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W E L L E VA L U AT I O N
CONFERENCE
Contents
Foreword
Chapter 1
Petroleum Geology of Venezuela
Chapter 2
Hydrocarbon Reservoirs of Venezuela
Chapter 3
Well Planning
Chapter 4
Data Quality and Acquisition Efficiency
Chapter 5
Evaluation of New Wells
Chapter 6
Evaluation and Monitoring of Existing Wells
Chapter 7
Production Enhancement
Chapter 8
Reservoir Description around the Well
Appendix
Units and abbreviations, Index
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ell Evaluation Conferences have been held regularly in the major oil-producing countries of the world for 25 years.
The last one to be held in Venezuela was in 1980, during the rapid accumulation of reserves following nationalization,
and soon after the introduction of computerized service units at the wellsite. Since 1980 many things have changed, both in the
needs of the oil industry and the techniques available to meet those needs. Once again in Venezuela, we are at the beginning of
a new era in exploration and production, and in the application of new value-adding technologies.
The goal of this new book is to show how technology has solved some of the exploration and development problems which
are particularly relevant to Venezuela. Our theme is Optimizing well production and reservoir understanding from well data.
The range of topics is wider than before and reflects the current focus on the integration of different services, both in application
and organization.
Within this theme we present examples of well planning and efficiency, evaluating new wells and the reservoirs around them,
and evaluating old wells and increasing their production. Many techniques are considered in terms of their efficiency, quality of
information, and economics. We have included a concise description of the geology of Venezuela and an overview of the typical
Venezuelan hydrocarbon reservoirs.
This information has been produced in three formatsa Spanish-language book, an English-language book, and on CD-ROM
in both languages. Essentially all the examples are from Venezuela, for which we must thank PDVSA, its affiliates, and the other
companies who gave permission to publish their data. We also thank the authors and contributors for their time and efforts.
We dedicate this book to the many professionals who have contributed to the successful exploitation of hydrocarbons in
Venezuela, and to the many others now arriving to pursue the challenge.
J. Yearwood
A. Nicoletti
Vice-President GeoQuest
Latin America
A. Campo
Vice-President and General Manager
South America, Mexico and the Caribbean,
Wireline & Testing
J. Qualtrough
C. Paolini
Anadrill
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Chapter 1
Petroleum Geology of Venezuela
General geology
The history of oil exploration
in Venezuela
Petroleum basins
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PETROLEUM GEOLOGY OF VENEZUELA
Figure 1.0
100,000 m
200,000 m
300,000 m
400,000 m
500,000 m
600,000 m
700,000 m
900,000
La Vela
offshore
1,300,000 m
Gulf of Venezuela
La Vela
Coro
Tiguale
W.Mara
Mara
La Paz
er
Tocu y o
YARACUY
Valencia
Riv
CARABOBO
Barquisimeto
Lama
ZULIA
o
Ca
tat u
Lake
Maracaibo
er
R iv
Yucal - Placer
San Juan
de los Morros
San Carlos
Trujillo
Motatn
El Rosario
MIRANDA
ARAGUA
Lago Ceuta
Lamar
centro Tomoraro
Ro de Oro
Tu
Los Teques
Mene Grande
Alturitas
Caracas
Maracay
LARA
Bachaquero
Urdaneta
D.F.
San Felipe
Cabimas
Ta Juana
Lagunillas
Boscn
1,100,000 m
FALCON
Las Palmas
Hombre Pintado
Media
Maracaibo
La
Mene de Maurda
Concepcin Ambrosio
Sibucara
Gu a
1.43
sa
re
Ri
1,200,000 m
er
Caribbean Sea
Cumarebo
El Mamn
Ri
v
Fig
1,000,000 m
800,000 m
Jobal
Roblecito Valle
COJEDES
48
1.
PORTUGUESA
ig
Dakoa
Guavinita
Ruiz
Beln
Palacio
fig
Barinas
48
40
Mrida
1.45
1.
Tarra
Bella Vista
Fig
36
1.
Las Cruces
Copa Macoya
Saban
Ipire
Las Mercedes
Guanare
fig
Los Manueles
Tucupido
Punzn
TRUJILLO
1.
ig
Ri
Apure River
G u
rico R ive
r
1.48
r
ve
Fig
ur
er
TACHIRA
Sinco
MACHETE
aR
i
BARINAS
GUARICO
Silvestre
at
Silvn
MERIDA
900,000 m
San Fernando
de Apure
San Cristbal
La Alquitrana
APURE
800,000 m
La Victoria
Guafita
Arauca R i ver
Ri
auca ver
Ar
BOLIVAR
Legend
Oil field
State Boundaries
Gas field
Cross Section
Condensate field
State Capitol
River
700,000 m
0
0
20
40
20
Meta River
60 80 100 120 km
40
60
80 miles
COLOMBIA
600,000 m
100,000 m
200,000 m
300,000 m
400,000 m
500,000 m
600,000 m
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700,000 m
800,000 m
900,000
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00 m
700,000 m
800,000 m
1,000,000 m
1,100,000 m
1,200,000 m
1,300,000 m
1,400,000 m
1,300,000 m
Tobago
Caribbean Sea
Dragn
Patao
Margarita Island
Mejillones
La Asuncin
Ro Caribe
N. ESPARTA
1,200,000 m
Coche
Cubagua
SUCRE
Cuman
Caracas
Barcelona
ig
Dakoa
Guavinita
Las Mercedes
Ruiz
Beln
Palacio
Copa Macoya
Saban
Ipire
Bella Vista
Un
ar
e
Riv
e
Fig
PAO
1.50
HAMACA
Ori n
River
co
v
1.50
BELT
ZUATA
Ciudad
Bolvar
Fig
Aro iv
R
er
San Fernando
de Apure
Caroni
ua
1.48
rico R ive
r
Fig
ORINOCO
MACHETE
er
G u
Piln
Morichal
aR
i
Apure River
1,000,000 m
Bitor Area
Cerro
Negro
1.45
GUARICO
DELTA
Bombal
Uracoa
Tucupita
Jobo
Barso
ig
re iv
Tig R e
Greater Temblador
area Temblador
Fig
48
1.
ive r
Punzn
8
4
1.
Tajali
Maturin
El Furrial
Carito
a ip a
Santa BrbaraG u n
es
Tucupido
al
La Ceiba
Tacat
Greater Oficina
area
Greater Anaco
area
Loran
rn
Jobal
Roblecito Valle
Jusepn
Pirital
ANZOATEGUI
1,100,000 m
de
Yucal - Placer
Quiriquire
Orocual
Manresa
Quiamare
San Juan
de los Morros
Posa
MONAGAS
Pe
MIRANDA
ARAGUA
er
Riv
Tu
Los Teques
Gulf of Paria
iv
1.5
Maracay
Trinidad
Jua
San
R
Fig
D.F.
BO
Ri
er
900,000 m
AMACURO
Reclamation
Zone
BOLIVAR
Santa Rosa
La Florida
El Roble
Casca
Carisito
Maulpa
aR
Onado
ver
00 m
900,000 m
BOLIVAR
Aguasay
San Joaqun
Casma
Cantaura
San Roque
Santa Ana
El Toco
Acema
Mata
Acema - Casma
Mapiri
Kaki
Naroo
Boca
Guere
Oscurote
Nipa
Oritupano
Guara
Leona
Chimire
Budare
Elotes
Oficina
Dacin
Lobo
Adas
Trico
Oveja
700,000 m
800,000 m
Melones
900,000 m
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PETROLEUM GEOLOGY OF VENEZUELA
Figure 1.1
68
64
60
Guajira Aruba
Peninsula
Paraguan Bonaire
Grenada
Caribbean
Sea
Peninsula
Gulf
Coro
of
Venezuela
La Tortuga
Tobago
Porlamar
nge
Paria
Maracaibo uis Ra ange
Araya
La Costa Range Cuman
C.
de
La
Costa
L
R
Trinidad
a
Caracas
Cariaco Carpano
Sanaragu
Barcelona
Valencia
B
Los Teques
Interior Range
Lake Barquisimeto
Interior Range
ipa
Maturn
Maracaibo es
uan
d Trujillo
(Central Branch) (Eastern Branch)
R. G igre
T
An
Tucupita
Rio
Guanare
n
a
el
zu
ne Mrida Barinas
e
Ciudad
Bolvar
V
o
ric
ua
o G sa
Ri
e
gu
rtu
Po
o
Ri
Apu
co
rino
San Rio O
Fernando
re
100- 250 m
0-100 m
Rio Meta
Puerto
Ayacucho
Mountain
Belts
a
an
ay if
u
s
G as
M
Foothill
Regions
Plains and
Coastal Plains
Colombia
100
0
50
200 km
Brazil
150
68
Brazil
72
1976).
Reclamation Zone
Rio Arauca
Sea
Level
3
11
Guyana
Rio
S. Cristbal
7
ic
nt n
tla a
A ce
O
Co
lom
11
bia
Pe
rij
Ra
ng
e
72
64
60
Introduction
The purpose of this chapter on the
Petroleum Geology and Basins of Venezuela
is to give the reader a general overview of
the geology of the country. Our knowledge
has been greatly enhanced by the oil
industry and mining activities that have been
ongoing for almost a century. Without
entering into a detailed analysis of the
numerous and unsolved problems with the
geology, we have integrated the information
presented in many papers and books written
on Venezuelan geology. We have tried to
attribute the original contributions of all
authors, and have also presented summations based upon our own experience. We
have avoided specialized and detailed points
of view concerning stratigraphy, sedimentology and geotectonic evolution,
instead choosing to simplify the geology
because of our diverse readership and
limited writing space. For non-specialized
readers, we include a Glossary at the end of
Physiographic provinces
There are five main physiographic
provinces in Venezuela (Fig. 1.1):
1. Mountain ranges
a.Venezuelan Andes system
b. Caribbean mountain system (Perij
Range, San Luis and Baragua Ranges, La
Costa Mountain Range)
2. Foothill regions
3. Coastal plains
4. Mainland plains
5. Guayana Province.
Rocks of a wide age range (Precambrian
through Neogene) are found in the
mountain ranges of La Costa and the Andes.
Their formation history is closely associated
with the evolution of the northern margin of
the South American plate from the Eocene to
the present. The foothill regions (9430 km2)
are covered by Neogene molassic sediments
whose main physiographic features are
terraces formed during glaciation/deglaciation processes.
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GENERAL GEOLOGY
PRECAMBRIAN
Figure 1.2
Cenozoic Orogenic
Belt
Caribbean Sea
Caribbean Frontal
Thrust
300 km
us
Santa
hm
Marta
Upper
Ist
a
Paleozoic
m
a
n
Orogenic
Pa
Belt
Caracas
Valencia
Lower Paleozoic
Orogenic
Belt
Mrida
San
Cristbal Apure Fault
Venezuela
Weste
rn Ran
ge
East
ern R
ange
Pacific Ocean
Bogot
62
Trinidad
o
pin n
Es rabe
G
Ciudad
Bolvar
ult
Fa
ira
tam
Al
Cuchivero
Imataca
Province
Province
Guayana Shield
Pastora
Province
Roraima
Province
Reclamation
Zone
78
Cuchivero
Province
Brazil
Colombia
Imataca Province
Pastora Province
Cuchivero Province
Roraima Province
Boundaries of the
Cordilleran Systems
Overthrusting
Precambrian terranes
The Venezuelan Precambrian terranes
outcrop in the main mountain ranges of the
country and in the Guayana Province.
Because of the tectonic history of the northern South American plate, both allochthonous and autochthonous Precambrian rocks
are found. Figure 1.2 shows the distribution
of these terranes; those located north of the
Orinoco River were overridden by Paleozoicage crustal fragments that were accreted, or
added, to the South American plate.
The autochthonous terranes are located
in the Guayana Province, and also form part
of the basement of the Paleozoic to Cenozoic
sedimentary basins south of the Apure Fault.
There are four provinces of Precambrian
rocks in the Guayana Province: Imataca,
Pastora, Cuchivero and Roraima (Fig. 1.2).
It has not been possible to discriminate
different provinces (with respect to age) in
the basement of the oil basins to the north of
Guayana Province; this is because there are
few wells that have reached the basement in
these basins and the available descriptive
information is scarce.
The accretion of allochthonous terranes
on the South America plate began during the
Early Paleozoic (Caledonian Orogeny: 570 to
385 Ma); part of these rocks outcrop near
Mrida and San Cristbal in western
Venezuela. Later, during the Hercinian
Orogeny (385 to 245 Ma), occurred the
suturation, or welding of the allochthonous
blocks. These included Precambrian rocks,
among which only the granitic rocks of the
Sierra Nevada in the Santa Marta Massif
(Colombia) have been dated (Fig. 1.2). The
last collision began during the Cretaceous;
this allochthon includes rocks of
Precambrian age near the city of Caracas
(Federal District) and south of Valencia
(Carabobo State).
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PETROLEUM GEOLOGY OF VENEZUELA
Distribution
Figure 1.3
78
100
62
300 km
200
Cenozoic
Orogenic Belt
Panam
Isthmus
Caribbean
Frontal Thrust
Santa
Upper Marta
Caracas
Paleozoic
Orogenic
Belt
El Bal
Early Paleozoic
Orogenic Belt
78
nge
rn R
a
Weste
rn Ra
nge
Caparo
ult
re Fa
Apu
Bogot
no
pi en
lt
Es rab Fau
G
a
ir
ta
Al
Venezuela
Reclamation
Zone
Lower
Paleozoic
Basin
Colombia
East
e
Pacific Ocean
Caribbean Sea
Guayana Shield
4
62
Guayana Shield
Boundaries of the
Cordilleran Systems
Brazil
Overthrusting
Paleozoic terranes
The rocks of Paleozoic age in Venezuela
are found in several regions, geologically
grouped as allochthonous or autochthonous
terranes of South America. The autochthonous terranes are found in the
subsurface of the Barinas-Apure and Eastern
Basins (Fig. 1.21), south of the Apure Fault
(Fig. 1.3). These rocks are typical red beds
from Gondwana (South America and Africa
before its rupture) and Laurentia (North
America and Greenland before its rupture);
they are preserved only in the deep
structural depressions of these Venezuelan
basins. The allochthonous terranes are
distinguished by the age in which they were
tectonically accreted to the north of the
South American plate; there are those
accreted during the Early Paleozoic, others
during the Late Paleozoic and the latest
during the Mesozoic.
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GENERAL GEOLOGY
PA L E O Z O I C A N D M E S O Z O I C
Figure 1.4
Age
Andes
La Costa Range
Ipire
Pueblo Nuevo
Las Brisas (Zenda)
Macuro
Seco Cojoro/COCINAS
La Quinta
Conglomerates
El Totumo
Macoita
Jurassic
La Quinta
La G
Tinacoa Volcanics
Guacamayas
?
Triassic
Mesozoic terranes
important Triassic-Jurassic
units in Venezuela.
Triassic-Jurassic
Figure 1.5
Guajira
73
63
Paraguan
12
Pe
rij
Caribbean Sea
12
Coro
Maracaibo
El Pilar Fault
Ur
Caracas
ica 4
Fa
ul
Espino
t
Graben
Trinidad
Maturn
Andes
3
8
Santander
Massif
73
Colombia
Apure-Mantecal
Graben
100
200
300 km
63
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PETROLEUM GEOLOGY OF VENEZUELA
Cretaceous
Figure 1.6
(?)
S
Chimana U
C
El Cantil
R
E
Barranqun
COGOLLO
TEMBLADOR
Through
U
Th riban
rou te
gh
Ro Negro
Machiques
Peas Altas
Aguardiente
Canoa
Guayana
Shield
200 km
Shelf Environment
Carbonates
Continental-Fluvial Environment
Sandy Clastics
Hemipelagic/Pelagic
Limestones and Shales
Sediment Supply
Direction
Figure 1.7
Perij and
Lake Maracaibo
Age
Northern Gurico
Eastern
Interior Range
La Grita (Capacho)
Albian
Aptian
Querecual(*)
(Cutacual, "Valle Grande")
Maraca
C
Aguardiente
O
G
Lisure
O Guimaros
Pich
Apn L Tib
Apn
L
Machiques
O
Ro Negro
Tib
Chimana
"Punceres"
(Exotic
Blocks)
"Gucharo"
El Cantil
"El Mapurite"
Garca
Taguarumo
"Basal Clastics"
Picuda
Barremian
Barranqun
Ro Negro
Morro Blanco
?
Macaira Limestone
?
Neocomian
Venados
"Ro Solo"
?
Carbonate Reservoir
Seal
(*)
Source Rock
Correlation chart of the most important Early Cretaceous units of Venezuela. Informal units are within quotation marks.
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GENERAL GEOLOGY
MESOZOIC
Maracaibo
Socuy
Caracas
La Luna
Mucaria
Navay
Infante
Gu
ay
ac
n
Capacho
Barcelona
Maturn
GUAYUTA
TEMBLADOR
Escandalosa
Guayana Shield
0
200 km
Igneous-Metamorphic Basement
(Guayana Craton)
Shelf Carbonates
Continental-Fluvial
Sandy Clastics
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PETROLEUM GEOLOGY OF VENEZUELA
Figure 1.9
on e
ati c
m van
r
d
fo A
?
De nt
o
Fr
Mito Juan
?
Coln
San Juan
Cujisal
?
Positive areas that include
Paleozoic and Mesozoic rocks
Ro de Oro
Burgita
Guayana
Shield
Igneous-Metamorphic
Basement
Sandy Clastics
Clay-Silt Clasts
Sedimentary Supply
Direction
Positive Areas
Shallow Marine
Carbonates
Postulated
Depocenter Axis
Thrust Front
The Guayuta Group is thickest in NorthEastern Venezuela, being more than 1 km thick
in its type area (Anzotegui State). In the
Eastern Basin, this unit changes laterally to the
south, losing its source rock character by giving
way to sedimentation from shallower
environments, from shelf to coastline and even
continental, which are defined in the
subsurface as the Canoa and Tigre Formations
(Temblador Group).
The Late Cretaceous in Venezuela ends in
the Maastrichtian, with units that are regressive
relative to the deeper environments of the
source rock.
In Perij and the Maracaibo Basin,
the La Luna Formation grades vertically to
glauconitic limestones (Socuy Member), and
dark shales with thin sandstones defined as
the Colon and Mito Juan Formations. In
the North-Andean Flank, the glauconiticphosphatic Tres Esquinas Member is present,
which is the possible diachronic equivalent of
the Socuy Member, underlying the dark shales
of the Coln Formation.
In the South-Andean Flank, the upper
contact with the source rock is gradational to
erosive with the basal sandstones of Burgita
Formation.
