electrical energy through chemical
reactions. A battery is composed of numerous cells. Each cell has a low voltage
between 1.5V and 4V, and they can be arranged in series or in parallel. It is possible to
produce diverse configurations of cells to provide different powers. The configuration
of the cells should be in series if a higher voltage is needed. However, if is necessary
more energy, build capacity, the cells should be configured in parallel.
The basic components of a unit cell are the positive and negative electrodes, the
separators and the electrolytes. During the discharge of the battery, electrons flow
from the negative electrode to the positive electrode. The electrolyte completes the
chemical reaction transferring ions between the electrodes. Additionally, the
electrolyte cannot be conductor of electrons to avoid battery self-discharge. The
function of the separator is separate physically the electrodes in order to do not allow
that electrons flow without an external circuit be necessary. It also has to be able of
immobilise or store the electrolyte and be permeable to ions of the electrolyte.
(Husain, 2011) (Smith, 1997)

Figure 1 Battery diagram (The encyclopedia of Science, n.d.)
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Ingrid Peter Travassos


There are two basic types of batteries: Primary and secondary. The former is a
battery that cannot be recharged and the latter is a battery that can be recharged
because the reaction inside of the battery is reversible. Then, the current can flow in
both directions. This journal is focused in batteries for automotive applications, and
more precisely batteries for electric vehicles and hybrid electric vehicles, so the battery
used is, clearly, the secondary battery.
Before describe the desirable characteristics of batteries for electric vehicles some
parameters should be defined such as open circuit voltage, discharge rate, state of
charge, depth of discharge, specific energy and specific power.
The open circuit voltage is the internal voltage of the battery when it is not
connected to any load. The current which the battery is discharged is named discharge
rate. Specific energy is the energy capacity divided by the mass of the battery.
Similarly, specific power is the power divided by the mass.
State of charge is the amount of energy available in the battery. It varies from
100%, when the battery is full charged, to 0, when the battery is discharged. The
amount of energy can also be given by the depth of discharge, which indicates how
much of the total capacity was used up certain moment. Hence, 100% depth of
discharge means that the battery is completely discharged. (Husain, 2011)
A desirable battery for electric and hybrid electric vehicles, firstly, should store in
certain volume as much energy as possible because the driver will not like to charge
the battery many times in a short period of time; be able to recharge fast, with ease
and still performing well even after many cycles of life; and do not be heavy as it will
influence the fuel consumption of the vehicle. (All about batteries, n.d.)
2.0 Factors that influence performance and efficiency and their
equations
The performance and efficiency of the battery can improve the performance of
the whole electric vehicle, reducing costs. Hence, it is important to study which factors
are responsible to affect it. They are State of charge (SOC), battery storage capacity,
rate of charge and rate of discharge, temperature and the age of the battery.
3
Batteries
There are several mathematic models that are useful to predict battery
performance, design and system simulations, but none of them are 100% accurate nor
include all the effecting factors. Therefore, the model is chosen according with what is
wanted to analyse. The electrochemical models and the equivalent circuit models
emphasize the macroscopic behaviour and because of this, they are more useful for
analyse electric and hybrid vehicles. (Zoroofi, 2008) (Husain, 2011)
2.1 Electrochemical battery models
One of the models that are used to modelling batteries performance is the
electrochemical model that is based on electrochemistry. Even though this model can
predict the stored energy of the battery, it does not consider aging and temperature
effects.
As is known capacity is the total charge that a battery can release since it is full
until it gets completely discharged. Although the capacity is expressed as Ampere-
hours, it is not just the product between the current and the discharge time of the
battery. It also depends on the load that is applied on the battery. As the load
increases, the capacity decreases. In other words, if the battery is subjected to a high
load, the complete discharge will be faster than if the battery was subjected to a lower
load. However, if after certain period of time the load is reduced, the battery will now
take more time to discharge completely than it was predicted before. It happens
because the higher load dragged down the voltage due to the internal resistance of the
battery and the polarization of the electrolyte in the battery. It is reversed, though,
when the load is reduced.
In order to express the relationship between the available capacity and the rate of
discharge of the battery the Peukerts relation is used and it is normally modelled as:

