1

LANDSLIDE ASSESSMENT, INVESTIGATION, ANALYSIS & REMEDIATION

Edgardo P. Kasilag II, MTM
1, 2

Roy Anthony C. Luna, MSCE
1, 2
Ramon D. Quebral, PhD
1, 3

AMH Philippines, Inc., Diliman, Quezon City, Philippines
2
Institute of Civil Engineering, University of the Philippines Diliman, Quezon City, Philippines
3
Mines and Geosciences Bureau, Quezon City, Philippines

Abstract: Landslides in soil slopes are emerging as among the most frequently recurring hazards in the country,
affecting major roads, habitation and various types of industrial infrastructure. When combinations of
hydrologic, geotechnical and seismic conditions are suitable, these can lead to loss of life and serious damage to
infrastructure. There is a need to understand the triggers of landslides plus the necessary assessment and analysis
of slopes, in order to determine the suitable remediation measures. This paper presents a framework for such
rational assessment, first from the vantage point of geo-hazard and risk, then the basic requirements for
investigation, analysis and remediation design.

Keywords: Landslides, Slope Failures, Landslide Mitigation, Soil and Rock Slopes, Slope Stability Analysis


1. INTRODUCTION

A study by UKs Durham University ranks the Philippines
as third in terms of casualties and cases among 41
countries identified as key spots for non-earthquake-
related landslides. Landslides or slope failures in the
country have shown capacity to obstruct or destroy roads
and other infrastructures, cause loss of life in communities,
and even pollute waterways. The Governments risk
reduction and management program, taken in the context
of public safety, has always emphasized the need to
maintain operations of essential public infrastructure for
rescue and relief missions.

This paper presents the various considerations in assessing
and investigating landslides in soil slopes and the
formulation of necessary remediation measures.

2. LANDSLIDES

A landslide may be defined as movement rock, debris or
earth down a slope, observed as material failure and driven
by gravity. Prevention or remediation landslide-prone
involve slope stability, which is determined by a body of
material remaining in equilibrium (stable) as long as the
sum of the stress on the slope does not exceed the sum of
the shear strength of the slope materials (Ritter et al.).

The Mines and Geosciences Bureau (MGB) of the PH
Department of Environment and Natural Resources
(DENR), categorizes land movements into 6 main groups:

- Creep - Slump
- Rockfall - Debris Flow
- Mudflow - Rock and Debris Slide

While the occurrence of actual slope collapse (deposition)
may be instantaneous, the mechanisms which trigger the
failures are generally present over longer periods where
there is a cyclic saturation and drying of slope that
progressively weakens the slope.

Each ground failure is unique and must be treated as such.
The key to understanding slide behavior and developing
appropriate mitigation is identifying the triggering
mechanism (USACE). The most common factors
contributing to the occurrence of landslides are (a) rainfall;
(b) earthquakes; and (c) geotechnical characteristics of the
slope. Damage caused by these factors is further
compounded by human activities which increase the risk
level on account of increased levels of vulnerability.

It is also essential to differentiate between landslides
according to the following:

Rock Slopes - whose analysis is governed by rock
mechanics, and largely impacted by the geometry of
fractures; and
Soil Slopes (this paper) - whose analysis is governed
by soil mechanics, and largely impacted by cohesion
and friction angle.


3. LANDSLIDE TRIGGERS

3.1 Rainfall

Rainfall generally results from the movement and
interaction of cold and warm air masses in a particular
period. The Southwest Monsoon or Habagat affects the
country generally from May to September and brings in
rains to the western portion of the country. Typhoons
generally come from the Philippine Sea and travel
westward, with recent typhoons observed to be traversing
a path that crosses the southern parts of the country (e.g.
Cagayan de Oro, Davao) which are unfamiliar with the
occurrence of excessive rainfall in their regions.

2


There are three rainfall-related parameters that can impact
the occurrence of landslides:

a. Rainfall Rate
b. Rainfall Duration
c. Rainfall Frequency/Return Period

Rainfall Rate, or Intensity - is defined as the depth of water
received by a unit of surface area within a period. Usually
express in mm/hr, this means that a rainfall event generates
a certain depth of water for each square meter of area.

PAGASA classifies rainfall intensity as follows:

Light - from trace to 2.5mm/hr
Moderate - from 2.5 to 7.5mm/hr
Heavy - more than 7.5mm/hr

The intensity of rainfall varies greatly at different times of
the year and at different parts of country, owing to varying
climate systems, hence it is important to have a localized
appreciation of rainfall rates in order to assess the impacts
in the stability of slopes.