Figure 1.10
Perij and
Lake Maracaibo
Age
Mito Juan
Maastrichtian
Coln
North-Andean
Flank
Mito Juan
South-Andean
Flank
Coln
Burgita
Tres Esquinas
Socuy
Santonian
La Luna
Navay
Campanian
Quevedo
La Morita
Coniacian
La Luna
Guayacn / Caliza "O"
Southern Flank
Eastern Basin
Infante
G
U
A
(Mucaria, San Antonio
Y "Ro Chvez" , Querecual,
"Querecual
of the North " )
U
T
A
(Regional hiatus
at the base?)
?
Capacho
Eastern
Interior Range
Vidoo
San Juan
Tigre
San Antonio U
A
TEMBLADOR
GROUP
?
"Exotic Blocks "
?
Y
U
Canoa
Guayacn
Turonian
Cenomanian
North of
Gurico
Gurico
Querecual
Escandalosa
?
Seboruco
Reservoir (Carbonate)
Reservoir (Sandy)
Seal
Source Rock
Correlation chart of the most important Late Cretaceous units of Venezuela. Gurico and Vidoo Formations
continue through the Paleocene; Canoa and Querecual Formations start by the end of Late Albian.
T
A
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GENERAL GEOLOGY
CENOZOIC
Figure 1.11
Lesser Antilles
Arc
Caribbean Plate
Early Paleocene *
La Victoria
Middle Paleocene *
Early Eocene*
Trujillo
Maracaibo
P
Guasare/Marcelina ag
e
en
am
M
Cl arin Trujillo
as e
tic
Pauj
s
ne
Li
s
ic
st
a
Cl
Shallow
Clastics
Western
Range of
Colombia
Collision
Peas Blancas
South American
Block
Orocu/Mirador
B
Humocaro
Ba
Faralln
Plate
Andean Block
deep
Fore
Gobernador
Misoa
Barcelona
Roblecito
llo
-B
SM
Morn
EL
Shallow
Clastics
Matatere
a
Sh
Central
American Arc
on
b
ar
MaracaiboSta. Marta
Block
es
at
Gurico
Guayana Shield
(*) Deformation Front Position
50 km
Humocaro
La Victoria
= Thrust front
= Exposed areas
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PETROLEUM GEOLOGY OF VENEZUELA
Figure 1.12
Volcanic
Arc
Caribbean
Plate
Late Eocene
200 Km
Oca
Fault System
Frontal Thrust
Maximum
Subsidence Area
?
South American Plate
Advance of Allochthonous Terranes
?
Shallow Clastic Sediments
Foredeep Sediments
Positive Areas
Pull-Apart Basin
Thrust Front
Generation of pull-apart basins at the boundary between the Caribbean and South
American plates; the maximum subsidence areas were located north of Falcn State
at this time (Late Eocene) (after Macellari, 1995).
Figure 1.13
Lesser
Antilles
eV
olc
an
ic
c
Ar
Ac
tiv
V
Caribbean Plate
Extinct Volcanic Arc
X
XPampatar-Punta Carnero
Oceanic
Sedi
me
Caribbean Deformation
Limit
Peas Blancas
? Foredeep
ntat
io n
(U n
d iff
Vid
o
o-
Car
Barcelona
n ti
ate
d)
ata
Tinajitas
Caratas
50 Km
ere
Sl
op
Roblecito
Atlantic
Ocean
Maturn
Clastic Shelf
Positive Area
?
?
Paleocene-Eocene
Turbidites
Positive Areas
Limestones
Regional geologic framework for the sedimentation at the northern flank of the
Eastern Basin during the Paleocene-Eocene.
1 11
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GENERAL GEOLOGY
CENOZOIC
Figure 1.14
Age
Carbonera
E
o
c
e
n
e
Pauj
Western Venezuela:
Trujillo, Lara and South-Andean
Flank and Barinas-Apure
Guasare
Barco
?
Coln/Mito
Juan
Colon/mito Juan
Maastricht
Los Cuervos
Barco
O
R
O
C
U
E
T
r
u
j
i
l
l
o
H
u
m
o
c
a
r
o
M
o
r
a
n
V
a
l
l
e
Roblecito
Peas
Blancas
Tinajitas
?
H
o
n
d
o
Gurico
Coln
Sand/Seal Pairs
Eroded/Unconformable
Vidoo
San Juan
Eroded Interval
Caratas
?
(?) Garrapata
Reservoir (Sandy)
Paleocene-Eocene of
Seal
absent.
Eastern Venezuela
Jarillal
Reservoir (Carbonate)
Garrapata Formation is
North-Central
Venezuela
Santa Rita
Marcelina
O
R
O
C
U
E
La Victoria
(Misoa/Qda. Arriba/Gobernador)
Los Cuervos
P
a
l
e
o
c
e
n
e
Masparrito
(Misoa/Mirador)
Cerro Misin
?
Pagey
Cas
(Mirador/La Sierra)
Falcn
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PETROLEUM GEOLOGY OF VENEZUELA
Figure 1.15
Positive
Area
?
San Luis / Patiecitos
da
a Sala
a/Agu
Pecay
Guacharaca
Castillo
Casupal
El Paraso
Churuguara
Positive Area
?
Positive
Area
Carbonera
ito
Roblec
El Bal
Arc
La Pascua
?
?
Co
Len
lo
Guafita
bi
Guayana
Shield
rea
eA
v
i
t
i
s
Igneous-Metamorphic
Po
50 km
Basement
Shallow Sandy
Clastics
Limestones
Depocenter Axis
Positive Areas
Extensional Basin
Direction of
Sediment Supply
Pelitic Clastics of
Shallow Marine
Environment
Thrust Front
Sedimentary regional framework in Western Venezuela (Maracaibo, Falcn, BarinasApure Basins and Gurico Sub-Basin) during the Oligocene. The main depocenters
are located in Tchira (Len Formation), Falcn (Pecaya and Agua Salada Formations)
and Gurico (Roblecito Formation).
Figure 1.16
Caribbean Plate
Main
Depocenter
Oligocene-Miocene
La Vela Cove
La Pascua-Roblecito
(Central-North)
Urumaco
Trough
Basin"Foreland"
Incipient
Oca Fault
System
Capiricual-Carapita
(Eastern)
Positive Areas
Plate Movement
Vectors
200 km
Extensional
Trough
Thrust Front
Maximum development of the Falcn State pull-apart and generation of extensive positive
areas in Maracaibo Basin and northern Falcn. Toward the south and east, the foreland
basin evolved, developing "troughs" like those of the La Pascua-Roblecito Formations (Late
Eocene-Oligocene) and Carapita-Capiricual (Early-Middle Miocene) (after Macellari, 1995).
1 13
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Figure 1.18
elgoajiroblanco@hotmail.com
GENERAL GEOLOGY
CENOZOIC
Figure 1.17
X
A
ve
Isl
an
dA
rc
Caribbean Plate
Limit of the
Caribbean Deformation
cti
Roblecito
Areo(?)
Areo(?)
Barcelona
Clastic Shelf/Transitional
Environment/Deltas
?
La Pascua
Slope
Naricual/Quebradn
Los Jabillos
Merecure/"Naricual"
Chaguaramas
?
Oligocene
Merecure
50 km
Positive Areas
Direction of Sediment
Supply
Thrust Front
Regional geologic framework for the sedimentation at the north flank of the Eastern
Basin of Venezuela during the Oligocene. There is a strong difference between the
Naricual in the subsurface and as defined in its type region: the "Merecure Formation"
name has been used for subsurface equivalents of the Merecure Group formations
(Los Jabillos, Areo and Naricual Formations) that crop out in the Interior Range.
Figure 1.18
O
l
i
g
o
c
e
n
e
Western Venezuela
Perij
Lake Maracaibo, North-Andean Flank
Palmar
Ceibote
Palmar/Parngula
PALMAR/PARANGULA
?
G
u
Len
Western Venezuela
Falcn Basin
North-Central
Eastern Venezuela
Venezuela
Naricual
Naricual
(Churuguara/Castillo/Pecaya/
San Luis/Agua Salada)
?
Quebradn
Areo
f
Icotea
Carbonera
Age
i
Carbonera
?
Pauj/Mene Grande
Late Eoc.
Guardulio
El Paraso
M
E
R
E
C
U
R
E
Roblecito
a
Arauca
Pagey(?)
Eroded/Unconformable Contact
Sand/Seal Pairs
Sandy Reservoir
Seal
La Pascua
?
Los Jabillos
Caratas/
Roblecito ?
Eroded Interval
Correlation chart of the most important Late Eocene through Oligocene units of Venezuela. Pauj, Mene Grande and Pagey Formations
extend into Middle Eocene; El Fausto Group and Churuguara, Castillo, Pecaya, San Luis, Agua Salada and Quebradn Formations extend
into the Miocene.
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PETROLEUM GEOLOGY OF VENEZUELA
El Pilar Fault
Coro
Capadare
PPee
rriijj
Ra
ng
e
Oca Fault
Lake
Maracaibo
GUAYABO
Mrida
Mrida
Co
lo
bi
bi
m
lo
El
Ba
l
uccaa
YYu
Roo
Quebradn
Quiamare
Quiamare
Ar
c
Carapita
Carapita
La La
Pica
Pica
Capiricual
Capiricual
Quiamare
Quiamare
Oficina-Freites
Merecure
Chaguaramas
Merecure
??
Guayana Shield
R
a -augl ul
nagr
P
ar
Guayana Shield
Quiriquire
Quiriquire
Las
Piedras
Las Piedras
La Costa Range
La Rosa
Lagunillas La
La Puerta
Puerta
Lagunillas
Co
Isl
an
d
Agua Salada
Urumaco
Urumaco
Caujarao
Caujarao
Socorro
Socorro
ss
de
n
n
A
Ar
cc
Caribbean Plate
?
?
BBaa
rrb
Pr a d
ism os
Figure 1.19
00
100
50
50
200
200km
km
Igneous-Metamorphic
Basement
Basement
150
150
Fluvial
and Coastal
Environment
Sandy Clastics
Fluvial and Coastal
Environment
Sandy
Clastics
Shallow Environment Carbonates
Shallow Environment Carbonates
Positive Zones
Pelitic Clastics
Open-Marine and Foredeep Environment,
Pelitic Clastics
Sediments Supply
Regional geologic framework for the sedimentation in all Venezuela (Maracaibo, Falcn, Barinas-Apure and Eastern basins) during the
Miocene-Pliocene. The largest accumulations of continental sediments occur on the flanks of the Andes and La Costa Range. The most
important reservoirs of Venezuela were deposited during this epoch: La Rosa, Lagunillas, Isnot (Guayabo Group), Carapita, Oficina,
Chaguaramas and Merecure Formations.
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GENERAL GEOLOGY
CENOZOIC
Figure 1.20
Pliocene/Recent
Caribbean Plate
North
of Ven
ezuela
Curaza
Deep
o Prom
inence
Oca Fault
San Sebastin
Maximum
Fault
Subsidence Areas
o
jill e
Truang
R
Maracaibo
Basin
Falcn
Basin
Bocon
Fault
South-American
Plate
de
An
200 km
Positive Areas
Shallow Clastic
Sediments
Thrust Front
Plate Movement
Vectors
Figure 1.21
68
Peri
j R
ang
e
Falcn
Maracaibo Basin
Caribbean Sea
60
Maracaibo
Basin
Trujillo
s
de
An
n
ela Barinas
zu
ne
Ve
Barinas-Apure
S. Cristbal
Basin
Gurico
Sub-basin
.L
a
100
0
50
200 km
150
68
72
11
Porlamar
Caracas
La Costa Range
B
E.
bi
m
lo
Co
7
o Belt
Orinoc
San
Fernando
co
no
Ori
e
Riv
64
Trinidad
At
O lan
ce tic
an
Ciudad Bolvar
a
an
ay if
Gu ass
M
60
Reclamation
Zone
Coro
11
64
Margarita
Basin
Guyana
72
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PETROLEUM GEOLOGY OF VENEZUELA
Figure 1.22
Age
Perij and
Lake Maracaibo
Andes
El Milagro
Terrazas
Pleistocene
Barinas-Apure
Maturn
Betijoque
La Villa,
Los Ranchos,
Lagunillas
Isnot
Middle
Miocene
EL FAUSTO/
La Rosa
Ro Yuca
G
U
A
Y
A
B
O
Las Piedras
Las Piedras/
Quiriquire
AGUA SALADA
Castillo/Agua Clara
Pedregoso/San Luis
?
Freites
Chaguaramas
Sand/Seal Pairs
Reservoir (Sandy)
Seal
Uchirito/
Capiricual
Oficina
Carapita
Merecure
Guacharaca
Reservoir (Carbonate)
Quiamare
La Pica
Socorro
Cerro Pelado
Parngula
Palmar
Interior
Range
LA PUERTA/Codore/
La Vela/Urumaco/
Caujarao
Carapita
LA PUERTA (*)
Early
Miocene
Gurico
Sub-Basin
San Gregorio/Coro
Pliocene
Late
Miocene
Falcn
Guanapa
Source Rock
Figure 1.23
1 17
(*)
Group
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THE HISTORY OF OIL EXPLORATION IN VENEZUELA
The beginning
Before the 1800s, only brief references
were made to Venezuelan hydrocarbons in
the literature. The first mention of hydrocarbons was made by Fernandez de Oviedo
in 1535, where he wrote of oil seepages off
the western shore of Cubagua Island. In 1540,
he referred to the presence of bitumen on the
Gulf of Venezuela shores (Martnez, 1976).
Nothing more is found in the literature until
the early 1800s.
Crew - month
500
Nationalization
O.P.E.P. Foundation
End of concessions
Massive
concessions
World War II
600
World War I
700
Great Depression
Figure 1.23
400
Surface geology
300
200
100
0
1910
1920
1930
1940
1950
1960
1970
1980
1990
2000
Year
Exploratory activity in
Venezuela. Surface methods.
(Source: Martnez, 1976 and
1994; M.E.M., 1985 to 1995;
J. Mndez Z., 1976 and R.
Varela, 1987, in Mndez Z.,
1989; M.M.H.,1962 to 1984).
1800 to 1900
In 1814, Alexander von Humboldt
reported asphalt deposits along Venezuelas
northern shoreline (Martnez, 1976).
Geologist Herman Karsten (1851) published
a description of oil seepage sites located
between Betijoque and Escuque, towns in
Trujillo State, southeast of Lake Maracaibo
(Urbani, 1991).
Oil seeps along La Alquitrana Creek in
Tchira State lured local investors into applying for an exploitation concession under the
name of Cien Minas de Asfalto. It was
granted to them in 1878 (Martnez, 1976).
Compaa Minera Petrolia del Tchira
exploited this concession by open mining
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PETROLEUM GEOLOGY OF VENEZUELA
End of
concessions
World War II
Great Depression
World War I
200
Massive
concessions
5
Nationalization
Evaluation of
the Orinoco
Belt
3
100
2
300
0
1910
1920
1930
1940
1950
1960
1970
1980
1990
2000
Year
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THE HISTORY OF OIL EXPLORATION IN VENEZUELA
Figure 1.25
Mene Grande
C.C. Bolvar
Los Barrosos2
La Paz
La Concepcin
Quiriquire
Bachaquero
Pedernales
La Canoa1
Oficina
Jusepn
Las Mercedes
La Paz and Mara (K)
Boscn
La Paz and Mara
(Basement)
Urdaneta
Lama, Centro
Orocual,
Lamar,
JoboMorichal
Onado
Sur del Lago
Cerro Negro
Patao
Ro Caribe
Loran, cocuina
Guafita
Incorporation of
El Furrial
200
1.500
1.000
100
Millions of barrels
300
.500
Note: From 1914 to 1954
a total of 3.0 billion cubic
meters were incorporated into the
reserves through revisions, new
discoveries and extensions.
0
1910
1920
1930
1940
1950
1960
1970
1980
1990
0
2000
Year
1951 to 1960
The oil from the Middle East, less
expensive and of good quality, affected the
intensity of Venezuelan exploration, and
surface activity was reduced by more than
half (Fig. 1.23). However, drilling activity
maintained a high level during the decade.
New concessions granted in 1956 and 1957
kept the interest in Venezuelan oil high
throughout the rest of this decade.
Discoveries continued in the Greater Oficina
Area and, to a lesser extent, in Gurico.
During 1957 and 1958, the Lake Maracaibo
region yielded large Tertiary finds in its
central and central-eastern areas, including
Ceuta, Centro, Lama, Lamar and Lago Fields.
The first Venezuelan continental platform
find was Posa-112A, an offshore field in the
Gulf of Paria. The maximum exploratory
drilling depth reached during this period
was 5,348 m (17,541 ft).
1961 to 1976
The no more concessions policy
adopted by the Venezuelan State greatly
affected the operating strategies of the
concession holders during this prenationalization period. A drastic reduction in
surface exploration activities is shown in Fig.
1.23. By 1968, exploratory drilling reached
the lowest level of activity since 1940.
Exploratory wells were restricted to already
identified areas, with their objectives being
new reservoirs above, below or near known
oil reservoirs. This type of exploration
yielded discoveries such as the deep
Cretaceous in Central Lake and Urdaneta
Fields. Frontier drilling and surface
exploration activities by the concessionaires
ceased completely.
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PETROLEUM GEOLOGY OF VENEZUELA
70
10
60
Massive
concessions
End of concessions
O.P.E.P. Foundation
50
40
30
BSTB
Figure 1.26
20
10
Reserves
0
1910
Production
1920
1930
1940
1950
1960
1970
1980
1990
2000
Year
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THE HISTORY OF OIL EXPLORATION IN VENEZUELA
Figure 1.27
Number of discoveries
Total number of exploratory wells
0.50
0.48
0.46
0.44
0.42
0.40
0.38
1950
1960
1970
Year
1980
1990
2000
Cumulative exploratory
success since 1950, showing
an almost 47% success rate
with no downward trend
(from M.E.M., 1985 to 1995;
M.M.H., 1962 to 1984).
What now?
The future points to more discoveries in
the above frontier areas, as well as
exploration and re-exploration in traditional
areas near existing facilities. New, high-risk
objectives will become the standard of dayto-day exploration activities; exploration for
bypassed hydrocarbons already has high
priority. Modern drilling technology will
allow deeper and more precise subsurface
evaluation. Improved knowledge of
Venezuelan basins, supported by new
geological and geochemical criteria, and
new seismic acquisition and processing
technologies, will open new frontiers and
substantiate
re-exploration.