(1)
Where C is the capacity for a constant current I, T is the time required to
discharge the battery completely and n is the Peukert number, which is dimensionless
and is associated with the internal resistance. When the current is low, Peukert
number approaches 1. However, for higher currents this number tends to 2. (Hiesey,
2011) (Husain, 2011)
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There is another Peukert equation that relates two different combinations of
current and capacity as is shown below. The subscripts 1 and 2 represent the different
conditions.
(

)
()
(2)
Using this equation, the state of charge can be defined. At a constant current the
state of charge is:

()

(3)
However, if the current is not constant this formula above should be modified,
considering two different situations. One combination of current and capacity, and the
current in the moment should be known in order to apply the Peukert equation to
discover the capacity for this second situation. After that, these parameters can be
applied in the equation below to find out the incremental SOC.

)
()
(4)
However, most of the batteries that will be used in hybrid vehicles utilize the
Shepherd model equation in combination with the Peukert equation. That equation
describes the electrochemical behaviour of the batteries as function of voltage and
current.
( ) (5)
Where E
t
is the battery terminal voltage, E
0
is the open circuit voltage when the
battery is full charged, R
i
is the internal resistance, K
i
is the polarization resistance, I is
the current instantaneously and q is the accumulated capacity divided by the capacity
of the battery when its full charged. Once the voltage is obtained, the state of charge
can also be found using the Peukert equation. (Zoroofi, 2008)
Additionally, for electric vehicles applications it is not recommended to use the
battery total window of charge. In other words, the 100% state of charge and 100%
5
Batteries
depth of discharge are avoided in order to reduce risks. Overcharge situations will be
prevented limiting the maximum state of charge, and the battery life will also be
maximized lowering the depth of discharge window. (Douglas, 2012)

Figure 2 shows the usable SOC/DOD of the battery. Modified from (Douglas, 2012)
Because of this, the Shepherd equation could be simplified by Unnewehr and
Nasar to:
(6)
For the Unnewehr universal model, the open circuit voltage is considered as:
(7)
Additionally, an equivalent internal resistance function was also defined by
Unnewehr and Nasar:
(8)
Where R
o
is the internal resistance when the battery is fully charged and K
R
is an
experimental constant. As power is equal to voltage multiplied by current, the voltage
and the current in the battery during discharge is given as follow:
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Ingrid Peter Travassos



(

(9)

(

(10)
Additionally, the maximum power is
P

(11)
2.2 Equivalent circuit battery models
Equivalent circuit battery models are other relevant way for modelling hybrid
vehicles batteries and they are based on electronic circuits. Then, the battery capacity
is modelled as a combination of circuit elements such as capacitors, resistors and
inductors. These models have accuracy between the theoretical and the
electrochemical models, but are very useful to analyse the vehicle system. Even
though there are several models using this approximation, just the basic battery model
will be studied in this journal.
The basic battery model considers a battery as can be seen in Figure 3 Basic battery
model. This model considers that the diffusion process can be approximate to a RC
circuit element. The diffusion charge has effect on the terminal voltage and can be
predicted by the first order differential equation below.
()

()

() (12)
Where the voltage dropped across R
d
C
d
parallel circuit is v
d
(t).
The terminal voltage is also affected by the state of charge, so it was
approximated to a series capacitor C
s
representing the stored charge in the battery,
which is proportional to the stored charge q
s
(t). In addition, the resistor R
sd
was added
in parallel with the storage capacitor to represent the battery self-discharge. The
equation that represents this part of the circuit is:
()

()

() (13)
7
Batteries
Finally, E
o
is the voltage source, which is the open circuit voltage, and the R

represents the resistance drop of the battery. (Husain, 2011)

Figure 3 Basic battery model (Husain, 2011)
2.3 Temperature influence
Batteries are very sensitive to extreme temperatures since chemical reactions that
occur inside of the batteries might be affected by heat variations. When the
temperature decreases, the capacity of the battery also fall because the activity of the
electrolyte molecules get lower. On the other hand, as can be seen in Figure 4, higher
voltages can be achieved when the battery is in an environment with greater
temperatures.
However, extreme high temperature can be reached quickly, causing damage in
batteries and its surroundings because of thermal losses. This is often caused during
overcharging because the cell plate surfaces are fully saturated and the current forced
into the battery is only contributing to raise the temperature plates.