Rainfall Duration - refers to the amount of time that a
rainfall event of a specified intensity falls over a given
location. Measured in minutes or hours, extended rainfall
duration negatively impacts slopes and may trigger
landslides as the threshold of the soil mass to absorb water
while retaining its shear strength is exceeded. In addition,
when no further infiltration is possible, rainfall become
runoff which then has the ability to carry soil particles
down the slope (scouring), which may further compromise
soil slope stability.

Rainfall Frequency/Return Period - which refers to the
time interval between occurrences, or the number of times
that a rainfall or precipitation event will occur or will be
exceeded at a specific location. The Return Period (which
is the inverse of the frequency) is the more usual unit of
measure (e.g. rainfall event of 1 in 10 years).

Rainfall events that occur infrequently (longer Return
Period) are generally associated with higher intensities,
hence an increase in the risks associated with landslides.
Understanding the frequencies of rainfall events is
important as the design/sizing of hydraulic structures to
help manage the associated surface or subsurface flow is
proportional to the selected period, and may have an
impact on costs and performance criteria determined by
the engineer.

The Climate Change Commission has acknowledged the
high probability of higher rainfall intensities and longer
dry periods which may further aggravate the condition of
areas susceptible to landslides.





Figure 1. Climate Map of the Philippines based on
Modified Coronas Classification (PAGASA)

3.2 Earthquakes

The Philippines is dotted with active volcanoes and lined
with faults capable of producing very strong earthquakes.
Figure 2 presents the Seismic Map of the Philippines and
clearly shows the high probability of earthquake on almost
all parts of the country.
Figure 2. Seismicity of the Philippines (USGS)
3

The magnitude of the seismic coefficient to be adopted for
a particular site or project should adequately simulate the
expected earthquake forces. The computation of peak
ground acceleration (PGA) can be a rational and site-
specific approach in establishing the seismic coefficient
for slope stability analysis.

Table 1 presents a summary of typical seismic coefficients
and factors of safety (FOS) in slope stability analysis
adopted in practice.

Table 1. Typical Seismic Coefficient

k
h
Remarks
0.10 US Corps of Engineers FOS >1.0
0.15 - 0.25 J apan FOS >1.0
0.05 - 0.15 State of California
0.15 Seed (1979) FOS >1.15
w/ 20% strength
reduction
PGA Hynes-Griffin and
Franklin (1984)
FOS >1.0
w/ 20% strength
reduction

3.3 Geologic & Geotechnical Conditions

Certain types of soil and rocks are inherently more prone
to landslide than others. Loose or soft soils, for example,
are unstable if found on slopes. Some materials are freely
draining and the build-up of porewater pressure is limited
(e.g. gravel or sands) while some absorb water (e.g. clays)
which increase the weight of the soil mass and may
compromise its ability to support its own weight.
Materials which are prone to scouring due to its intrinsic
characteristics, and coupled with the absence of scour
protection such as vegetation systems, are likewise more
likely to contribute to the occurrence of landslides.

Relevant geotechnical properties can be obtained through
soil sampling and testing. Stratification of layers,
inclination of bedding, and depth of water table are also
determined in these investigations.

In the absence of tests (which may sacrifice accuracy of
analysis and cost-effectiveness of design), there are
available correlations and back calculation procedures that
may be used to approximate the strength parameters for
these materials.

4 ASSESSMENT, INVESTIGATION AND
ANALYSIS OF SLOPE FAILURES

4.1 Assessment & Investigation

In assessing a landslide as a slope stability problem, the
following field data would be helpful in ascertaining the
mechanisms which contributed to the event:

o General Topographic Data, establishing existing
slope heights and angles, present structures such
as roadways, etc.
o Hydrologic Data, including rainfall information at
the time of the failure, presence of seepage
waterways and man-made drainage structures,
general type of land cover, etc.

o Failed Slope Information, including location
along the slope, size, limits, estimated volume of
deposited material, observable stratification,
(sizing, physical characterization of failure area)

Geotechnical parameters for analysis shall be gathered by
adopting a reasonably comprehensive geotechnical
investigation program. Tests shall be appropriate
considering site condition and probable soil type and rock
quality.

The type of analysis and appropriate remediation or
mitigating measure is determined by the triggering
mechanism.