Modern
petrophysical well logging technologies,
some of which are described in other
chapters of this book, already permit
measuring and interpreting a large variety of
rock and fluid properties. Their proper use
will further enable us to accurately assess
the subsurface. Venezuela still has a wealth
of hydrocarbons to be discovered. Figure
1.27 displays graphically the exploratory
success during the last 45 years, showing an
almost 47% success rate with no downward
trend, and Fig. 1.26 shows nearly 1 billion
barrels of oil added during the period. This
is the result of integrating all technologies,
from exploration through enhanced oil
recovery. Venezuelan oil provinces have not
yet disclosed all their secrets; only by using
modern exploration technologies will they
be revealed.
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Ro
Negro
<180
Seal
Source
Reser.
Form.
Thick.
(ft)
1300-1500
500-900
150-200
1100-1200
Age
Miocene
Los Ranchos
Productive interval.
Porosity 7.120%.
Average permeability 149 md.
160-400
150278
295-330
335520
Cuiba
EL FAUSTO
Macoa
Peroc
600 106-300
100 - 300
Oligocene-Miocene
Mirador
Carbonaceous sandstones,
siltstones and shales.
70-120
***
Coarse-grained sandstone to
conglomerate.
Shaly intervals.
100-130
Tib
Guim.
500-600m
Pich
55-180
Lisure
Apn
Cretaceous
120
Maraca
**
Calcareous sandstones,
glauconitic, sandy and
coquinoid limestones with
some shales.
250-650
900
100-300
Socuy
Los Cuervos
"C Sand"
120445
La
Coln/
LunaMito
Juan
are
as
Gu
Paleocene
1000-1600
Misoa
"B Sand"
Barco
50180
Icotea
La Luna
dle
Mid
Sta.
Brbara
Lithological Description
Maraca
Upper
250
La Rosa
Tertiary
er
Lo
Cretaceous
na
gu
La
y
log
ho
Lit
Figure 1.30
COGOLLO
Lisure
Seal
Reservoir
Source Rock
Graphic
Lithology
Thickness
(m)
Member
Bachaquero
Lithological Description
300-900
Formation
,
,,
,
,
Lagunillas
Age
Apn
**** <100
*C b
** C t t
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PETROLEUM BASINS
MARACAIBO
Figure 1.30
W
Perij
Range
L
Los a Vill
Ran a
cho
s
Post-Miocene
El Fau
"B"
"B"
Misoa
Misoa
"C"
"C"
Paleocene
Trujillo
Range
Pauj
La Puerta
Lagunillas
La Rosa
Miocene
sto
Bachaquero Fault
Eocene
lo
1.8 Km
il
Truj
Cretaceous
Basement
Ju
ra
ss
ic
Lagunillas
Lama
Icotea High
Urdaeta
10 km
5
6
Shaly (Seal)
Carbonate
Sandy / Conglomeratic
Source Rock
Maracaibo Basin
The Maracaibo Basin (Fig. 1.21) is the
most important petroliferous basin of Venezuela. The main source rock is the La Luna
Formation (Figs. 1.28 and 1.29) of Late Cretaceous age; its facies extend along all of
Western Venezuela and Colombia. There are
some other source rocks of secondary importance in the Cogollo (Machiques Member of the
Apn Formation) and Orocu (Los Cuervos
Formation) Groups. The oil was generated,
migrated and accumulated in several phases,
the Andean uplift being the most important
one. These points will be elaborated later.
East-West Maracaibo
Basin section (after
Parnaud et al., 1995).
Figure 1.31
200
150
100
70
60
50
40
Tr
L
J
E M L
K
E
30
Cenozoic
Mesozoic
L
Paleo.
Eocene
Tertiary
Olig.
20
10
(Ma)
Geological time
Q scale
Petroleum
system events
Miocene PP
Formations
Source rock
Seal
Reservoir
Burial
Trap formation
Generation,migration,
accumulation
Preservation
Critical moment
Sand/Seal Pairs
"Phase 1" petroleum system, Maracaibo Basin (after Talukdar and Marcano, 1994).
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PETROLEUM GEOLOGY OF VENEZUELA
Figure 1.32
Falcn
Basin
llo
Pe
rij
ji
Tru
Co
Gulf of Venezuela
Ra
ng
e
lo
m
bi
a
Oca Fault
ng
Ra
e
8
de
Lake
Maracaibo
lan
e
zu
e0
n
Ve
An
km
50
Defined petroleum system in the Maracaibo Basin, La Luna Formation source rock,
Phase 1 (38 Ma) (after Talukdar and Marcano, 1994).
Figure 1.33
200
Tr
L
150
Mesozoic
J
E M L
E
100
70
60
K
L
Paleo.
50
40
30
Cenozoic
Tertiary
Olig.
Eocene
20
10
Miocene
(Ma)
Geologic time
Q scale
Petroleum
system events
PP
Formations
Source rock
Seal
Reservoir
Burial
Trap formation
Generation,migration,
accumulation
Preservation
Critical moment
"Phase 2" petroleum system; Maracaibo Basin (after Talukdar and Marcano, 1994).
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PETROLEUM BASINS
MARACAIBO
Gulf of Venezuela
e
Pe
rij
Ra
ng
ult
a Fa
Icote
Or
lin
oc
Lake
Maracaibo
aF
ati
Gr
pL
Fault
Matured and Over-Matured
Source Rock Area (Fm. La Luna)
during Phase 2 (Present Time)
r
de
an
nt ssif
a
M
r
de
an
nt ssif
a
M
Sa
Petroleum System
La Luna, Phase 2
it
an
An
el
u
ez
n
Ve
Condensate or Gas
Producing Field
Petroleum System Limit of the
Orocu Group
Sa
Oil Field/
Condensate/Gas
km
de
ou
im
Oil Field
50
Lake
on Maracaibo
orm
Gas
window
Icote
a Fa
ult
lom
Co
Ra
ij
Pe
r
rce
Ma
ng
Ra
ang
Oil
window
Falcn
Basin
illo
R
jillo
Tru
ng
e
bia
j
Tru
Col
om
bia
Gulf of Venezuela
50
km
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PETROLEUM GEOLOGY OF VENEZUELA
Figure 1.36
NW
SE
Maracaibo Basin
Perij
Range
Mrida Andes
Lama-Icotea
Structure
Perij
Fault
Macoa
Alturitas
Urdaneta
Fault
South-Andean
Flank
North-Andean
Flank
Bocon Fault
Lama-Icotea
System Fault
Barinas-Apure
Basin
4 km
20 km
Neogene
Late Cretaceous
Jurassic
Paleogene
Early Cretaceous
Igneous-Metamorphic Basement
NW-SE structural cross section through the Maracaibo Basin, from the Mrida Andes to the Perij Range.
Figure 1.37
200
100
150
70
60
Mesozoic
J
Tr
L E M L
K
E
Paleo.
50
40
30
Cenozoic
Tertiary
Eocene
Olig.
20
10
Q
Miocene PP
(Ma)
Geological
time scale
Petroleum
system events
Formations
Source rock
Seal
Reservoir
Burial
Trap formation
Generation, migration,
accumulation
Preservation
Critical moment
"Phase 3" petroleum system; Maracaibo Basin (after Talukdar and Marcano, 1994).
Mirador
Mirador Formation
Formation
Los
Los Cuervos
Cuervos Formation
Formation
Middle Eocene (Bartoniense) unconformity between the Mirador and Los Cuervos
Formations (Rubio de San Antonio Road, Tchira State). Courtesy of Franklin Yoris.
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PETROLEUM BASINS
BARINAS-APURE BASIN
300500
Seal
Reservoir
Source
Lithology
550 1400
Thickness
(m)
Form./Mbr.
Pagey/Guafita/Len
330-450
Guanarito
*Aguardiente
Composite stratigraphic column of the South Andean flank, Barinas-Apure
50-300
Bioclastic and sandy limestones, permeable massive sandstones and black shales.
Ro Negro <300
350-420
180-210
150-180
Burgita
te
rdien
Agua
150-427
Productive interval
150-500
EscandalosaLa Morita
Gobernador
Cretaceous
Barco
Quevedo
Pagey
Masparrito
Quevedo
Sandy clastics.
La Morita
"R"
Lithological Description
Navay
2000-3000
335-520
150 - 427
"P"
la
gu
rn
Pa
Middle Eocene-Oligocene
MioPliocene
Age
Seal
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
160-400
295330
150-278
Los Cuervos
350-420
150 - 180
180 - 210
OROCUE
Burgita
Campanian
Maastricht.
Coniacian-Santonian
Navay
Escandalosa
Cenomanian-Turonian
"S"
Alb.
Lithological
Description
"O"
Reserv.
Source
Form.
Thick.
(m)
Stage
GUAYABO/Parngula/Ro Yuca
Len/Guafita/
Carbonera
Mirador
Age
Paleocene
Late
Cretaceous
Graphic
Lithology
,,
,
,,
Early Eocene
to Middle
Eocene-Oligocene
Tertiary
Miocene-Pliocene
Series
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PETROLEUM GEOLOGY OF VENEZUELA
Figure 1.40
NW
SE
RoYuca
Pagey
Gobernador
Navay
Parngula
Guardulio
Guafita
3.5 km
Aguardiente
Escandalosa
Paleozoic
0
10 km
Shale (Seal)
Carbonate
Sandy / Conglomeratic
Source Rock
Barinas-Apure Basin
The Barinas-Apure Basin (Fig. 1.21) is
located to the SSE of the Andean Mountain
Range. The main source rock is the Navay
Formation (Figs. 1.38 and 1.39), of Late
Cretaceous age and a lateral facies
equivalent of La Luna Formation. Secondary
source rocks have been found in the Orocu
Group (Los Cuervos Formation), but only in
the deepest depocenters, associated with the
great molassic thicknesses caused by the
Andean uplift.
Figure 1.41
200
150
100
70
60
50
Mesozoic
Tr
E M L
40
30
20
10
0 (Ma)
Cenozoic
Tertiary
K
E
Paleo.
Eocene
Olig.
Geological time
Q scale
Miocene PP
Petroleum
system events
Formations
Source rock
?
?
?
Seal
Reservoir
Burial
Trap formation
Generation, migration
accumulation
Preservation
Critical moment
Events chart for the La Luna-Burgita (!) petroleum system of the Barinas-Apure
Basin, during the Caribbean terranes emplacement over the Mrida High.
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PETROLEUM BASINS
BARINAS-APURE BASIN
200
150
100
70
60
Mesozoic
Tr
E M L
40
30
20
10
Cenozoic
Tertiary
K
E
50
Paleo.
Eocene
Oligo. Miocene
Q
PP
(Ma)
Geological time
scale
Petroleum
system events
Formations
Source rock
Seal
Reservoir
Burial
Trap formation
Generation, migration
accumulation
Preservation
Critical moment
Events chart for the Navay-Gobernador (!) petroleum system, in the Barinas-Apure
Basin north of the Mrida Arc, during the Andean uplift.
Petroleum systems
La Luna Formation. Picture of an outcrop in the Cuite River (Apure State). Courtesy
of Franklin Yoris.
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PETROLEUM GEOLOGY OF VENEZUELA
Figure 1.43
Dabajuro Platform
WSW
A
Urumaco Trough
Caujarao
Socorro
ENE
Lines Displacement
A'
Coro
o
Codo
Urumac
Codore
re
C
auja
Socorro
rao
Cerro P
Location
elado
Agua
?
C
Und
ulf Coro
Igneous-Metamorphic Map
?
aG
iffere lara
zuel
ntiat
Basement
A'
ene
ed B
V
Dabajuro
40 km
asem
ent
A
Venezuela
Lines Displacement
La Puerta
Eoce
Creta Paleoce ne
ne
ceous
La Quinta
co
Uruma o
Socorr
La Puerta
?
Eocene
NE-SW geological/structural
cross section through
the Falcn Basin (after
Macellari, 1995).
Falcn Basin
The Falcn Basin (see Fig. 1.21) is
located to the east of Maracaibo Basin, and
is separated by the Trujillo Range. The
source rock has been identified as the shales
of the Agua Clara Formation (Fig. 1.43);
however, shales of source rock potential
have also been identified in the deltaicmarine sediments of Guacharaca and Agua
Salada Formations.
The main clastic reservoirs include the
following formations: Agua Clara (La Vela
Cove and Western Falcn), Socorro
(Cumarebo Oil Field) and La Puerta Group
(Western Falcn) (Fig. 1.43).
Figure 1.44
200
150
100
Mesozoic
Tr
J
K
E
L E M L
70
60
50
40
30
Cenozoic
Tertiary
L
Paleo.
Eocene
Olig.
20
10
0 (Ma)
Geological time
Q scale
Miocene PP
Petroleum
system events
Formations
Source rock
Seal
Reservoir
Burial
Trap formation
Generation migration
accumulation
Preservation
Critical moment
Events chart for the Agua Clara petroleum system (!), in the Falcn Basin.
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PETROLEUM BASINS
Figure 1.45
Caucagua-El Tinaco
Belt
Coastal
Range Belt
Caribbean
Deformation Belt
La Victoria
Fault
San Sebastin
Fault
Los Roques
Island
20
40
Villa de Cura
Belt
Bonaire Basin
Orinoco
River
Tar
Belt
Late-Recent Miocene
Jurassic
Middle Paleocene-Miocene
Early Paleozoic
Cretaceous
Ocean Crust
Eastern Basin
The Eastern Venezuelan Basin (Fig.
1.21) is the second in importance. It is
limited by the La Costa Mountain Range to
the north, by the Orinoco River to the south,
by the Orinoco Delta platform to the east
and by the El Bal Lineament to the west. It
has been operationally subdivided in two
sub-basins, the Gurico and Maturn.
Figure 1.46
NW
SE
1080
1060
1040
1020
1000
980
960
940
920
Allochthonous
5000
Thrusting
Front
Altamira
Fault
km
1100
0
Gurico
Fault
Espino
Graben
Cretaceous-Eocene
Oligocene-Basal
Early Eocene- Middle
Gurico Sub-Basin
This subdivision includes Gurico and
part of the oil fields in northern Anzotegui
state. The sub-basins northern flank is
influenced by the deformation front in
which the Gurico Fault system is located
(Fig. 1.45). This deformation front overrides
and overloads Cretaceous and Tertiary rocks,
producing a complex tectonic setting (Fig.
1.46). To the south, the structure is less
complicatedthere are structural (extensional) depressions that preserved Jurassic
and Paleozoic rocks (Fig. 1.47) and regional
pinching-out of the Cretaceous-Tertiary
sequences to the south (Fig. 1.48). The main
traps are combination structural-stratigraphic
traps, especially in fields far from the
deformation front.
10000
15000
2km
NW-SE cross section on the basis of seismic interpretation and with well control in
the Guarumen mountain front (after Figueroa and Hernandez, 1990). CretaceousEocene-Oligocene rocks override the autochthonous basal (Early) Oligocene,
indicating a Miocene-Pliocene age for the last deformation.
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PETROLEUM GEOLOGY OF VENEZUELA
Figure 1.47
NE
SW
DP = 170m
400
380
NZZ-88X
360
340
320
300
280
260
240
220
(Proj. 2.8 Km to SE)
0.0
1.0
Cretaceous
Base
Jurassic
Basalts
2.0
Early
Cambrian
G
u
r
CORPOVEN ico
3.0
Basement
NZZ-88X
P-C
MARAVEN
6
P-
50 Km
P.F.: 14730'
ui
eg
t
zo
An
Valle La Pascua
2 km
south of the Gurico Sub-Basin (modified from Daal et al., 1989). This section
shows how the Paleozoic sediments
were preserved (Cambrian as well as
Jurassic with basalt) in the deep parts
of the Espinto Graben. The final well
depth projected over the seismic line
was 14,730 ft (4.490 m).
Figure 1.48
Las Mercedes
Field
Palacio
Field
Macapra River
Orinoco River
Recent
Chaguaramas
1000
Roblecito
La P
ascu
a
Carrizal
1000
50
2000
Infante
100
Temblador
0
Quartzose
sandstone 3000
Ba
km
sem
en
GRICO-6
B
CAMAZ-1
GXB-1
Chaguaramas N.M
....
....
Roblecito
ascu
a
....
...
- --. .---
1 33
10
20
30
km
40
50
1000
m
2000
. ..
500
Cr
eta
ce
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PETROLEUM BASINS
GUARICO SUB-BASIN
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
Oficina
Seal
Reservoir
Graphic
Lithology
Source
Rock
Group
Formation
Figure 1.49
Lithological Description
Coarse-grained sandstone.
5800'
Granular conglomerate.
Lignite, leaves.
5836'
Occasional shales.
Dolomitic limestones.
5900'
TEMBLADOR
Tigre
5925'
6000'
Ferrolithic levels.
Dolomitic limestones.
Exogyra.
6100'
6117'
6200'
Speckled siltstones.
Canoa
Pebble conglomerates.
Whitish siltstones.
Speckled mudstones and
sandstones interval.
6300'
Pebble conglomerates.
6400'
6421'
Granite.
Basement
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PETROLEUM GEOLOGY OF VENEZUELA
Figure 1.50
Aproximately 570 km
East
West
Hamaca-Cerro Negro
Machete-Zuata
Western Province
Eastern Province
Aprox. 6000'
Chaguaramas
Las Piedras
Freites
Roblecito
Oficina
Oficina
La Pascua
K
K
PK
PK
PK
PK
Carrizal
+
+
+
Altamira
+
+
+
+
Metamorphic Basement
(Precambrian (?) )
Hato Viejo
Sandy Reservoir
Shaly Seals
Sand-Seal Pairs
Carbonate Reservoir
Schematic structural configuration of the Orinoco Belt (after Audemard et al., 1985).
Figure 1.51
200
Tr
L
150
100
70
60
Mesozoic
K
J
E M L
50
40
30
Cenozoic
Tertiary
L
Paleo.
Eocene
Olig.
20
10
0 (Ma)
Geological time
Q scale
Miocene PP
Petroleum
system events
Formations
Source rock
Seal
Reservoir
Burial
Trap formation
Generation, migration
accumulation
Preservation
Critical moment
Events chart for the Querecual-Oficina oil system (!), in the Oficina area, Gurico
Sub-Basin (after Talukdar and Marcano, 1994).
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PETROLEUM BASINS
GUARICO SUB-BASIN
Figure 1.52
200
Tr
L
150
100
70
60
50
Mesozoic
K
J
E M L
40
30
20
Paleo.
Eocene
Olig.
0 (Ma)
10
Cenozoic
Tertiary
Geological time
Q scale
Petroleum
system events
Miocene PP
Formations
Source rock
Seal
Reservoir
Burial
Trap formation
Generation, migration
accumulation
Preservation
Critical moment
Events chart for the Temblador Group-La Pascua (!) petroleum system in central
Gurico (after Talukdar and Marcano, 1994).