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Ingrid Peter Travassos



Figure 4 shows the influence of the temperature in the cell voltage (Fasih, 2006)
There is a Peukert equation relating temperature and capacity, but it is needed
experimental data for each type of battery. Then, this is not so useful. One of the
several approximations is:
( ( )) (14)
Where Q
0.25
is the nominal capacity at 25C, Q
0
is the ajusted capacity, the
temperature coefficient of the battery and T is the temperature.
A Nickel-metal cadmium or NiCad batteries can be considered for applications
where the temperature is extreme because it is not very affected by this, but the cost
is higher. (Kemp, 2007) (Fasih, 2006)
2.4 Other influences
For all of the batteries technologies there is a relationship between battery life
and depth of discharge. In general, if the battery achieves always 100% depth of
discharge, the number of cycles remaining will be much lower than if the same battery
is cycled to only 25% depth of discharge. A graph of this relationship for a typical lead-
acid battery can be seen below. (Kemp, 2007)
9
Batteries

Figure 5 shows the battery life dependence on the depth of discharge for a lead-acid battery (Kemp, 2007)
Ageing also affects batteries performance and it has two outcomes: impedance
growth and capacity loss. In addition, the main cause of the effect in performance by
aging is the corrosion.

Figure 6 shows the effect of aging in the battery life (Battery and Energy Technologies)
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Ingrid Peter Travassos


3.0 Advantages and Disadvantages
Each technology has its vantages and disadvantages. Analyses can be made in
distinct points of views and it will be made in this journal in two different aspects. First,
the advantages and disadvantages of batteries for hybrid propulsion systems will be
analysed. Secondly, a comparison among different types of batteries will be made.
3.1 Hybrid Systems
For hybrid systems, batteries are attractive because they are a well-developed
technology; there is a considerable experience in their use although researchers are
always attempt to improve this technology. For example, researchers are trying to
enhance battery specific power and specific energy in order to use smaller batteries in
the vehicles, hence improving their efficiency. Because of the large experience in
batteries usage, it is also known that it is generally safe.
On the other hand, battery tends to have a restricted cycle life mainly if it is
subjected to deep discharges continually. Batteries have also lower specific power than
internal combustion engines. Because the specific power is one of the factors that
determine the size of the battery, it will be necessary bigger packs of batteries which
will increase the weight of the vehicle. (Barnard, 2002)
3.2 Types of Battery
The batteries chemistries utilized for electric vehicles normally are Lead-acid
batteries, Soldium Nickel Chloride (Zebra) batteries, Nickel metal hybrid cell (NiMH)
and Lithium-ion batteries.
The lead-acid battery has on its positive electrode lead dioxide, metallic lead on
the negative electrode and between these electrodes is used sulphuric acid. (Smith,
1997) This kind of battery is the most common type for automotive applications
because it is relatively cheap, safe, reliable, its raw materials (lead and sulphur) do not
have problems of availability, it has electromechanical characteristics that are
favourable and manufacturing is easy. However for electric vehicles and hybrid electric
vehicles, which require a high specific power, lead-acid battery has some
inconveniences such as low specific energy, do not perform well in low temperature
and it has short cycle life. (Husain, 2011)
11
Batteries
Sodium Nickel chloride batteries are known as ZEBRA batteries and they are
considered a good option for electric vehicles. They are potentially inexpensive (it has
the lowest cost among the modern electric vehicles battery technologies), safe and
have a high energy density, which is between 3 and 4 times more than Lead-acid and
between 2 and 3 times more than nickel metal hybrid. Zebra also do not need
maintenance, do not self-discharge, is resistant to overcharge and over discharge, has
rapid recharge and a high cycle life and its performance is not affected by the ambient
temperature even in cold weather. For its operation, ZEBRA batteries utilises just plain
salt and ceramics. These materials are environmentally friendly, available and cheap.
(Lefley, 2012) (Research, 2005) (T. M. OSullivan, 2006)
On the other hand, Zebra is a high temperature technology. It is the main
disadvantage of this battery because the internal operating temperature always has to
be between 270C and 350 C in order to it works efficiently. When the vehicle is in
normal usage, the internal resistive losses are able to maintain the battery at this
range of temperature. However, when it is not, after few hours an internal heater have
to be powered by the mains or by the battery itself to maintain the temperature. This
will result in about 90W per day of thermal loss when the battery is not in usage, but
losses will be lower in normal use. If the battery will not be used in a greater period of
time, the heater can be turned off. The battery will then solidify and it will be
necessary between 12 and 15 hours to heat up it again. This is not a problem for public
transports because it will works continually, minimising the energy losses. For private
motorists, the cost would not be high comparing to the extra cost of technologies such
as Lithium-ion and Nickel metal hybrid. (Research, 2005)
Nickel metal hybrid batteries are electrically very similar to Nickel cadmium
batteries, but they were developed because Nickel cadmium does not have properties
to be consider for electric and hybrid electric vehicles. Nickel metal hybrid batteries
are safe, their components are not toxic, do not require maintenance, have specific
energy higher than Nickel cadmium and they have a much longer cycle of life than
Lead-acid batteries. However, that type of battery is very sensitive to temperature,
once it has poor charge acceptance capability at high temperature. Hence, it needs a
temperature control. Another drawback is the cost that can be between 5 and 10
times higher than Lead-acid because nickel is expensive and scarce. It also has an
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Ingrid Peter Travassos