4.2 Analysis

The classical method of analyzing slopes uses limit
equilibrium in determining stability. In this approach, it is
considered that failure is on the point of occurring along an
assumed or a known failure surface.

The shear strength required to maintain a condition of
limiting equilibrium is compared with the available shear
strength of the soil, giving the average factor of safety
(FoS), which is the index of stability, along the failure
surface.

Limit-Equilibrium (LE) methods for slope stability
analysis divide the slide mass into small slices, where each
slice is affected by a general system of forces illustrated in
Figure 3.

Figure 3. General System of Forces in L-E Method

Typical procedures used in analysis are as follows:

a. Generate critical slope sections from the local
topographic survey
b. Use the generated slope model in stability
analysis
Use of idealized subsoil profile
Apply appropriate geotechnical parameters
Impose external loads (vehicular, existing
structures)
4

c. Evaluate impact of hydrologic/rainfall
characteristics on the slope, computing probable
runoff or soil infiltration values, as appropriate.
d. Determine probable maximum pore pressure
value as a function of rainfall /soil characteristics
e. Determine probable engineering measures to be
employed
f. Determine factor of safety for various cases and
engineering measure
g. From slope stability analysis and assessment of
hydrologic impact, determine viable engineering
measure

The slope remediation plan and section are then prepared
from the optimum engineering measure. Where the failed
slopes are along roadsides or in the presence of
structures/facilities requiring protection, right-of way
(ROW) and similar constraints shall also be considered.

5 REMEDIATION AND MITIGATION

Slope failures can be mitigated by minimizing the water
permeating to the soil, by directing surface water away
from the landslide (surface drainage) or allowing water to
drain freely such that pore water pressure build up is
minimized. Stability can also be enhanced by providing a
retaining structure at the toe of the landslide, or when the
volume of soil mass is reduced (by benching or placing
berms).

One of the basic areas that must be addressed in the
development of cost-effective remediation measures is to
assess the sufficiency of the existing or proposed drainage
system. In some cases, a simple reconfiguration or
realignment of the drainage lines may be sufficient to
arrest further slope failures.

Several parameters are also deemed important in selecting
engineering measures for soil slope stabilization. Due to
the intense precipitation in the country, a flexible and
freely-draining retaining structure (e.g. MSE Wall) can be
a cost-effective solution and alternative to the conventional
(massive) concrete retaining wall, or riprap. The use of
gabion facing, particularly to mitigate scouring and erosion
is also advantageous.

Bioengineering measures, due to their low cost and
environment-friendly characteristics, may also be
employed to aid in scour protection and, in some case,
localized slope stabilization.

6 CONCLUSION

Sufficient hydrologic, geologic and geotechnical
assessment are all essential in mitigating and/or
remediating slope failures. With reliable parameters, cost-
effective measures can be formulated. A slope monitoring
and maintenance program is also imperative in ensuring
the safety of the people, facilities or infrastructure most
vulnerable to the impact of landslides, notwithstanding the
implemented stabilization measures.

REFERENCES
Abramson, L.W., Lee, T.S., Sharma, S., and Boyce, G.M.
(2002). Slope Stability and Stabilization Methods. J ohn
Wiley and Sons, Inc., New York.
American Association of State Highway and
Transportation Officials (1996). Standard Specifications
for Highway Bridges. AASHTO, Washington D.C.
Beaver, N.P., University of Wisconsin Eau Claire,
Geography 361, Spring 2004
FM 5-410 Military Soils Engineering, Department of the
Army, Washington DC
Geoscience Australia (http://www.ga.gov.au)
Highland, L., Landslide Types and Processes, USGS Fact
Sheet 2004-3072, J uly 2004
J apan International Cooperation Agency (J ICA), Guide to
Mitigation and Management of Road Slope Disasters
Kramer, S. L. (1996). Geotechnical Earthquake
Engineering. Prentice-Hall, Inc., New J ersey.
Krinitzky, E.L., Gould J .P., and Edinger P.H. (1993).
Fundamentals of Earthquake Resistant Construction.
J ohn Wiley and Sons, Inc., New York.
Mays, Larry W. (2005). Water Resources Engineering,
J ohn Wiley and Sons, Inc. New York.
Orense, R.P. (2003). Geotechnical Hazards: Nature,
Assessment and Mitigation. The University of the
Philippines (UP) Press, Quezon City.
Ritter, D.F., Kochel, R.C., and Miller, J .R., (2002),
Processes Geomorphology, New York, McGraw-Hill
Co., Inc.