Figure 1.53
200
150
100
70
60
50
Mesozoic
Tr
E M L
40
30
20
0 (Ma)
10
Cenozoic
K
Geological time
Q scale
Tertiary
Paleo.
Eocene
Olig.
Petroleum
system events
Miocene PP
Formations
Source rock
Seal
Reservoir
Burial
Trap formation
Generation, migration
accumulation
Preservation
Critical moment
Figure 1.54
200
Tr
L
150
100
70
60
50
E M L
40
30
Cenozoic
Tertiary
Mesozoic
J
K
L
Paleo.
Eocene
Olig.
20
0 (Ma)
10
Geological time
scale
Petroleum
Miocene PP
system events
Formations
Source rock
Seal
Reservoir
Burial
Trap formation
Generation, migration
accumulation
Preservation
Critical moment
Events chart for the Oficina (!) petroleum system, Oficina area, Gurico Sub-Basin
(after Talukdar and Marcano, 1994).
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PETROLEUM GEOLOGY OF VENEZUELA
Figure 1.55
SE
NW
Interior Range
Araya
Sub-Basin
Margarita - Los Testigos
Platform
El Pilar
Fault
Margarita
Island
Maturn
Sub-Basin
Turimiquire
Morichito
Basin
Caribbean
Plate
Orinoco
River
Pirital
Block
Maturn
South American
Plate
Pleistocene
Cretaceous
Oceanic Crust
Jurassic
Accretionary Crust
Early Paleozoic
Continental Crust
20
Dextral
Transcurrent
Component
Conceptual NW-SE geological cross section from Margarita-Los Testigos shelf to the Orinoco River. The north flank of the Maturn SubBasin is associated with the thrusting fronts of large cortical blocks, emplaced to the south due to the collision between the Caribbean and
South American plates.
Figure 1.56
Middle
Miocene
Paleogene
to Late
Cretaceous
Late Jurassic
Lit
ta l
or
al
er
r
Ca
Late
Miocene
Mesa (Continental)
Pliocene
Basin
(Piggy-Back)
Pirital High
U
Pleistocene
Foredeep
Basin
ap
it a
o
pap
Cha oral)
La Pica (Marine)
it
L
(
a"
apit
Car
per Deep water
"Up
shales and turbidites
Quiriquire (Continental)
l
Continenta
Mo
nti
rich
ne
ito
nta
l
Co
M ERE
TEMBLADOR
Paleozoic
Pir
ital
CUR
2
km
Fau
lt
EG
rou
ps
"Lower Ca
rapita "
Shallow Water
Sandstones and
Limestones
Deep water
shales and turbidites
Crystalline Basement
La Quinta
Formation
Structural cross section showing the tectono-stratigraphic units in the Maturn SubBasins northern flank. The figure also illustrates the complex tectonic and
sedimentary units that constitute the vertical and lateral equivalents of the Carapita
Formation in the subsurface; coeval foredeep environment sediments were
deposited in the south, while north of the Pirital High, a piggy-back basin was
Maturn Sub-Basin
The Maturn Sub-Basin (Fig. 1.55) is the
main Eastern Basin petroliferous unit. The
structural deformation and pinch-out of
stratigraphic units to the south define two
operational domains: north and south of the
Pirital Thrust (Figs. 1.55 and 1.56).
The stratigraphy of the eastern Interior
Range is representative of sedimentation on
the northern flank of the main Maturn SubBasin (Fig. 1.57). A thick and complex
sedimentary sequence ranges from the
Lower Cretaceous to Pleistocene. On the
southern flank, a simpler stratigraphy occurs,
similar to that of the Gurico Sub-Basin in
the subsurface. The Temblador Group (Fig.
1.49) represents the Cretaceous, and the
overlying Tertiary is mainly OligocenePleistocene, with alternating fluvial-deltaic
and shallow marine environments eventually
overlain by continental sediments (Fig. 1.50).
developed, with shallow and continental environments (after Roure et al., 1994). The
Santa Anita Group includes the formations San Juan, Vidoo and Caratas.
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,,
,
,
PETROLEUM BASINS
M AT U R I N S U B - B A S I N
Carapita
San Juan
?
70
Cretaceous
Late
San Antonio
M
80
90
Querecual M
El Cantil
100
Early
110
. .
ana . .
Chim
8
?
. .
. .
Gucharo
. .
(Upper.)
Gucharo(Low.)
?
7
Garca
6
Barranqun 53 4 .
2 .
.
.
?
1 = Mbr. Tinajitas
2 = Capas Ro Solo
3 = Venados
4 = Morro Blanco
5 = Picuda
6 = Taguarumo
130 7= Mapurite
8 = Punceres
120
Member
6000'
Sandstones
with regular
shale
interbedding
(sandy
turbiditic
facies).
6500'
6595'
Chapapotal
60
V
i
d
o
Las Piedras
La Pica
5458'
5500'
5800'
Middle
Early
50
Late
Paleocene
Caratas
Early
Paleogene
Eocene
Areo
?
Los Jabillos
?
40
Lithological
Description
5635'
30
Electric
Log
Naricual
20
Uchirito
Formation
Quiriquire,etc.
?
Quiamare
10
Lithological Description
Shales with
thin sandy
beds, probably
turbiditic.
7000'
7190'
Midd. Late
Early
Neogene
Miocene
Oligocene
Lithostratigraphic
gy
lo
Units
ho
S Lit
N
Mesa ?
Las Piedras,
Pleistocene
Plio- Late
cene Early
Seal
Ma
Source
Series
Reserv.
7500'
Sandstones
with many
shale
interbeddings
(sandy
turbiditic
facies).
8000'
Carbonate reservoir
8075'
Seal rock
Mainly shales
with some thin
sandy beds
(probably
turbiditic).
Sandy reservoir
Sand/seal pairs
Transgressive
advance
Regressive
progradation
8500'
T = Thickness
of
the
of
the
Chapapotal
Carapita
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PETROLEUM GEOLOGY OF VENEZUELA
Figure 1.59
El Furrial
1400
1500
3
Seconds
Carapita
Mere
cure
Creta
ceous
1 km
Structural interpretation from El Furrial Field (after Pernaud et al., 1995). In this section,
the trap is made of a structural high associated with the development of a thrust with
vergence to the south.
Figure 1.60
200
150
100
70
60
Mesozoic
TR
J
L E M L
K
E
Paleo.
50
40
30
Cenozoic
Tertiary
Eocene
Olig.
20
0 (Ma)
10
Geological
time scale
Petroleum
system events
Miocene PP
Formations
Source rock
Seal
Reservoir
Burial
Trap formation
Generation, migration
accumulation
Preservation
Critical moment
Tr
L
150
100
Mesozoic
J
E M L
70
60
40
30
20
10
Cenozoic
Tertiary
K
E
50
Paleo.
Eocene
Olig.
0 (Ma)
Geological time
Q scale
Miocene PP
Petroleum
system events
Formations
Source rock
Seal
Reservoir
Burial
Trap formation
Generation migration
accumulation
Preservation
Critical moment
Events chart for the Guayuta-Carapita (!) petroleum system for the Maturn
Sub-Basin. The kitchen is located both in the autochthonous and in the Furrial
(allochthonous) blocks (after Talukdar and Marcano, 1994).
1 39
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PETROLEUM BASINS
M AT U R I N S U B - B A S I N
Figure 1.62
Caribbean Sea
El Pilar Fault
N
San
Fran
cisco
Fault
Inmature
Mature
Pi
rit
al
Very mature
Th
ru
sti
Maturn
ng
ront
ion F
mat
r
Defo
Orinoco River
Ciudad Bolvar
The second system, the GuayutaCarapita (!), is related to the northern flank of
the Maturn Sub-Basin. It is characterized by
heterogeneous reservoirs and seals, with a
younger hydrocarbon generation than the
Guayuta-Oficina system. The generationmigration and the trap formation are Late
Oligocene to Present, with critical moment at
the present time. Important seals are Vidoo,
Areo and Carapita Formations, with minor
seal capacity in the molassic units such as
Morichito, Las Piedras and Quiriquire
Formations. San Juan, Caratas, Los Jabillos,
Merecure (subsurface Naricual), Carapita,
La Pica, Las Piedras and Quiriquire Formations are important reservoirs.
The kitchen for the Maturn Sub-Basin
source rock is summarized in Fig. 1.62,
showing that the source rock is in a gas
window below the deformation front, and its
maturity zone (oil window) is actually
feeding the sub-basins southern flank.
20
km
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1 40
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PETROLEUM GEOLOGY OF VENEZUELA
1 41
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GLOSSARY
zo
er
o
ot
Pr
Precambrian
Fanerozoic
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PETROLEUM GEOLOGY OF VENEZUELA
Albertos, M.A.; Yoris, F.G. and Urbani, F. (1989) Estudio geolgico y anlisis
petrogrfico-estadstico de la Formacin Gurico y sus equivalentes en las
secciones Altagracia de Orituco-Agua Blanca y Gamelotal-San Francisco de
Macaira (estados Gurico y Miranda. VII Congreso Geolgico Venezolano.
Sociedad Venezolana de Gelogos (Caracas); Memoria 1: 289-314.
Arnstein. R.,E. Cabrera, F. Russomanno, H. Snchez (1985) Revisin
Estratigrfica de la Cuenca de Venezuela Oriental. En: Espejo, A.; Ros, J.H. y
Bellizzia, N.P. de (Edrs.): VI Congreso Geolgico Venezolano. Sociedad
Venezolana de Gelogos (Caracas); Memoria 1: 41-69.
Audemard, F. (1991) Tectonics of western Venezuela. Ph.D. Thesis, Rice
University (Houston) :245 p.
Audemard, F. y Lugo, J. (1996) Notes for Petroleum Geology of Venezuela
Short Course. II AAPG/SVG. International Congress & Exhibition, Caracas,
1996.
Audemard, F.; Azpiritxaga, Y.; Baumann, P.; Isea, A. y Latreille, M. (1985)
Marco geolgico del terciario en la Faja Petrolfera del Orinoco de Venezuela.
VI Congreso Geolgico Venezolano. Sociedad Venezolana de Gelogos
(Caracas); Memoria 1: 70-108.
1 43
Chevalier, Y., Gonzlez, G.; Mata, S.; Santiago, N.; Spano, F. (1995)
Estratigrafa Secuencial del Transecto El Pilar - Cerro Negro, Cuenca Oriental
de Venezuela. VI Congreso Colombiano del Petrleo, Memorias: 115-125.
Harland et al. (1990) A Geologic Time Scale 1989 : Cambridge Univ. Press :
163 p.
Janezic, G. ; Toth, D. y Schrayer, G. (1982) Organic Geochemistry. Integrated
Geological Study Eastern Venezuela Basin. Meneven-Gulf (Caracas) ; Parte 2
: 194 p.
Kiser, G.D. (1989) Relaciones Estratigrficas de la Cuenca Apure / Llanos con
Areas Adyacentes, Venezuela Suroeste y Colombia Oriental. Boletn de la
Sociedad Venezolana de Gelogos; Monografa 1: 77 p.
Lugo, J., Mann, P. (1995) Jurassic - Eocene Tectonic Evolution of Maracaibo
Basin, Venezuela. En : Tankard, A.; Sarez, R.. y Welsink, H.J.: Petroleum
Basins of South America : AAPG Mem. 62: 699-725.
Macellari, C.E. (1995) Cenozoic Sedimentation and Tectonics of the
Southwestern Caribbean Pull-Apart Basin, Venezuela and Colombia. En :
Tankard, A.; Sarez, R. y Welsink, H.J.: Petroleum Basins of South America :
AAPG Mem. 62: 757-780.
Martnez, A.R. (1976) Cronologa del Petrleo Venezolano. Coleccin Ciencia
y Petrleo 1, Ediciones Foninves, Caracas: 349 p.
Martnez, A. R. (1987) The Orinoco Oil Belt, Venezuela. Journal of Petroleum
Geology, 10 (2): 125-134.
Martnez, A. R. (1994) Cronologa del Petrleo Venezolano. Ediciones del
CEPET, Caracas, 1995; Vol. 2: 462 p.
Mndez, J. O. (1978) La Petrlea del Tchira - Cronologa Ilustrada. SVIP,
Revista Zumaque, (32): 13-29.
Mndez, J.; Marcano, F.; Valera, R.; Gonzlez,C.; Kiser, D.; Martnez, A.;
Osuna, S.; Russomano, F; Jam,P.; Jimnez, C.; Prez de Meja, D.; Gaete,
C.P. de; Boesi, T.; White, C. (1989) Exploracin. En: Barberii, E.E.(Editor
Tcnico) La Industria Venezolana de los Hidrocarburos. Ediciones del CEPET,
Caracas: 1-157.
Ministerio de Energa y Minas (1985 - 1995) Petrleo y otros Datos
Estadsticos (P.O.D.E) Publicacin Anual de la Direccin General Sectorial de
Hidrocarburos - Direccin de Economa de Hidrocarburos, Caracas.
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BIBLIOGRAPHY AND REFERENCES
Roure, F. ; Carnevali, J.O. ; Gou, Y. y Subieta, T. (1994) Geometry and kinematics of the North Monagas thrust belt (Venezuela). Marine and Petroleum
Geology 11 (3) :347-362.
Salvador, A. (1994) International Stratigraphic Guide. I.U.G.S. y GSA (Boulder)
; 2da Ed. : 214 p.
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Chapter 2
Hydrocarbon Reservoirs in Venezuela
Introduction
Ta Juana (onshore)
Lagunillas
Ta Juana (offshore)
Ceuta
Mara Oeste
Silvestre
Oveja
Santa Rosa
Carito
El Furrial
Pedernales
Cerro Negro
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HYDROCARBON RESERVOIRS IN VENEZUELA
Introduction
During the last eight decades Venezuela
has been outstanding worldwide as one of
the most important countries for its
significant oil reserves, production potential
and variety of crudes. In this chapter,
Venezuelan hydrocarbon accumulations are
described from the exploitation point of
view, first in a broad basin-to-basin overview, and then in a discussion of 12 specific
reservoirs that are typical of Venezuelan oil
fields. Their geographical and geological
locations are defined, petrophysical and
thermodynamic properties are indicated,
reserves and extracted fluids are quantified,
and their particular reservoir drive mechanisms are characterized.
Table 2.1
Western Province
Maracaibo
Area
Western Coast
Center Lake
Eastern Coast*
Falcn
Western
Eastern
Barinas-Apure
Barinas
Apure
Eastern Province
Area
Maturn**
Anaco
Oficina
North Monagas
South Monagas
Orinoco Belt
Las Mercedes
Gurico**
Geographical location
A total of 360 oil fields have been
identified in Venezuela, representing more
than 17,300 hydrocarbon reservoirs in an
area of 23.41106 acres (13% of the national
territory surface), of which 52% is found in
the eastern province and the remaining in
the western province (Fig 1.0 from Geology
chapter and Table 2.1).
General description
Before describing the different hydrocarbon accumulations, it is important to
mention that Venezuela produces all of the
crude oil types currently existing in the
world. Specific API gravity classification is
as follows:
Bitumen
(B)
up to 8.2
Extra-heavy crudes
(XH)
up to 9.9
Heavy crudes
(H)
Medium crudes
(M)
Light crudes
and condensates
(L)
(C)
from 30.0 up
Western Province
1) Maracaibo Basin
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HYDROCARBON RESERVOIRS IN VENEZUELA
Offshore Area
Member
Upper
Medium
BAMED38
Lower
BAINF59
Laguna
Reservoir
BASUP10
BASUP57
BA2
A3
Sta.
Brb. Lower Upper Lower Lag.
Sta.
Brb. Lower Upper Lower Lag.
La Rosa
Laguna
MIOCENE
Lagunillas
Bachaquero
AGE
Formation
Figure 2.1
BA12
BA16
A10
LL345
LL711
LL12
LL34
LR11
SB1471
SB05
EOCENE
Stratigraphic nomenclature of
Miocene reservoirsBolvar
District Coast (Source: Roger,
J. V. et al., 1989).
a) Eastern Coast
Onshore oil fields are the Cabimas, Ta
Juana, Lagunillas and Bachaquero, which
produce heavy crudes from the Miocene-age
Lagunillas and La Rosa Formations that
overlie the Eocene unconformity (Fig. 2.1).
These reservoirs extend offshore along the
lake coast, but at greater depth, which
affects fluid properties and results in heavy
to medium crudes.
The Misoa Formation sandstones
constitute the main Eocene hydrocarbon
reservoirs. Crudes are medium to light,
varying with depth. The B sandstone
package, divided into nine members, mainly
produces medium crude and partially light
crude from the B-7 to B-5 sandstones. The
C sandstone package has a light crude
accumulation and the C-7 to C-4 members
are the main producers.
Gas and condensates from the Cretaceous have been discovered in the Ambrosio
Field, close to Cabimas, north of the Lake.
The prevailing production mechanisms
are solution gas, water drive, and compaction, as well as gas and/or water injection for
pressure maintenance in the reservoirs.
Later in this chapter, the Ta Juana,
Lower Lagunillas-07, B-6-X.03, and Ceuta
Eocene C/VLG-3676 are described as
examples of Eastern Coast reservoir .
Table 2.2
Formation
Member*
Gravity
API
Depth
M ft
OOIP
MMSTB
Recovery
Factor (%)
Drive**
2932
711
750
30
1,2
Misoa (b)
2934
7.113.5
7600
40
1,2,4
Guasare (c)
3538
1017.5
10
17
2,3
S/L/C (d)
3242
12.420
720
21.5
1,2,3
*(a) Miocene, (b) Eocene, (c) Paleocene, (d) Cretaceous Socuy/La Luna/Cogollo
** 1. Water, 2. Solution gas, 3. Gas cap, 4. Expansion
b) Center Lake
In the Center Lake area the most
important oil fields are Lama, Lamar and
Centro. Production comes primarily from the
Eocene (B and C sandstones) and partially from the Miocene La Rosa Formation,
Santa Barbara Member. Crudes are mainly
light. Light oil is also produced from the
Paleocene Guasare Formation limestones.
The Cogollo Group, including the Maraca,
Lisure and Apn Formations, as well as the
La Luna Formation and the Socuy Member,
all of Cretaceous age, are fractured
sandstones and light oil producers. Some
Lama Field characteristics, shown in the
Table 2.2, describe the Center Lake oil
accumulations in general terms.
c) Western coast
The areas most important fields are
Boscn, Mara-La Paz and Urdaneta northward and Tara-Manueles southward. In
general, oil from Basement and Cretaceous
limestones is light, and heavy to medium
from the Tertiary (Eocene, Misoa Formation
to the north, Mirador Formation to the
south). There are some exceptions, such as
heavy crudes from the Eocene Boscn and
Urdaneta Fields and 16API Cretaceous Mara
Field (see Cretaceous DM-115 reservoir description later in this chapter). The La Paz
Field produces light oil from the Basement
and Cretaceous; however, nearby the La
Concepcin Field is a light oil and gas
producer from the Tertiary. To the south,
medium to light oil accumulations are found
in the Tertiary, and the Cretaceous limestones contain gas and condensates. The
light to medium oil from the Cretaceous limestones are in the center zone, which includes
Alpuf, San Jose and Machiques Fields.