elevated self-discharge rate and moderate memory effect, which is the loss of the
capacity to store energy after the battery being repeatedly recharged. (Husain, 2011)
(Barnard, 2002)
Lithium-ion battery has the high energy density as its main advantage.
Comparing with lead-acid batteries, lithium-ion batteries have the ability to charge
faster and they can store the same amount of energy in 1 kilogram that 6 kilograms of
lead-acid batteries can store. They also can support high number of charge and
discharge cycles; are lightweight; do not suffer from memory effects as some other
batteries; they need low maintenance; and they present low self-discharge. It is also
important to consider that they cause less impact to the environment than others that
contain heavy metals such as cadmium and mercury. (Husain, 2011) (Global, 2012)
On the other hand, the cost of lithium-ion batteries are high, once they are
expensive to manufacture, although it can be minimised with high volume production;
and they are subject to aging even if not in use, but it can be reduced if keep the
battery in a cool place and at 40% stage of charge. Safety is also a concern for lithium-
ion batteries once they are very sensitive to overcharging, overheating and over
discharge. When overcharging occurs, the charged positive electrode might start to
react with the electrolyte and it can cause electrolyte venting, fire, smoke or even
explosion. A similar situation occurs when overheating happens, but in this case is the
negative electrode which has the possibility to react with the electrolyte. Both of these
situations can be prevent with a battery protection circuitry, which open a switch to
release the pressure in the battery, but the battery is destroyed if it opens. Finally,
over discharge also should be avoided because it causes loss in capacity. Hence, the
design of these batteries has to be done carefully in order to prevent undesirable
situations such as irreversible damages and explosions. (Lefley, 2012)
Even though the Lithium-ion batteries are not a completely mature technology
and still in development, they have been proving desirable better properties than the
otters, so some specific types of that battery will also be analysed. They are Lithium
Nickel Cobalt Aluminum (NCA), Lithium manganese Spinel (LMO), Lithium Nickel
Manganese Cobalt (NMC), Lithium Titanate (LTO) and Lithium Iron Phosphate (LFP).
13
Batteries
Lithium Nickel Cobalt Aluminum (NCA) batteries are attractive for automotive
applications because they have high specific power, high specific energy as well as long
life cycles. However, their safety is poor and they have high cost.
Lithium manganese Spinel (LMO) batteries have a three dimensional spinel
architecture, which is responsible by reduce the internal resistance, enhance the
current handling, provides an increase in thermal stability as well as in the safety of the
battery. All of this happens because the ion flow on the electrode is improved by the
spinel architecture. Additionally, fast discharge and high current discharge are also
advantages of this kind of batteries because of the low internal resistance. However,
the calendar and cycle life of these batteries are restricted. Some improvements were
made in newer designs in order to Lithium manganese batteries have a higher specific
power, life span and safety.
Lithium Nickel Manganese Cobalt (NMC) batteries are able to be designed to
have high specific energy or high specific power, but just one of this properties will be
achieved. For example, if the manufacturer wants high specific energy, he will only be
able to achieve a moderate specific power and vice versa. Combining nickel and
manganese end up with the best properties of each of them: the high specific voltage
of the nickel and the ability to achieve a very low internal resistance of the manganese.
The way that manufacturers combine the compositions of each component is a secret,
but the combination of one-third of each component (nickel, manganese and cobalt)
reduces the cost because it will drop the amount of cobalt. This sort batteries is the
most preferred to be used in electric vehicles because it has a good overall
performance and a very high specific energy.
Lithium Titanate (LTO) batteries are fast charged, have high discharge rate, they
are safe and, at low temperatures, they have excellent discharge characteristics.
Comparing with other lithium ion batteries, lithium titanate also has bigger cycle life.
However its specific energy needs to be improved.
Lithium Iron Phosphate (LFP) batteries have a great electrochemical
performance with small resistance, are very safe and they can support high discharge
rate. In addition, these batteries have a good thermal stability, high number of life
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Ingrid Peter Travassos