Characteristics of the oil-producing sands in the Lama Field, located in Center Lake.
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HYDROCARBON RESERVOIRS IN VENEZUELA
2) Falcn Basin
Figure 2.2
Formation
depth range
AGE
Sand
Member
A710
B
C
D
F
LOWER-MIDDLE MIOCENE
TERTIARY
AQA6
H
IJ
KL
MN
UP
R
S
Oficina
10005000 feet
Azul
Moreno
Naranja
Verde
Amarillo
Colorado
OLIGOCENE
T
Merecure
2501500 feet
a) Barinas
Heavy to medium crudes are produced from the Eocene GobeStratigraphic column Oficina Formation
rnador Formation (Members A
Greater Oficina Area (Source: Roger, J. V.
and B) and medium crude from
et al., 1989).
the Cretaceous Escandalosa Formation (Member P). The Pez-Mingo, Hato
and Sinco Fields are located in the southern
area; Silvestre (see reservoir P1/2 [0017] later
in this chapter) is in the center area, and
Figure 2.3a
40,000
30 Percentage of each region total
34.823
34.819
MMSTB
30,000
48
67
20,000
16.370
22
10.956
10,000
9.716
8.430
15
47
6.340
4.665
30
1
22
108
12
2.087
0
3
C
L M
XH
Venezuela
6.654
4
4
M H XH
Western
3.765
13
4.676
9
7
1.979
C
b) Apure
Light crudes come from Guafita
(Oligocene Carbonera Formation, Members
A and B) and La Victoria Fields
(Cretaceous Escandalosa Formation). The
reservoirs main drive mechanisms are water
and fluid expansion.
Eastern Province
1) Maturn sub-basin
3) BarinasApure Basin
Temblador
8002000 feet
CRETACEOUS
H XH
Eastern
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HYDROCARBON RESERVOIRS IN VENEZUELA
Figure 2.3b
Venezuela
25%
29%
Western
50%
65%
10%
Eastern
21%
Orinoco Belt
5%
0.2%
Western
Maracaibo
Barinas-Apure
95%
99.8%
5%
4%
Eastern
2%
San Tom*
9%
70%
13%
Anaco
11%
6%
27%
N.Monagas**
8%
S.Monagas
44%
Gurico
1%
Orinoco Belt
* Mainly Oficina
** Includes other
minor fields
Oil
Associated and
solution gas
Remaining oil and gas reserves (1996) by region and geographical area.
Figure 2.3c
Western
2%
1%
12%
Maracaibo
98%
Barinas-Apure
CL
88%
99%
H XH
Eastern
1%
2%
3%
2%
3%
10%
13%
55%
35%
41%
37%
23%
1%
M
5%
2%
11%
74%
Anaco
1%
San Tom
N.Monagas
49%
S.Monagas
37%
Gurico
95%
Orinoco Belt
XH
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HYDROCARBON RESERVOIRS IN VENEZUELA
Projects
Total (Active)
Water
Gas
Steam
Total
83 (54)
119 (83)
13 (12)
2 (0)
217 (149)
Injected Volume
MMBWPD
MMscf/D
920
Oil Production
MMBOPD
MMSTB
970
543
317
179
7138
1463
1287
323
1636
18,300*
Figure 2.4
Western
Eastern
20000
24%
MMSTB
18000
17,782
17,481
14,903
14000
13,903
12,187
10000
36 36
40
8013
6000
2
2000
1
25
792
37
5 4174
22
L M H XH
2879 3578
36 25 31 3 383
575
217
383
C
76%
L M H XH
Western
Venezuela
M H XH
Eastern
e) Orinoco Belt
The 8.9 million acres in the Orinoco
Belt area have been divided into four sectors
from east to west: Cerro Negro (see Bitor
Area reservoir description), Hamaca, Zuata
and Machete. For the next decade, 600
MBOPD of enhanced crude (synthetic) are
expected from five major projects. Also, an
additional production of 400 MBOPD is
expected, which would be used to prepare
and export Orimulsin (70% extra-heavy oil
with 29% water and 1% surfactant).
2) Gurico sub-basin
Figure 2.5a
400
30
Western
Eastern
388
42%
58%
300
MMSTB
285
35
281
35
200
207
176
182
44
28
25
100
105
103
45
22
27
22
35
28
3
2
C
M H XH
Venezuela
4
C
L M H XH
Western
35
22
7
C L M H XH
Eastern
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HYDROCARBON RESERVOIRS IN VENEZUELA
Figure 2.5b
5%
Venezuela
Western
37%
58%
Eastern
58%
42%
Orinoco Belt
8%
Western
0.6%
Maracaibo
Barinas-Apure
92%
1%
11%
99.4%
Eastern
6%
5%
1%
8%
Anaco
17%
San Tom
41%
48%
N.Monagas
S.Monagas
57%
Gurico
Orinoco Belt
Oil
5%
Associated and
solution gas
Gas*
Bscf
Original in place
838,680
291,629
14.5
66.6
Remaining reserves
72,666**
129,610
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HYDROCARBON RESERVOIRS IN VENEZUELA
Figure 2.6
West Mara
5
Maracaibo
Altagracia
Cabimas
B-6-X.03 1 Ta Juana
3
2 Lagunillas
LL-07
Bachaquero
Lake
Maracaibo
4
Ceuta
Barinas
Silvestre
6
0
Cumana
Barcelona
El Carito
40 km
El Furrial
11
9 10 Maturn Pedernales
Santa Rosa
8
50 km
Tucupita
Typical hydrocarbon
reservoirs
A total of 12 reservoirs are
identified in Fig. 2.6 and the following
table, and are considered typical of the
area in which they are located. Each of
these reservoirs is described below from the
production, geological, petrophysical and
reservoir engineering points of view.
oco
Oveja
7
0
50 km
Ciudad Bolvar
Ref.
Field
Reservoirs
Ta Juana
Lagunillas Formation
Lagunillas
Lower Lagunillas-07
Ta Juana
B-6-X-.03
Ceuta
Eocene C/VLG-3676
West Mara
Cretaceous DM-115
Silvestre
P1/2 (0017)
Oveja
J-3 (OM-100)
Santa Rosa
RG-14-COEF
Carito Central
Naricual Sands
10
El Furrial
Naricual Sands
11
Pedernales
P2 Sands
12
Cerro Negro
Morichal Member
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RESERVOIR: LAGUNILLAS FORMATION
Introduction
The Ta Juana Field (onshore) is located
northeast of Lake Maracaibo between
the towns of Cabimas and Lagunillas
(Fig. 2.7). It is divided into Principal Ta
Juana and East Ta Juana Fields on which
18 thermal projects (17 cyclic steam injection
and one steam drive injection) have been
parceled out. The field has a heavy oil
accumulation (original oil in place [OOIP] of
more than 11,000 MMSTB) extending over
an area of more than 39,000 acres. There
have been 2700 wells drilled, 1800 of which
are still active.
Figure 2.7
Maracaibo
Boscn
Cabimas
Tia Juana
Lagunillas
Bachaquero
Machango
Mene
Grande
Los
Claros
Figure 2.8
250'
'
250
U D
U
U D
750'
U
U D D
U D
U D
0'
U D
L D
D
U U
D D
75
U U
D D
U D
1250'
U D
U
D
125
0'
75
U D
0'
D U
D U
DU
D U
D U
D U
D U
1750
'
D U
D U
Lake
Maracaibo
Geology
a) Structure
D U
2250
'
12
50
U
D U
1750
'
'
Structural contour
D
Fault
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RESERVOIR: LAGUNILLAS FORMATION
c) Depositional environment
Formation (AGE)
Member
Figure 2.9
ILD
GR
0
(gAPI)
ILM
Depth
120 (ft) .2 (ohm-m) 2000
Lagunillas (MIOCENE)
Lower Lagunillas
2300
2400
Petrophysical properties
The formation is a sequence of shales
and high-porosity (approximately 36%), unconsolidated sandstones (Fig. 2.9). Permeabilities are between 2 and 6 darcies and
irreducible water saturation is approximately 10%. The primary clays are
kaolinite, illite and montmorillonite, whose
volumes may reach 10 to 20%. The typical
interpretation parameters for the WaxmanSmits equation are: a=1, m*=1.6, n*=2.0, and
rg=2.6 g/cm3. Water salinity is between
2500 and 3500 ppm equivalent NaCl.
2500
La Rosa
2600
Figure 2.10
Wells-month
4000
Wells-month
3000
2000
1000
80
60
400
40
20
0
0
Qo
Np
1500
M-6
SDI
CSI
Thermal
recovery Generalization
pilot
tests
150
0
'52
'60
'64
'68
'72
500
CSI+
Additives
Nationalization
Large scale
CSI test
'56
1000
shut-in due
to market
'76
'80
'84
Np (MMSTB)
Qo (MBOPD)
GOR
B, S &W
B, S & W (%)
GOR (scf/STB)
0
'88
'92
'96
Year
Production history of the Ta Juana reservoir.
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RESERVOIR: LAGUNILLAS FORMATION
Figure 2.11
Principal Ta Juana
East Ta Juana
R
A
APTJN
(Project A-3)
B
Proj. B/C-3
C
Proj. C-2/3 4
Proj. C-3/4
APTJEN
(C-7)
Proj. C-5
Proj. D-2/E-2
Project D-6
Proj. D/E-3
Proj. E-8
Proj.
H-7
APTJEE
K
Project M-6
(inj. alt.)
Project M-6
(inj. cont.)
Lake
Maracaibo
M
N
APTJES
Figure 2.12
Graphic scale
5 10 km
400 cm
400
20
Ta Juana
500
Lagunillas
400
0
Lake
Maracaibo
400
Bachaquero
50
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RESERVOIR: LOWER LAGUNILLAS07
Introduction
The Lower Lagunillas-07 (LL-07)
reservoir is located on Lake Maracaibos
eastern coast (offshore), in front of the
town of Lagunillas and north of
Bachaquero (Fig. 2.13). Its production life
started in 1926 and to date about 960 wells
that are approximately 4200 ft deep have
been completed. The reservoir covers an
estimated area of 31,000 acres and its OOIP
is 3830 MMSTB of heavy crude. Since 1984,
water from the Lagunillas Tank Yard has
been injected into the reservoir to maintain
its pressure, increase oil recovery and
eliminate the drainage of water effluents into
Lake Maracaibo.
Figure 2.13
Ta Juana
Lagunillas
LL-07
Lake
Maracaibo
Bachaquero
Isopach
60
650'
700
'
0'
Reservoir limit
D
20
34
Well
ke
Di
00'
Fault
0'
2000 Meters
550'
S. 55000
D
U
36
00
LL07
0'
0'
70
'
50
U
D
U
80
0'
40
0'
00
U D
'
50
UD
S. 60000
20
650'
0'
50'
0
35
'
U D
a) Structure
b) Stratigraphy
Structural
Geology
40
0'
40
0'
48
00'
D
U
46
00'
550'
U D
S. 65000
5
00
52
700'
00
'
0'
D
U
650'
5400'
350'
500'
E. 30000
E. 35000
E. 40000
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RESERVOIR: LOWER LAGUNILLAS07
c) Depositional environment
GR
Member
Formation (AGE)
Figure 2.15
(gAPI)
100
CALI
0.8
RHOB
ILD
Depth
(ft)
18
0.2
(in.)
2000 1.9
(ohm-m)
(g / cm3)
8.9
LaA
Laguna
3500
Lagunillas (MIOCENE)
LaB
LaC
3600
LaD
Petrophysical properties
Data from 800 wells, of which only 31
have porosity logs, were used to determine
LL-07 reservoir petrophysical properties; a
few cores were also taken. A 12-ohm-m
resistivity was considered the cutoff to
estimate NOS thickness. The range of
sandstone thickness, porosity and oil saturation for each of the Lower Lagunillas Member
layers are as follows:
LLA
Lower Lagunillas
3700
LLB
3800
La Rosa
Sta. La.
Brb. Rosa
LLC
LRA
3900
LL-A
LL-B
LL-C
Thickness (ft)
2051
2654
1743
Porosity (%)
18.629.1
22.429.7
27.133.1
76.285.0
30.267.2
LRB
400
200
0
2000
1000
0
80
40
0
40
20
0
'56
'60
'64
'68
'72
'76
'80
'84
'88
'92
'96
Year
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RESERVOIR: LOWER LAGUNILLAS07
Figure 2.17
500
150
400
120
300
90
200
60
100
30
Qiw (MBPD)
Wi (MMSTB)
0
'84
'85
'86
'87
'88
'89
'90
'91
'92
'93
'94
'95
'96
Year
Fluid properties
Data from pressure-volume-temperature
(PVT) analyses (samples taken at 3700 ft
subsea and 140F) were used to determine
the LL-07 reservoir fluid properties, as
shown below:
Original pressure
1785
psia
1785
psia
Oil FVF @ Pb
1.145
RB/STB
GOR @ Pb
213
scf/STB
Oil viscosity @ Pb
21
cp
Oil gravity
18
API
3828 MMSTB
Recovery factor*
44.75%
Remaining reserves
201 MMSTB
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RESERVOIR: LOWER LAGUNILLAS07
Figure 2.18
1800
Pressure (psia)
1600
1400
Injection start
February 1984
1200
1000
800
600
~
~
~
~
0
0
200
400
600
800
1000
1200
1400
1600
RESERVOIR: B-6-X.03
Figure 2.19
Maracaibo
Cabimas
Lake
Maracaibo
Ta
Juana
B6XX.03
Introduction
The B-6-X.03 reservoir is located
offshore of the eastern coast of Lake
Maracaibo in the North Eocene area of the
Ta Juana Field (Fig. 2.19). It is characterized
by a medium OOIP of 2300 MMSTB, and by
gas injection at the top of the reservoir
combined with four water injection projects.
Cumulative oil production since 1945 has
been 456 MMSTB from 240 producers
associated with 70 water injectors and two
gas injectors.
Geology
a) Structure
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RESERVOIR: B-6-X.03
b) Stratigraphy
Figure 2.20
B-6-X.49
N
B-6-X.01
B-6-X.29
NORTH-03
70
4
0
00
U D
B-6-X.02
NORTH-02
DU
00
5
0
470
B-6-X.93
U D
NORTH-01
D U
SOUTH-03
c) Depositional environment
D U
50
SOUTH-01
B-6-X.10
550
600
Petrophysical properties
The source of basic petrophysical data
is from 24 cores from 24 wells with almost
1500 porosity and 1900 permeability
measurements. The correlation between
permeability and porosity is very poor for
each of the available cores. Therefore, two
groups of correlations have been established
according to the interpreted environment of
deposition, which affects the porous matrix.
SOUTH-02
A-01
UD
Structural
Area limit
B-6-X.85
Fault
Anticline axis
Table 2.4
Area
Datum
ft subsea
Temp.
F
Gravity
API
Rsi
scf/STB
Pb
psia
Bob
RB/STB
Mob
cp
B-6-X.03
5600
184
25.0
305
1720
1.201
3.80
North01
5600
184
25.0
305
1720
1.201
3.80
North02
5275
178
26.0
379
1816
1.238
2.15
North03
5200
177
26.5
396
1838
1.246
2.10
South01
5800
187
22.1
260
1646
1.179
5.30
South02
5950
190
20.9
226
1602
1.162
7.10
South03
5200
177
26.5
396
1838
1.246
2.10
Fluid property average values for the six regions that divide the B-6-X.03 reservoir.
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RESERVOIR: B-6-X.03
Figure 2.21
Member
Formation
(AGE)
ILD
1
(ohm-m)
SFLU
1000
(ohm-m)
RXO
1000
45
(p.u.)
RHOB
-15
(ohm-m)
1000
1.9
(g cm3)
2.9
CALI
4
14
(gAPI)
150
B5X
(in.)
GR
Depth
(ft)
NPHI
6800
B6X
Misoa (EOCENE)
6900
Permeability
63 to 144 md
Porosity
14 to 15.2%
Oil saturation
77.7 to 85.2%
Fluid properties
Average fluid property values for the six
regions that divide the B-6-X.03 reservoir are
shown in Table 2.4:
The reservoirs formation water analysis
indicates 8000 ppm chlorine with 3000 ppm
bicarbonates.
7000
7100
B7X
The resulting two equations were considered reliable tools for obtaining area
distributions and permeability trends in all
reservoir layers and sectors. Based on 55
drainage capillary pressure tests, a correlation of the irreducible water saturation with
permeability and porosity was elaborated.
The ranges of the petrophysical properties
are as follows:
7200
Table 2.5
Area (acres)
Thickness (ft)
OOIP (MMSTB)
Prim. recov. factor (%)
Sec. recov. factor (%)
Remain. reserves (MMSTB)
B-6-X.03
North-01
North-02
South-01
South-02
16,663
1200
2030
1920
2240
186
186
186
186
166
2528
164
277
247
257
20.4
26.9
29.0
26.6
18.1
9.8
20.8
12.7
14.5
13.2
308
13
17
58
water injection.
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RESERVOIR: B-6-X.03
Figure 2.22
180
Number of producers
120
60
0
400 Cumulative oil production (MMSTB)
200
0
Oil production rate per calendar day (MSTB)
Liquid production rate per calendar day (MSTB)
40
0
4 GOR (Mscf/STB)
2
0
B, S & W (%)
50
0
'54 '56 '58 '60 '62 '64
Year
Figure 2.23
150
120
90
60
30
0
100
75
50
25
0
Cumulative water injection (MMSTB)
Cumulative gas injection (Bscf)
400
200
0
'72
'74
'76
'78
'80
'82
'84
'86
'88
'90
'92
'94
'96
Year
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RESERVOIR: B-6-X.03
Figure 2.24
2600
2400
Pressure (psia)
2200
2000
1800
1600
1400
1200
1000
1945
1955
1965
1975
1985
1995
Year
Starting date
South block
North01
Type
Volume
MMbbl
1996 Average
MBWPD
6/73 (a)
Flank
44.0
12/80 (b)
Pattern (c)
137.3
South01
1/83
Pattern (c)
147.5
16.0
North02
11/84
Pattern (c)
135.9
29.4
South02
5/86
Pattern (c)
70.4
10.6
Total
535.1
56.0
Bachaquero
Mene
Grande
III
IV
XI
VII
XII
Barua
Motatn
Ceuta: VLG-3676
Introduction
The Eocene C/VLG-3676 reservoir is
located southeast of Lake Maracaibo
(Block VII) and southwest of Ceuta Field
(Fig. 2.25), extending over one of its
subdivisions called Area 2 Sur. With a
proven oil area of 28,000 acres containing an
OOIP of almost 2800 MMSTB of light oil, the
Area 2 Sur is considered one of the most
attractive fields in Ceuta, confirmed by the
high productivity of its completed wells and
the potential reservoir development to the
south.