cycles. On the other hand, their specific energy is moderate. At low temperatures,
these batteries have their performance reduced while elevated temperatures reduce
their service life. Also, comparing with other lithium ion batteries, the lithium iron
phosphate has a higher self-discharge. (Buchmann, Battery University, 2013)
Finally, a summary of the properties of each type of Lithium-ion battery can be
seen below.

Figure 7 compares the main properties of some Lithium ion batteries

15
Batteries
4.0 Practical Aspects
Some practical aspects of the batteries such as charging, packaging and safety
will be considered in this journal.
4.1 Charging
Nowadays, there is not enough recharging stations around the cities, so most
drivers still have to charge their vehicles at home. The charging time depends on the
size of the battery pack as well as the voltage of the charger. In general, 120 volts is the
voltage that is provided to the houses. However, it can take more than 20 hours to
electric vehicles complete their charging process. Hence, it is interesting for owners
install a 240-volt home charger in order to have a faster full charge of their vehicles.
The cost of charging the battery pack will depend on the location and if the
vehicle is being charged during peak times. Electric vehicles are, then, usually charged
during the night. As the moment that charger is disconnected influences the battery
life is also preferable charge the vehicle during the night because the chance of
interrupt the process is minimised. Additionally, the charge system monitors the
battery temperature, avoiding damage to the batteries. (Brain, 2008) (Reed, 2011)
When the owner is going to drive a longer distance, switch the battery in a
battery exchange station is also possible and it takes the same time as fill a gas tank.
(HALPERIN, 2012)
Additionally, an inductive charging system can be developed in the future. This
sort system permits electric vehicles being charged as they are running. It does not
need to connect or expose the vehicle since the batteries are charged wirelessly. The
system contains two inductive coils: one in the vehicle and another in the road. When
the coils are close to each other, it generates a low power electrical field, which
permits exchange electricity between them. The coils only will stop to share electricity
once both of them have the same amount of power. Even though this process of
charging is very convenient, electrically safe and needs low maintenance, it is also very
expensive to manufacture, has low efficiency and it is a complex circuitry. (Tosunoglu,
2012)
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Ingrid Peter Travassos