FIELD: CEUTA
Geology
a) Structure
Field.
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RESERVOIR: EOCENE C/VLG-3676
FIELD: CEUTA
Figure 2.26
Structural
D
13900'U
0'
1460
D
U
Well
14000'
141
D
00
142
00'
U
Fault
00
1
14
14200'
14300'
14400'
14500'
14600'
U
ault
14700'
6 86 f
14800'
14900'
D U
V L G- 3
15000'
15100'
15200'
15300'
VLC-0 7 0 f a
ult
15400'
15500'
15600'
15700'
15800'
15900'
16000'
16100'
16200'
0'
1630
16400'
16500'
'
16700
16900'
16600'
16800'
17000'
17100'
2 19
b) Stratigraphy
VLG-3676 reservoir.
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RESERVOIR: EOCENE C/VLG-3676
FIELD: CEUTA
Figure 2.27
RXO
0.2
(ohm-m)
IMPH
2000
0.2
(ohm-m)
2000 45
Sand
Formation
(AGE)
GR
(gAPI)
120
CALI
0.6
C-1
(in.)
16
Depth
(ft)
16200
Misoa (EOCENE)
16400
C-2
16600
C-3
16800
C-4
17000
NPHI
IDPH
0.2
(ohm-m)
(p.u.)
-15
Sand
NOS
(ft)
Porosity
(%)
Water
saturation (%)
C-1
1247
11.514.3
2843
C-2
62.595
12.014.4
1935
C-3
2667.5
12.013.5
2535
C-4
010.5
11.316.7
3948
RHOB
2000 1.9
(g / cm3)
2.9
10,000 psia
3442 psia
Oil FVF @ pb
1.791 RB/STB
GOR @ pb
1148 scf/STB
Oil viscosity @ pb
0.253 cp
Oil gravity
36.8API
C-5
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RESERVOIR: EOCENE C/VLG-3676
FIELD: CEUTA
Figure 2.28
OOIP
2780 MMSTB
Recovery factor
17%
Remaining reserves
437 MMSTB
Wells-month
30
15
80
60
40
20
0
B, S & W (%)
0
Oil rate
Np
30
30
20
20
10
10
0
'77
'79
'81
'83
'85
'87
'89
'91
'93
'95
NP (MMSTB)
0
'97
Year
Figure 2.29
10000
Pressure (psia)
Several
wells
8000
6000
4000
~
~
~
~
0
'86
'88
'90
'92
'94
'96
'98
Year
2 21
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RESERVOIR: CRETACEOUS DM115
Introduction
The Cretaceous DM-115 reservoir of the
West Mara Field is located northeast of
Maracaibo approximately 8 miles west of the
Mara Field (Fig. 2.30). Since 1951 it has
produced a 15API undersaturated heavy oil
from the Cretaceous (datum: 5500 ft subsea).
Production is mainly from the Apn
Formation in the lower section of the
Cogollo Group; however, all the wells are
completed with the entire Cogollo Group
(1400 ft) open to production.
Figure 2.30
West Mara
Mara
La Paz
Bajo
Grande
Boscn
Lake
Maracaibo
0'
90
0'
10
D
U
'
90
0'
70
0'
0'
730
50
0'
0'
0'
50
0'
10
50
0'
50
0'
30
D
U
0'
90
Structural
D
a) Structure
890
70
0'
5
70
0'
00'
41
D
U
90
0'
0'
90
0'
90
0'
'
00
0'
0'
10
D
U
0'
0
37
0'
'
2900
770
10
0'
'
'
00
930
1
4
8900
D U
7300
'
00
90
10
6
U D
0'
0'
Figure 2.31
Geology
Fault
Well
0.5
1.0 km
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RESERVOIR: CRETACEOUS DM115
b) Stratigraphy
Figure 2.32
Formation
Group (AGE)
HLLD
GR
(gAPI)
150
(ohm-m)
HLLS
20000
0.3
(V/V)
NPHI
(ohm-m)
RXOZ
20000
0.3
(ohm-m)
20000
2.1
(V/V)
RHOB
(g cm3)
Maraca
Depth
(ft)
Lisure
4250
4500
CMRP
2.7
4750
Apn
5000
5250
5500
Petrophysical properties
Modern resistivity and porosity logs
(Fig. 2.32) were run in the Cretaceous
formations in various wells. This information
was complemented by lithology logs with
the results shown in Table 2.7.
The Archie equation (a=1, m=1.5 to 2.2,
n=2) was used to calculate the hydrocarbon
saturation in the virgin zone. Selection criteria were established for the NOS and the net
oil limestone (NOL) with cutoffs as follows:
porosity less than 3%, water saturation
60% and Vsh 0%. Water salinity is between
30,000 and 40,000 ppm equivalent NaCl.
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RESERVOIR: CRETACEOUS DM115
Tabla2.7
Formation
NOL/NOS
(ft)
Porosity
(%)
Water saturation
(%)
La Luna
24/125
<3
1025
Cogollo Group
Maraca
Lisure
Apn
7/10
9/100
115/288
912
912
1012
1214
2530
2025
0/18
810
20100
Ro Negro
Fluid properties
Results from a PVT analysis of 15.7API
oil gravity taken at 5500 ft subsea at 157F
are shown in Fig. 2.33.
Figure 2.33
200
1.14
180
1.12
Solution gas
(scf STB)
1.10
pb = 1117 psia
1.08
120
100
1.06
80
1.04
60
1.02
40
160
140
1.00
20
0
0
400
800
1200
1600
2000
2400
2800
3200
0.98
3600
Pressure (psia)
GOR (scf/STB)
Figure 2.34
3000
1500
20
10
Qo (MBOPD)
0
Qo
NP
12
20
9
6
10
3
0
'72
'74
'76
'78
'80
'82
'84
'86
'88
'90
'92
'94
'96
0
'98
30
Year
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RESERVOIR: CRETACEOUS DM115
Figure 2.35
2800
2700
Several
wells
Pressure (psia)
2600
2500
2400
2300
2200
2100
2000
1900
5
10
15
20
Figure 2.36
Barinas
Northern
Area
Silvan Maporal
Estero
Palmita
Central
Area
Silvestre
Hato
Southern
Area
Sinco
Paez-Mingo
2 25
Introduction
Reservoir P-1/2 (0017) from Silvestre
Field is located approximately 22 miles
southeast of the town of Barinas (Fig.
2.36). The field covers an area of 482 acres
with an average sandstone thickness of 59 ft.
Commercial production started in 1962, two
years after its discovery. This is a highly
undersaturated reservoir and its original
pressure was 4120 psia versus a bubble point
pressure of 175 psia. The field is produced
by electrical-submersible pumping. The oil
characteristics are: 23.5API medium oil,
practically without gas (GOR 19 scf/STB) but
with a large volume of water that represents
about 60% of the total fluid production.
F I E L D : S I LV E S T R E
Geology
a) Structure
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RESERVOIR: P-1/2 (0017)
F I E L D : S I LV E S T R E
b) Stratigraphy
Figure 2.37
Structural
9500'
Isopach
D
Fault
W.
O.
C.
.@
Well
0'
45
O.
U D
40
0'
U
D
25'
D
0'
0
93
50'
125'
100'
75'
Figure 2.38
NPHI
Formation
(AGE)
Sand
La Morita
(CRET.)
ILM
2
GR
0
(gAPI)
200
Depth
(ft)
(ohm-m)
2000
.45
RHOB
ILD
2
(ohm-m)
-.15
(V/V)
2000
11650
1.9
2.9
(g cm3)
DTCO
160
40
(ms ft )
DTSM
240
40
(ms ft)
P1
11750
Petrophysical properties
Discovery well core data and other
porosity logs were used to determine P-1/2
(0017) reservoir rock properties. Average
values are shown in the following table:
11800
From cores
P2
Escandalosa (CRETACEOUS)
11700
11850
Porosity (%)
18.7
39.0
R1
Permeability (md)
556
From logs
20.1
34.0
90753*
*Timur equation
Other data: area: 482 acres; thickness: 59 ft
R2
11900
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RESERVOIR: P 1/2 (0017)
F I E L D : S I LV E S T R E
6000
Wp
Np
B, S & W
Pressure
5000
4000
4120
3850
3726
3000
3800
3600
3354
2000
50
1000
10
'62
'65
'70
'75
'80
'85
'90
'95
B, S & W (%)
Figure 2.39
'97
Year
2 27
Original pressure, pi
4120
psia
175
psia
GOR @ pb
19
scf/STB
Oil FVF @ pi
1.1133
RB/STB
Oil FVF @ pb
1.153
RB/STB
Oil viscosity @ pb
2.20
cp
Oil gravity
23.5
API
The reservoir characteristics and behavior indicate that the prevailing production
mechanism is a strong water drive.
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RESERVOIR: J-3 (OM100)
Introduction
The J-3 (OM-100) reservoir, from the
Oveja Field, is located approximately 13
miles southwest of San Tom in the State of
Anzotegui (Fig. 2.40) and extends over
2300 acres. Commercial production was
initiated in June 1954. Starting in 1957, in
order to maintain the declining pressure,
water was injected for three years and then
gas from 1963 to the present. The reservoir
has produced approximately 55 MMSTB of
20API heavy oil, of which 37 MMSTB
(more than 25% of the OOIP was due to gas
injection, which maintained the reservoir
pressure for more than 12 years.
Figure 2.40
10 km
Guara
Central
SanTom
Oficina
Norte
Oficina
Central
FIELD: OVEJA
Guara Este
Ganso
El Tigre
Ostra
Oca
Oleos
Oveja
Miga
Yopales Sur
Geology
a) Structure
Figure 2.41
Structural
Pinch-out
O .O
.W.
C@
U
D
Producer
34
26'
(ES
T)
3
40
0'
33
50'
30
0'
Injector (gas)
Injector (water)
D
Fault
Average values
Range
30.2
10.9
2384
29.033.4
4.817.0
9584267
Porosity (%)
Water saturation (%)
Permeability (md)
O.G.O
.C
D U
0'
10
.@
3
- 3 18
2
1' ( 00
ES '
T)
0'
325
11.52
18.6
13.5
0.103
ohm-m
%
%
ohm-m
U
D
-319
1
U
D
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RESERVOIR: J-3 (OM100)
FIELD: OVEJA
Fluid properties
Reservoir J-3 (OM-100) fluid properties
were derived from correlation with other
similar reservoirs. Those parameters, as well
as others of importance, are shown below:
Figure 2.42
GR
Formation (AGE)
(gAPI)
150
SFLU
SP
Sand
200
(MV)
0.0
0.2
(ohm-m)
CALI
0.8
Depth
(ft)
18
(in.)
NPHI
2000 60
(p.u.)
0.2
(ohm-m)
0.0
RHOB
ILO
(g/cm3)
2000 1.65
2.65
I2
4000
Datum
3300
ft subsea
Temperature
149
Initial pressure
1482
psia
1482
psia
GOR @ Pb
209
scf/STB
Oil FVF @ Pb
1.127
RB/STB
Gas FVF @ Pb
1667
RCF/scf
Oil viscosity @ Pb
4.65
cp
Oil gravity
20.0
API
I3
I4
I5
I6
J1
4100
J2
J3
K
L0
4200
L1
OOIP
149.3 MMSTB
L2
Recovery factor*
37.5%
Remaining reserves
0.7 MMSTB
Figure 2.45
*Includes primary (12.6%) and secondary (24.2%)
mainly from gas injection.
Figure 2.43
20
80
60
40
10
Gp
GOR
20
70
0
B, S & W (%)
Wp (MSTB)
6
4
30
2
0
10
0
Qo (MBOPD)
Np (MMSTB)
60
40
5
20
0
'54
'57
'60
'63
'66
'69
'72
'75
'78
'81
'84
'87
'90
'93
0
'96
Np
Qo
Wp
B, S & W
The J-3 (OM-100) reservoir was discovered in 1952 but commercial production
did not start until 1954. The cumulative production to date has reached 55 MMSTB of
oil, 7 MMSTB of water and 74 Bscf of gas
(Fig. 2.43) through natural flow and
mechanical pumping. By the end of 1996,
the average daily production was 370 BOPD
with 39% B, S & W and 11,000 scf/STB GOR.
The almost 25% recovery of the OOIP was
due mainly to the large volume (more than
100 Bscf) of gas injected into this heavy
crude reservoir (Fig. 2.44). Oil recovery by
natural depletion was less than 13%.
Year
Production history of the J-3 (OM-100) reservoir.
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RESERVOIR: J-3 (OM100)
FIELD: OVEJA
Figure 2.44
1700
140
Gas inj.
Water inj.
120
1300
100
1100
80
900
60
700
40
500
20
300
'53
'61
'57
'65
'69
'73
'77
'81
'85
'89
Year
'93
0
'97
10
1500
Pressure (psia)
Pressure
RESERVOIR: RG-14-COEF
Figure 2.45
La Vieja
La Ceiba
10 km
Greater
Anaco Area
Santa
Rosa
El Roble
Anaco
San Joaqun
Santa Ana
El Toco
Anaco thrust
fault
Location map of
the Santa Rosa Field.
Introduction
Reservoir RG-14-COEF, discovered in
1947, is located approximately 6 miles
north of Anaco, in the State of Anzotegui
(Fig. 2.45), and extends over approximately
26,000 acres. The reservoir is characterized
by a large gas condensate cap covering a
light oil leg. Gas injection started in 1959
after a sharp pressure drop in the reservoir.
After cumulative injection of 2220 Bscf of
gas, the oil and condensate cumulative
production is 118 MMSTB, which represents
a 61.2% recovery from the original volume
of liquids in place.
Geology
a) Structure
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RESERVOIR: RG-14-COEF
b) Stratigraphy
Figure 2.46
50 60O
40
10 20
5
.W.O.C. @ -1
30 40 50
....
....
....
....
50
1500
. @ -10500(Est
.)
O.C.O.C
....
....
10000
60
(Es 70 80
t.)
70
....
....
40
....
60
. ...
9000
80
90
100
70
000
700
8000
Structural
Isopach
Fault
Oil producer
Gas injector
00
c) Depositional environment
N
AT10
AT30
GR
150
AT60
( gAPI )
Sand
Formation (AGE)
AT20
200
SP
( mV )
100
Depth
(ft)
8450
0.1
Reservoir RG-14 corresponds to the COE and CO-F sandstone subdivisions of the
Colorado Member, which is the lowermost
member of Oficina Formation of Early to
Middle Miocene age. The CO-EF sands are
divided into four bodies: CO-E1, CO-E2, COE3 and CO-F1, which are separated by
shales that are locally discontinuous and
coalescing. The NOS increases from
southwest to northeast and reaches its
greatest thickness of 70 to 90 ft in the northcentral sector.
AT90
( ohm-m )
1000
COD
8500
COE
8550
COF1
8600
COF2
COF3
8650
Petrophysical properties
Petrophysical properties were determined from porosity, resistivity, gamma ray
logs (Fig. 2.47), and core analysis data.
Average rock properties for the gas
condensate cap and the oil leg are as
follows:
Oil leg
zone
56
40
Area (acres)
3500
22,670
Porosity (%)
10
13.8
Permeability (md)
150
300
20
15
Thickness (ft)
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RESERVOIR: RG-14-COEF
Figure 2.48
120
30
Qo
Np
100
80
15
60
10
40
20
'60
'66
'72
'78
'84
'90
0
'96
3000
2000
Pressure (psia)
20
4000
25
0
'54
5000
Pressure
1000
Year
4445
psia
4240
psia
GOR @ pb
1476
scf/STB
Oil FVF @ pb
1.944
RB/STB
Oil viscosity @ pb
0.25
cp
Oil gravity
37.2
API
Initial GOR
1881
scf/STB
Condensate
MMSTB
Oil
MMSTB
Gas
Bscf
131.4
60.7
1345.6
73.2
60.0
Remaining reserves
8.1
6.7
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RESERVOIR: RG-14-COEF
Figure 2.49
400
Qgi
Pressure
Gi
2500
350
1500
200
150
1000
100
500
50
0
'54
'60
'66
'72
'78
'84
'90
0
'96
4000
3000
2000
Pressure (psia)
2000
250
300
5000
1000
Year
Figure 2.50
North Carito
West
Carito
El Furrial
Maturn
Central
Carito
Santa
Brbara
2 33
50 km
Introduction
The Carito Field is located 25 miles west
of Maturn, the Monagas State capital (Fig.
2.50). The field has been divided into three
areas: North Carito, West Carito and Center
Carito. The latter, with almost 1900 MMSTB
original fluids (oil and condensate) in place
of what has been locally called the Naricual
Formation, has one of the basins largest
hydrocarbon reserves. The 1400-ft thick
sandstone is characterized by a huge gas
condensate cap and has a peculiarity in that
the dew pressure, as well as the bubble
point pressure in the oil leg, varies with
depth, resulting in quite substantial changes
in fluid properties and type of produced
crude.
Geology
a) Structure
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RESERVOIR: NARICUAL SANDS
c) Depositional environment
Figure 2.51
Structural
D
1700
Fault
17200'
17000'
16800'16
600'
16400'
Producer
U
Injector
0'
0'
1 6 00
U
1 50
14 0 0 0 '
U D
0'
40
14
14 6 0 0 '
1 4 8 0 0'
1 5 0 0 0'
14
0'
80
00
14 4 0 0 '
60
14
U
D
D
U
14 0 0 0 '
15
166
00'
D
D
14 2 0 0 '
15000'
'
1 5 2 0 0'
15000
'
00
0'
0'
U
D
b) Stratigraphy
The locally named Naricual Formation, which is still under study, has been
divided into three sandstone bodies: Lower
Naricual (700 ft thickness), Middle Naricual
(400 ft thickness) and Upper Naricual (400 ft
thickness). All the Naricual section is composed of sandy layers interbedded with
shales of variable thickness and extent. The
Naricual underlies the Carapita Formation
shales of Oligo-Miocene age. The pressure
behavior in these Naricual sandstone
packages is uniform and similar, indicating
some type of vertical communication.
Petrophysical properties
The formation is a sequence of
sandstones and shales interbedded with coal
layers, all of which are clearly seen on
regular logs (Fig. 2.52). More difficult to
observe are the sandstones containing tar,
which are found at some levels in the
reservoir. The main producing facies have
porosities between 11 and 15%. Permeabilities are from 40 to 1000 md and the
irreducible water saturations are low (10 to
15%). They contain relatively small amounts
of kaolinite and carbonate cement. However,
facies with porosities of 7% and shale
volumes up to 30% are also considered
productive. Typical log interpretation parameters are m and n=1.8, and formation
water salinity=13,000 ppm (NaCl). Permeability varies considerably with porosity and
clay content, and is not easy to determine
accurately. OBM is used routinely.
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RESERVOIR: NARICUAL SANDS
LLD
CALI
Sand
Formation
(AGE)
Figure 2.52
(in.)
(gAPI)
GR
200
NPHI
DTCO
40
-.15 140
(ms ft )
(V/V)
RHOB
DTSM
1.9
2.9 240
40
(g cm3)
(ms ft)
.45
14
LLS
Depth
(ft)
MSFL
1
(ohm-m)
1000
Fluid properties
The results of 22 PVT analyses from the
oil leg and five from the gas condensate cap,
as well as pressure measurements and initial
production tests, show a fluid distribution
from top to bottom as: gas, condensate,
volatile, light and medium crude (Fig. 2.53).
This gradation leads to a variation of fluid
properties with depth, as can be observed in
Table 2.8. Other important data are indicated
below:
"Upper Naricual"
14200
Datum
14,400 ft subsea
Average temperature
280F
11,367 psia
Oil gravity
2032API
33.535.5API
14600
"Middle Naricual"
"Naricual" (OLIGOCENE)
14400
14800
"Lower Naricual"
15000
1883 MMSTB
Recovery factor*
58.0%
Remaining reserves
838 MMSTB
15200
*Primary (28%) and secondary (30%)
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RESERVOIR: NARICUAL SANDS
Table 2.8
Zone
Sat. P
psia
Oil FVF
RB/STB
Init. GOR
scf/STB
Oil visc.
cp
Cond. content
STB/MMscf
9220
2.047
1870
0.156
184
8375
2.043
1844
0.156
228
7445
2.038
1816
0.157
307
Gas/oil interph.
11,300
2.058
1932
0.155
307
Upper oil
5500
1.890
1531
0.169
32
Middle oil
4000
1.524
864
0.415
Lower oil
3500
1.430
686
0.640
Fluid property variations of the Naricual Sands in the Carito Central Field.
Figure 2.53
12,000
14,000
Saturation
pressure
16,000
Original
pressure
O.W.O.C @16,585 ft
17,000
0
10
11
12
13
Pressure (Mpsia)
Fluids column of the Naricual Sands in the Carito Central Field.
Figure 2.54
300
140
Qo
Np
250
100
200
80
150
60
100
40
Np (MMSTB)
Qo (MBOPD)
120
50
20
0
Qg
Gp
400
500
400
300
300
200
200
100
Gp (Bscf)
Qg (MMscf/D)
100
0
'88
'89
'90
'91
'92
'93
'94
'95
'96
'97
0
'98
Year
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RESERVOIR: NARICUAL SANDS
Figure 2.55
North
Carito
West
Carito
El Furrial
Maturn
Central
Carito
Santa
Brbara
50 km
Location map of
El Furrial Field.
FIELD: EL FURRIAL
Introduction
El Furrial Field is located in north
Monagas State, approximately 22 miles west
of Maturn (Fig. 2.55). The locally named
Naricual Formation, containing 6900
MMSTB OOIP, is considered one of the
largest medium-gravity oil reserves in the
area. The hydrocarbon column consists of an
asphaltene type of crude, characterized by
the variation of API oil gravity, asphaltene
content and thermodynamic properties with
depth. The reservoirs are volumetric-type and
highly undersaturated, without gas caps, and
have a bitumen layer that inhibits the aquifer
activity. To prevent pressure dropping down
to the critical point, where asphaltenes
precipitate, water was injected into the
reservoir. This will substantially increase the
total oil recovery.
Geology
a) Structure
N
U
El Corozo
'
0
00
0'
00
'
-1
60
00
-1 '
60
0
0'
-1
60
0
60
-1 D
D
U
-1
50
00
'
-1
Structural
D
Carito
Fault
Oil producer
Injector
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RESERVOIR: NARICUAL SANDS
FIELD: EL FURRIAL
ILD
CALI
6
Sand
Form. (AGE)
Figure 2.57
(in.)
16
GR
0
(gAPI)
200
Depth
(ft)
NPHI
(ohm-m)
ILM
2000
.45
(ohm-m) 2000
1.9
(V/V)
RHOB
(g cm3)
-.15
2.9
15000
"Upper Naricual"
15100
15200
15300
"Middle Naricual"
15400
15500
Naricual Formation
partial log in El Furrial
c) Depositional environment
Field.
Table 2.9
Sand
Petrophysical properties
Average petrophysical properties for
each Naricual Sands are shown in Table 2.9.
Pressure build-up tests and drill stem
tests characterized these Naricual Sands
as relatively homogeneous and of high
flow capacity.
The Simandoux equation was used to
determine the water saturation (m and
n=1.89, a=0.81). Formation water salinity is
approximately 18000 ppm equivalent NaCl.
Porosity was calculated through an equation
where matrix and fluid densities were 2.65
and 0.89 g/cm3, respectively. Permeability
was considered to be a function of effective
porosity, water saturation and shaliness,
which in the best zones is low (less
than 5%).
Fluid properties
There is a linear relationship between
depth and temperature. The geothermal
gradient in El Furrial Field is 1.43F/100 ft
with 272F at 13,000 ft subsea. There are
substantial variations in the chemical
characteristics of the fluids and the
hydrocarbon thermodynamic properties in
both horizontal and vertical directions,
which are related to API oil gravity, as
shown in Table 2.10.
Variations
in
the
hydrocarbon
thermodynamic properties have resulted in
the formation of a high-viscosity bituminous
layer of variable thickness. This layer occurs
at the base of the structure and all across the
field. Likewise, an approximate 350-ft
thickness of medium crude to bitumen
transition zone has been found. Three
different fluid sectors are shown in the next
table (depths are in ft subsea):
Porosity
(%)
Permeability
(md)
Water
saturation (%)
NOS
(ft)
Lower Naricual
14.8
268
8.3
290
Middle Naricual
15.1
370
7.7
162
North
15,400
15,800
15,700
Upper Naricual
15.3
509
7.2
220
South
14,650
14,900
14,800
East
15,250
15,400
15,300
Sector
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RESERVOIR: NARICUAL SANDS
FIELD: EL FURRIAL
Figure 2.58
Pressure (psia)
12000
Upper Nar.
Medium Nar.
Lower Nar.
10000
8000
6000
Qo
Np
700
Qo (MBOPD)
600
500
400
200
300
200
100
100
0
0
'86
'87
'88
'89
'90
'91
'92
'93
'94
'95
6881 MMSTB
Recovery factor*
46.65%
Remaining reserves
2431 MMSTB
Np (MMSTB)
300
OOIP
'96
Year
Asphaltene
(% weight)
Sulfur
(% weight)
Vanadium
(ppm)
Iron
(ppm)
0,636,0
0,692,41
6,4562
2,21391,0
pb
(psia)
GOR @ pb
(scf/STB)
Bo @ pb
(RB/STB)
Oil viscosity
@ pb (cp)
48601517
1436245
1,9151,249
0,263,2
Thermodynamic properties:
Oil gravity
(API)
29,6< 8
Figure 2.59
600
500
Cumulative injection
Injection rate
550 MBWPD
plant
400
400 MBWPD
plant
300
200
100 6 MBWPD
plant
50 MBWPD
plant
0
'92
'93
'94
'95
'96
Year
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RESERVOIR: NARICUAL SANDS
RESERVOIR: P2 SANDSTONES
Figure 2.60
Caripito
Guanoco
Pedernales
0
Maturn
40 km
Introduction
The Pedernales Field is on the northern
margin of the Orinoco delta in the
Amacuro Delta Territory (Fig. 2.60). It
lies beneath mangrove swamps and
tide-influenced river channels. The P2
sands are the main producers of the La
Pica Formation. The field was
discovered in 1933 but was shut-in for
long periods of time because of World
War II, remote access and contract
expirations with different operators. In
March 1993 an Operating Services
Agreement was signed to reactivate and
develop the Pedernales area. A total of 76
MMSTB of heavy to medium oil has been
estimated as proven reserves, as well as 377
MMSTB probable recoverable oil reserves.
Geology
a) Structure
FIELD: EL FURRIAL
characteristics into consideration, the prevailing drive mechanism was rock and fluid
expansion until 1992, during the natural
depletion period; later on, expansion was
assisted by a water injection secondary
recovery project, which maintained the
pressure above the bubble point.
FIELD: PEDERNALES
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RESERVOIR: P2 SANDSTONES
FIELD: PEDERNALES
b) Stratigraphy
Figure 2.61
N
EENE
Cotorra
Island
'
00
90
ENE
'
00
70
'
00
60
'
00
50
NE
'
0
00
'
00
40'
00
30 0'
0
20
Central
c) Depositional environment
SW
9000'
'
00
20 00'
10
8000'
7000' 00'
'60 00'
50
Structural
Parcel limit
Fault
Well
Sand
Member
Formation
(AGE)
ICM
0.2
GR
(gAPI)
150
Depth
(ft)
Top P2
4900
5000
P2
5100
Pedernales
NPHI
2000 60
IDL
Top Perdernales
La Pica (MIO-PLIOCENE)
(ohm-m)
5200
5300
5400
0.2
(ohm-m)
(p.u.)
1.65
(g / cm3)
0.0
RHOB
2000
2.65
Petrophysical properties
Petrophysical studies of wireline logs
and limited cores show the lithology in the
Pedernales to be predominantly sandstones,
siltstones and shales. Clays are mainly illite
with some kaolinite and smectite. The
sandstones are fine- to medium-grained and
have good to moderate sorting with little or
no cementation. In the finer, shalier
sandstones, irreducible water can be high.
There is good agreement between core
and porosity logs. Water salinity is
approximately 20,000 ppm (NaCl) and m
and n are less than 2.0. Permeability was
estimated using available log and core data
and crossed-checked against test data. Cutoff
criteria to define net sand thickness were
60%, 13% and 50% for volume shale,
porosity and water saturation, respectively.
5500
P5
Top P5
5600
2
41
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RESERVOIR: P2 SANDSTONES
FIELD: PEDERNALES
Fluid properties
The Pedernales sandstones contain
undersaturated oil of 17 to 23API oil gravity
with 3% sulfur. Fluid data are limited and of
poor quality. Reservoir fluid properties were
derived using an equation of state that considers the variation of properties with depth.
Results at a datum of 5500 ft TVD subsea are
shown below:
Figure 2.63
SW
Central
NE
ENE
Top Ped
Upper sand
"sheet"
Basin
fill
Base
Ped
Am ac ur o Me mb e r
Pedernales Field.
3200
18333461
2671
10.318.2
13.3
1.131.24
1.19
GOR @ pb (scf/STB)
268558
413
1723
21.5
correlation in the
Most likely
29003400
SW-ENE stratigraphic
Range
Original pressure (psia)
128254
ft
Porosity
1630
Water saturation
1837
Permeability
1001000
md
973
MMSTB
Recovery factor
14.2
Remaining reserves
76
MMSTB
3500
18
Pressure
Field GOR
Monthly oil rate
16
3000
(33 Producers)
14
(11 Prod.)
2500
12
2000
10
8
6
1500
(11 Producers)
(17 Producers)
1000
World
War II
500
2
0
'35
'40
'45
'50
'55
'60
'65
'70
'75
'80
'85
'90
Figure 2.64
0
'95
Year
Production and pressure history of the P2 sands, Pedernales Field.
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RESERVOIR: P2 SANDSTONES
FIELD: PEDERNALES
Figure 2.65
Temblador
El Salto
Jobo
Piln
Morichal
Cerro Negro
Bitor Area
Orinoco River
Puerto
Ordaz
2 43
Introduction
The Orinoco Belt is known to be the
largest heavy and extra-heavy oil accumulation in the world, with 1200 billion
barrels of OOIP extending over an area of
approximately 13.3 million acres. Cerro
Negro (Fig. 2.65) is one of four blocks within
the Orinoco Belt and is located on its eastern
segment, south of Monagas and Anzotegui
states. Part of Cerro Negro is the Bitor Area,
which covers a surface area of 45,000 acres
and has an original bitumen in place (OBIP)
of more than 19.6 billion barrels. The oil
production is mostly used as raw material for
the Orimulsin (70% crude, 29% water and
1% surfactant), which is considered to be an
alternate source of energy of high commercial value on the international markets.
Geology
a) Structure
The Bitor Area structure is monoclinelike with a gentle north dip of approximately
4 and is fractured by multiple east-westoriented faults, as well as some minor
northeast-southwest-oriented faults. These
minor faults cut the main faults at
approximately 45 (Fig. 2.66). Most of these
faults are non-sealing, normal and of large
extent (more than 9 miles). Variable vertical
displacements range from 50 to 200 ft. The
vertical displacements north of Bitor Area
are larger than in the south. It is quite
difficult to detect faults on the electrical logs
because of the massiveness of the sandstones. The hydrocarbon accumulations are
essentially controlled by stratigraphic traps
and neither regional oil-water contacts nor
gas-oil contacts can be found on the logs.
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RESERVOIR: MORICHAL MEMBER
c) Depositional Environment
Figure 2.66
2900'
2800'
2600'
2300'
N
Morichal Member Top
2200'
2200'
Structural
2100'
Parcel limit
Fault
b) Stratigraphy
Range
Morichal
Member
150470
218
512
Porosity (%)
2835
31
400020,000
1000
1126
18
Permeability (md)
Water saturation (%)
The cutoffs used to determine the petrophysical characteristics and the net bitumen
sand in wells with porosity logs are:
Sw=4.5%, Vsh=40%, Porosity=20% and
Swi=7%. The petrophysical parameters are:
Rw=0.50 ohm-m, a=1.0, n=2.0 and m=1.7. It
is important to observe that the low
resistivity values shown on the logs, at the
bottoms and tops of the massive sandstones,
are caused by normal granulometric changes
in the lithofacies that may be associated with
an increase in clay content and not
necessarily by high water saturation. In
addition, 40 ft is considered to be the minimum thickness for a commercial sandstone.
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RESERVOIR: MORICHAL MEMBER
Gamma Ray
API
Freites
(MIDDLE
MIOCENE)
Form.
(AGE)
Member
Figure 2.67
Unit
Environment
Fluid properties
In the following table, fluid property
averages from several wells are compared
with a PVT analysis from well CO-04,
considered to be the most representative of
the reservoir.
F1
F2
Shallow marine
Deltaic margin
Average
PVT CO-04
1143
1040
2500
2266
F3
Piln
04
05
06
Jobo
07ab
Deltaic deposits
07c
Marine events
GBR @ pb (scf/STB)
72
79
1.047
1.047
8200
5900
Temperature (F)
131
126
8.2
8.0
08
09
Yabo
010
Coastal zone
The analyzed metals content is: 3.8% sulfur, 80 ppm nickel, and 300 ppm vanadium.
Tidal deposists
(marine)
011a
011b
012
Lower deltaic plane
Morichal
Fluvial deposits
013
Deltaic deposits
a) Production history
015
016
Landside
Valley fills
Table 2.11
OBIP (MMSTB)
Morichal
Jobo
Total
18,541
1055
21
19,617
12.2
9.0
9.0
12.0
2166
95
2263
2 45
Piln
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RESERVOIR: MORICHAL MEMBER
Figure 2.68
400
Producers
200
0
Water cut, B, S & W (%)
50
800
Gas-bitumen ratio, GBR (scf/STB)
400
0
Bitumen production rate, Qb (BBPD)
50000
25000
0
'83
'84
'85
'86
'87
'88
'89
'90
'91
'92
'93
'94
'95
'96
Year
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HYDROCARBON RESERVOIRS IN VENEZUELA
2 47
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Chapter 3
Well Planning
Chapter overview
Risk analysis in well construction
The choice of drilling fluids to minimize
reservoir damage
Predicting wellbore stability
Geosteering
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WELL PLANNING
CHAPTER OVERVIEW
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R I S K A N A LY S I S I N W E L L C O N S T R U C T I O N
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WELL PLANNING
Figure 3.1
PEOPLE
RIG
RIG
WELL
WELL
The hierarchy of importance
used in drilling design.
Figure 3.2
(0
.1
5)
$1,000,000
M
(0.65)
$1,037,500
Reasonable assurance
er
as
0)
us
.2
ua
l
(0
$850,000
Se
tl
in
El
$1,000,000
at
(0
in
.2
0)
im
H
e
lin
er
.1
5)
ed
c ce
Su
5)
6
.
(0
(0
.2
5)
M
(0.60)
$1,750,000
(0
.1
5)
$775,000
(0
(0.3
5)
$1,847,500
$825,000
$2,200,000
Fai
$1,200,750
M
(0.65)
$852,500
$1,650,000
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R I S K A N A LY S I S I N W E L L C O N S T R U C T I O N
Figure 3.3
20 in. @ 300 ft
20 in. @ 300 ft
Lost circulation
zone
958 -in. @ 8500 ft
Reservoir
7-in. @ 10,500 ft
7-in. @ 10,500 ft
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WELL PLANNING
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R I S K A N A LY S I S I N W E L L C O N S T R U C T I O N
Figure 3.4
Reservoir target
Construct a vertical
pilot hole, log, then
plug back and construct
the lateral.
Figure 3.5
$3,500,000
(0
Risked costs
M
(0.35)
$3,075,000
ol
e
th
.2
0)
(0
H
M
(0.50)
lo
0)
.3
pi
$2,500,000
$2,500,000
(0
$3,000,000
$2,300,000
L
$2,150,000
.1
5)
im
in
at
$3,100,000
(0
El
$2,842,500
5)
.2
$2,888,000
(0
ed
eed
nn
c ti o
e
)
r
5
Cor
( 0 .7
No
c or
r ec
tion
nee
(0.2
ded
5)
$2,295,000
M
(0.65)
$2,850,000
Dr
.
(0
ill
)
20
ve
$2,650,000
r ti
ca
lp
e
ol
th
ilo
(0
.1
0
$3,300,000
M
(0.60)
$2,970,000
$3,000,000
L
(0
0)
.3
$2,800,000
A decision tree analysis using input from geoscientists, directional personnel and
others, as well as drilling engineers.