4.2 Packaging
The battery is kept safe inside of what is named battery packaging. The
battery packaging makes stable the performance of the battery. While some battery
packaging has a cooling system, which maintains the battery pack in its operation
temperature, some do not have one. In order to choose the correct battery packaging
some criteria such as cost, weight, maintenance and available space should be
considered. (YUSSOF, 2009)
Additionally, the battery pack for an electric vehicle has to be able of deliver
between 25 and 40KWh and it weights between 600 and 700 pounds. A hybrid electric
vehicle needs to deliver ten times less energy than the electric vehicle. (Buchmann,
Battery University, 2013) (Network, 2012)
4.3 Safety
Inside of the batteries there are corrosive and toxic chemical components and,
in general, batteries have a good resistance to contain them. However, it may be
possible the escape of any of them from the battery if some kind of mishandling that
violate its integrity occur, for example. It can cause accidents such as personal injuries
or equipment damage.
In addition, the reactions inside the battery occur constantly, even if it is not in
use, because it is chemically unstable. The difference is only the velocity of the
chemical reaction, which is very slow when the battery is not working. Hence,
conditions that might accelerate those reactions have to be avoided since it can
provoke batteries ruptures or explosions.
In order to guarantee safety, some tests are made in the battery before it can
be used. These tests have two purposes. The first one will define what is called safety
envelope, which is the group of conditions that the battery is able to operate without
hazards. The second have the aim of show how the battery will work when it is outside
of the safety envelope. The knowledge of what could happen in unfavourable
conditions help to predict which safeguards might be necessary to use in order to
decrease the damage for people and also for equipment if an accident occurs. (Bro,
1994)
17
Batteries
5.0 Well-to-wheel energy / CO2 considerations
Nowadays environmental, occupational and safety issues are constant concerns
of the population, so the impact that each product bring to the planet in small or big
scale is analysed. As batteries have a huge usage, their impacts could not be ignored.
All the batteries, rechargeable or not, have been related with this kind of issue and,
wherever is possible, primary batteries are being replaced with rechargeable ones by
most environment organizations.
Emissions released during the production of the electric vehicle batteries are
the cause of the biggest concerns about the battery footprint. This production needs
much more energy than the production of batteries for conventional vehicles because
the electric vehicle batteries are bigger in size. Batteries production will also require
transportation, mining and the processing of the minerals, which comparing to
conventional vehicles are an environmental drawback. For example, in order to
produce Ni-MH battery mining and production of minerals such copper, nickel are
required, which are related to SO
x
emissions. (Niedermeyer, 2010) (A. Burnham, 2006)
The assumption that the battery will need to have a replacement during the
whole life of the vehicle at least one time also should not be ignored. Depending on
the type of the battery and the manufacturer, it is assumed a different calendar life for
the battery. However, in general, for Lithium ion and Nickel metal hybrid can be
assumed that the battery would need to be replaced once during the lifetime of the
hybrid electric vehicle. (A. Burnham, 2006)
The battery constituents that cause more alarm are cadmium, lead, mercury
and their chemical compounds. Batteries recycling can allow 70% less CO
2
emissions to
the atmosphere. Hence, it is important that governments start to encourage recycling
of any sort batteries, although in some places recycling programs of large batteries
such as industrial backup and automotive batteries are already in progress. Many
challenges are still involving recycling of batteries. One is the fact that manufacturers
apparently have a reluctance to reutilise recycled components. (Kuo, 2011) (Technical
Marketing Staff of Gates Energy Products, 1992) (A. Burnham, 2006)
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Ingrid Peter Travassos


6.0 Conclusion
The battery is one of the main components of electric vehicles. Hence, analyse
its design, performance and efficiency is important in order to enhance the overall
performance of the vehicle and then, reduce costs. Additionally, electrochemical
batteries models and equivalent circuit models help engineers to predict the
performance of the battery.
Among all of the technologies of batteries studied in this journal for electric
vehicles applications, the Lithium nickel manganese cobalt batteries are the most
preferred type because it has a very high specific energy and a great overall
performance.
There are some issues about the practical aspects of the battery. Battery
charging still being one because there is not enough recharge stations around the
places where people work and it still taking a huge time to completely full charge the
battery. On the other hand, researchers are always trying to improve the storage
capacity of the batteries as well as find a technology that enable a faster and
convenient charging such as the inductive charge process. Safety of the batteries is
another issue, so people should be aware of the conditions that might cause an
accident and should be careful of how handling them.
Even though batteries generate a lot of emissions during their production, the
long-term environmental impacts of the conventional vehicles are much higher than
total emissions caused by electric or hybrid electric vehicles. In addition, batteries
recycling are possible and should be more encouraged by the governments.
In short, it is important that the owners of the electric vehicles be aware of the
factors that have influence in the batteries performance and safety. If they do not use
the batteries properly, the performance will be not as good as was expected and the
calendar life of the battery will be smaller, resulting in more costs and mire
environment impacts.

19
Batteries
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