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WELL PLANNING
Figure 3.6
Reservoir
Reservoir characterization
Production
Production rates and
flowstream data
WELL
CONSTRUCTION
Geophysics
Seismic information
and interpretation
Geology
Structure and targets
Completion
Subsurface equipment
requirements
Petrophysics
Formation properties
Introduction
The current nearly obsessive interest in
minimizing formation damage from drilling
fluids is a direct result of the increased
exposure of producing formations to drilling
fluids by horizontal drilling. This is as it should
be. Perforating or fracturing procedures in
vertical wells that penetrate feet or meters
deep into a formation often render irrelevant
the effects of invading drilling fluid within a
radius of inches in the wellbore, but the nearwellbore effects of fluid in openhole
completions can be highly significant. The
object of the mud engineers efforts should be
3
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THE CHOICE OF DRILLING FLUIDS TO MINIMIZE RESERVOIR DAMAGE
Figure 3.7
kro
krw
Kro, Krw
0
0
(a)
Mud solids invasion
Filter cake plugging
Formation fines migration
Clay swelling
Polymer adsorption
precipitation
Scale formation
Wax formation (paraffin,
asphaltine)
Sludge formation
Stress-induced permeability change
Perforation plugging
A summary of the
mechanisms of formation
damage. The heavy type
indicates mud-induced
damage mechanisms.
Sw
(b)
Wettabililty change
Fluid saturation change
(blocking)
Emulsion formation
Water coning
Gas breakout
Condensate banking
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WELL PLANNING
100
100
50
Static
Dynamic
50
Static
Dynamic
with CaCO3
100
50
Static
Dynamic
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
50
Different backflushing
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THE CHOICE OF DRILLING FLUIDS TO MINIMIZE RESERVOIR DAMAGE
Figure 3.12
Partially internal and external filter cakes with sized salt mud.
Figure 3.14
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WELL PLANNING
Figure 3.15
Figure 3.16
3 11
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THE CHOICE OF DRILLING FLUIDS TO MINIMIZE RESERVOIR DAMAGE
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WELL PLANNING
Figure 3.17
Polymer
WBM
Mud types
Sized Salt
Brine (NaCl)
Formate
Brine
MMH
OBM
Advantages
Flexible
Cheap
Easy cleanup
Good density range
compatible with
most formation
fluids
Excellent hole
cleaning
Avoids erosion of
soft formations
Minimal loss to
fractures
Disadvantages
Damage,
esp. from
PHPA?
Difficult
cleanup
because
of polymers
Density restrictions
(10.4 - 12.1; 13.3
with NaBr)
Possible problem
with polymer
cleanup
Difficult to yield
polymers in brine
Expensive
Difficult to yield
polymers in brine
Sensitive to
contamination by
many mud
polymers
Questions
regarding
bentonite in
reservoir fluid
Limited fluid loss
control compared
to polymer muds
Environmental
restrictions
Possible damage due
to surfactants,
especially in tight
formations
and gas reservoirs
Non-conductive
nature limits data
acquisition
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PREDICTING WELLBORE STABILITY
Figure 3.18
1116
1110
1050
1091
1184
994
1031
95
00
'
925
988
OOWC 9741
96
00
Producer
'
1009
1008
970
0'
500 m
Scale
Moved hydrocarbon
Water
Gas
Oil
Mudcake
Quartz
Washout
BS
Permeability to Oil
6
16
Caliper Permeability to Water
6 (in.) 16 Permeability to Gas
Intrinsic Permeability
Depth
0.1 100
1000
(md)
(ft)
Water
Bound water
Moved hydrocarbon
Montmorillonite
Gas
Kaolinite
Oil
Sw
(%)
Fluid analysis
0 0.5
(V / V)
Illite
Volumetric analysis
0 1
0
(V / V)
9600
9650
9700
The ELAN volumetric analysis over the B-6 reservoir shows two sand bodies
separated by a shale bed.
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WELL PLANNING
Figure 3.20
LLHD
GR
Depth
(ft)
Presure
(psia)
LLHS
(gAPI)
150 0.20
(ohmm)
2000
2000
3000
B6
9600
9700
9800
The MDT pressure points show a single gradient over the entire B-6 reservoir.
Figure 3.21
Dev.1
Caliper 1-3
-20
(in.)
20
Azimuth
Caliper 2-4
-20
Depth
(ft)
(in.)
Differential caliper
20
Bit size
-20
(in.)
(in.)
10
Ovalization azimuth
0
20.
20
Rupture zones
(deg)
200
Pad 1 azimuth
Ovalization
0
(deg)
Pad 1
azimuth
N
W
400
9400
9500
9600
9700
9800
3 15
Hole
azimuth
0 (deg) 10
E
S
Hole
deviation
0 (deg) 10
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PREDICTING WELLBORE STABILITY
Figure 3.22
Fast shear T
Slow shear T
GR
0
(gAPI)
350
150
CALI
5
Depth
(ft)
(in.)
20
Hole azimuth
0
(deg)
360 0
(deg)
90
50
Processing window
Time-based anisotropy
0
0
(ms / ft)
DT-based anisotropy
(%)
4
8
50
16 <
(ms)
6600
9500
9600
9700
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WELL PLANNING
Figure 3.23
North
Depth (ft)
9450.0
9498.0
9548.5
9599.0
West
9649.5
East
9700.0
South
Figure 3.24
N
AAA
SWAA
ASR DSI
BOL
S
Comparison of wireline- and
core-derived horizontal
maximum stress directions.
3 17
In the AAA method anisotropic velocities are used as indications of in-situ stress orientations. Velocities are measured in
multiple directions perpendicular to the axis of the core, and in the
axial direction. It is a two-dimentional analysis, with an assumption that one of the principal stress is parallel to the core axis.
The SWAA method is based on finding the maximum absorbtion of shear waves propagated vertically through a specimen.
Two shear wave sources are placed along the core axis and one of
the sources is rotated in small angular increments. The amplitude
of the shear wave is measured for each increment and with continued rotation the minimum shear wave amplitude is determined.
The direction of the core corresponding to the minimum amplitude
infers the direction of the maximum in-situ horizontal stress.
ASR relies on monitoring time dependant strain relaxation of
freshly-cut, oriented core. The strain recovery, due to the relaxation
of the sample detached from its parent rock mass (the core), is
measured and is related to the directions of magnitudes of the insitu stresses, using elastic or viscoelastic relationships. ASR is a
completely three-dimensional measurement and does not require
assumptions about the magnitudes or directions of any of the
principal stresses.
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Figure 3.25
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PREDICTING WELLBORE STABILITY
Figure 3.25
Log measurements
Sonic waveform
analysis (STC)
Dtc
Bulk volume
analysis (ELAN)
Dts
Minerals, fluids
volumes
rb
Impact
Static-dynamic
correlations
Elastic moduli
Lab measurements
on cores
Rock strength
Overburden,
pore pressure,
stress measurements
Stress computations
sx
Pressure steps,
perforations
Hydro-fracturing
height growth
Fracturing
models
sx sy
Failure
analysis
Borehole stability:
critical mud weight
and well deviation
Failure
criteria
Sanding:
critical drawdown
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WELL PLANNING
Figure 3.26
Vertical hole
Hole parallel to
minimum
horizontal stress
Hole perpendicular to
minimum
horizontal stress
Caliper
Depth
(in.)
(ft) 15 0 15
Gas
Oil
Stability
Stability
Quartz
Bound
water
Montmorillonite
Kaolinite
Instability
Instability
Instability
Illite
Mudcake
Washout
Moved
hydrocarbon
Water
9500
9600
9700
GEOSTEERING
Introduction
GeoSteering is the real-time steering of
horizontal and high-angle wells using whiledrilling formation evaluation data. It guides
wells to optimum geological destinations,
rather than directionally steering wells to
predetermined (possibly non-optimum) geometric locations.
Directional drilling has evolved to the
point where the geometric target can be hit
with high accuracy. Unfortunately, geologic
maps based on surface seismic data and offset
well data are not this accurate. Uncertainties
in the determination of the depth and lateral
position of the target are combined with the
inability to predict subtle features such as
small changes in formation dip, pinchouts and
small displacement faults.
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GEOSTEERING
Figure 3.27
This information is provided by pre-job planning and modeling of the target and surrounding formations, and needs to be displayed on
a wellsite screen along with the data recorded
while drilling. Since the exact geometry cannot be predicted with the accuracy required,
several different scenarios are prepared,
representing the response of the most likely
alternatives. Only in this way can the well be
steered geologically rather than geometrically.
Lastly, it is important to have a GeoSteering
coordinator at the wellsite to coordinate
between the geologist, the logging-whiledrilling (LWD) engineer, the directional driller
and anyone else involved in the operation.
The first capability is provided by the
GeoSteering Tool (GST), which provides an
azimuthal resistivity and gamma ray (GR)
measurement from as close as 2.5 ft from the
bit (Chapter 45). In oil-based or very fresh
mud, the only resistivity-based measurement
that works is the bit resistivity, and that only
qualitatively. This works because, unlike the
other electrodes, the bit is in contact with the
formation so that current can pass between it
and any other part of the drillstring in contact
with the formation, such as a stabilizer. In such
muds it is necessary to use an induction-based
measurement such as the ARC5* Array
Resistivity Compensated tool, even though the
distance behind the bit is much greater. The
planning and modeling capability is provided
by the PowerPlan package and INFORM
(Integrated Forward Modeling), and by the
GeoSteering screen at the wellsite.
In practice different variations are used
for different situations. One case is
Geostopping, meaning the use of LWD data to
set casing or coring points as close to the
target as possible. Clearly the closer the
measurement is to the bit, the more exactly
the casing point can be picked. In other
situations the GST measurements are
sufficient to indicate whether the borehole is
moving out of the current formation, and
whether it is doing so by the roof or the floor.
An example is shown below. In yet other
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WELL PLANNING
5000
4900
4800
4700
4600
4500
4400
4300
4200
4100
4000
(ohm-m)
0 180 0 180 4
(ft h)
500
(ohm-m)
Bit Resistivity
ROP
(ft)
3465
TVD
GR
(gAPI)
150
3445
Depth
(ft)
GTF
(deg)
Button Resistivity
400
400
Figure 3.28
Geosteering logs in a horizontal well. When the tool is sliding, the tool face readings are smooth and indicate the direction of the sensors.
Resistivity is up, GR down when Tool face = 0 (GTF in center of depth track); resistivity is down, GR up when toolface = 180 (GTF is at
either edge of depth track). Data gaps are caused by high ROP.
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GEOSTEERING
Figure 3.29
On bottom
CRPM_N (RPM)
239.00
GRN = 16.00
GRGTF (N) = 16.00
GR_N (dot)
min max
0.0
100.0
interval
10.0
Wellsite screen for azimuthal measurements near 4990 ft. The green GR points are
clearly higher below the well, while the red resistivity points are higher above. Both
indicate a better sand above the well.
Figure 3.30
400 Plan View
1 = 200'
MFA 188
MFA 204
< North
400
800
MFA 186
1200
MFA128
1600
2000
2400
2400
2000
1600
1200
800
400
400
800
East >
Plan view of the proposed well (MFA 204) with nearby existing wells.
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WELL PLANNING
INFORM
Figure 3.31
Offset - logs
Squared - logs
Trejectory #2
Trejectory #1
Tool response
1100
G
1200
1300
1400
1500
r
1600
1700
Cross section
Rps
Rad Hres
Rps
Rad
Simulated logs
for different trajectories
Actual trajectory
Trajectory (TVD vs. MD)
3000
3200
D
C
3400
3600
4100
3 23
3900
3700
3500
3300
3100
2900
2700
200 20 2 0.2
Map
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GEOSTEERING
Figure 3.31
PSR (2,3)
0.2
0
MFA186
ILD (1)
(ohm-m)
GR
(gAPI)
2000
150
MFA 204
MFA188 MFA 128 MFA 188 MFA 186
1
2
3
2500
2600
2700
2800
2900
3000
3100
3200
3300
3400
3500
3600
3700
3800
Cross section with nearby well logs (right) in the vicinity of the well; an image of the
GR dipping at 1 between MFA 128 and MFA 188; and the GR predicted along the
trajectory of MFA 204.
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Figure 3.32
ATTN
(ohm-m)
Phase
(ohm-m)
GR
(gAPI)
33.48
41.76
50.52
57.84
73.32
83.76
90.00
95.52
98.28
101.16
103.80
105.96
109.44
116.40
123.23
100
10
1
1000
Trajectory
Modeled
GR
Modeled
Phase
Modeled
Attn
100
10
1
TVD (ft)
3350
T-Sand
U1-Sand
3750
3000
800
100
200
GR
Figure 3.33
ATTN
(ohm-m)
Phase
(ohm-m)
GR
(gAPZ)
33.48
41.76
50.52
57.84
73.32
83.76
90.00
95.52
98.28
101.16
103.80
105.96
109.44
116.40
123.23
100
10
1
1000
Trajectory
Modeled
GR
Modeled
Phase
Modeled
Attn
100
10
1
TVD (ft)
3450
3750
3000
800
3 25
0 50
150
GR
250
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GEOSTEERING
Figure 3.34
Rps
Rad Hres
76
Rps
Rad
76
Actual trajectory
Trajectory (TVD vs. MD)
MD (ft) : 3998.03
TVD (ft) : 3537.46
Rps (ohm-m) : 2000
Rad (ohm-m) : 2000
Hres (ohm-m) : ****
Grc (API) : 102.38
Trph (pu) : ****
A
Rhob (g cm3) : ****
Shift (ft) : 2.60
3000
D
C
3200
T-sand
3400
3600
4100
3900
3700
3500
3300
3100
2900
2700
200 20 2 0.2
Figure 3.35
2000
200
20
2
0.2
2000
200
20
2
0.2
Rps
Real-time logs
Rad Hres
A
2
Rps
Modeled logs
0
2
Rad
MD (ft) : 5078.55
TVD (ft) : 3567.18
Rps (ohm-m) : ****
Rad (ohm-m) : ****
Hres (ohm-m) : ****
Grc (API) : ****
Trph (pu) : ****
Rhob (g cm3) : ****
Shift (ft) : 8.97
3500
T-sand
U1 Objective
3600
3700
7500
7000
6500
6000
5500
5000
4500
4000
200 20 2 0.2
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WELL PLANNING
Figure 3.36
2000
Phase
(ohm-m)
0.2
A
Depth
(ft)
4200
4250
4300
4350
4400
4450
4500
4550
4600
4650
150
GR
(gAPI)
0
Figure 3.37
MFA 204
MFA 128
3050
MFA186
3100
3150
3200
3250
3300
MFA188
3350
3400
3450
3500
Original Plan
3550
3600
U1 Objective
3650
3700
3200
2600
2000
1400
800
200
3 27
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GEOSTEERING
REFERENCES
Fraser, L., Reid, P., Williamson, D., and Enriquez Jr, F., 1995, Mechanistic
investigation of the formation damaging characteristics of mixed metal
hydroxide drill-in fluids and comparison with polymer-base fluids, SPE 30501,
Society of Petroleum Engineers Annual Technical Conference and Exhibition
held in Dallas, Texas, U.S.A., October 22-25.
Gonzlez, G., Coll, C., Gamero, H., Meza, E., Simon, C., Cespedes, A, and de
mena, J., 1997, Pozo horizontal VLC-1184 Reto Tecnologico, SVIP 084,
Sociedad Venezolana de Ingenieros de Petroleo, XI Jornadas Technicas de
Petroleo en Maturin, Monagas, Feb 19-22.
Esmersoy, C., Koster, K., Williams, M., Boyd, A., and Kane, M., 1994, Dipole
shear anisotropy logging, presented at the 64th Annual International meeting,
Society of Exploration Geophysicists, Los Angeles, California, October 23-28.
Brie, A., and Bratton, T., 1996, IMPACT, a geomechanical wellbore evaluation
system, ISRM news journal, vol2 no. 1.
Terratec, 1996, Static and dynamic properties and in-situ stress direction, well
VLC-1184.
Alford, R.M., 1986, Shear data in the presence of azimuthal anisotropy.
Schlumberger Oilfield Services 1995, Horizontal Well Planning, Evaluation
and Execution.
Prilliman, J. D., Allen, D. F., and Lehtonen, L. R., 1995, Horizontal well placement and petrophysical evaluation using LWD, SPE Paper 30549, Society of
Petroleum Engineers Annual Technical Conference and Exhibition held in
Dallas, Texas, U.S.A., October 22-25.
Wu, P., Tabanou, J. R., and Bonner, S. D., 1996, Petrophysical interpretation
of a multispacing 2-MHz MWD resistivity tool in vertical and horizontal wells,
SPE Paper 36547, Society of Petroleum Engineers Annual Technical
Conference and Exhibition held in Denver, Colorado, U.S.A., October 6-9.
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3 28
Chapter 4
Data Quality and Acquisition Efficiency
Chapter overview
Logging While Drilling
The PLATFORM EXPRESS
Pressure gauge performance
Wireline job planning
elgoajiroblanco@hotmail.com
D ATA Q U A L I T Y A N D A C Q U I S I T I O N E F F I C I E N C Y
CHAPTER OVERVIEW
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Table 4.1
Tool
ADN
CDN
ARC5/IMPULSE
CDR
RAB
ISONIC
GST
Tool sizes
4.75" 6.75"
6.75" 8.0"
4.75" 6.75"
6.75" 8.25"
6.75" 8.25"
6.75" 8.25"
6.75" 8.25"
Sensor
Type
Density: Crystal
Neutron: Helium
Caliper: Ultrasonic
Transducer
Density: Crystal
Neutron: Helium
2 MHz EM Wave
Gamma ray:
Crystal
2 MHz EM Wave
Gamma ray:
Crystal
Focused direct
current
Gamma ray:
Crystal
Monopole
sonic source
Direct current
Gamma ray:
Crystal
Basic
Outputs
Attenuation
resistivities: A10H A16H
A22H A28H A34H
Phase shift
resistivities: P10H P16H
P22H P28H P34H
GR
PCAL
DT
ITT
Bit resistivity
Button resistivity
GR
Inclination
Toolface
Basic
Features
Bulk density
Neutron porosity
Hole diameter
Bulk density
Neutron porosity
5 x phase resistivity
5 x attenuation
resistivity
Gamma ray
Phase resistivity
Attenuation
resistivity
Gamma ray
Bit resistivity
Azi. resistivity
Azi. gamma ray
Inclination at the bit
Extended
Features
4 x azi. density
Rotational Borehole-corrected corrected density
neutron porosity
Differential caliper
2 x ultrasonic caliper
Borehole-corrected
resistivity
Phase caliper
Borehole-corrected 3 x azimuthal
Extended waveform Geosteering
resistivity
Azimuthal testing processing
Phase caliper
Rt inversion
Invasion profile
Rh & Rv inversion
Rt inversion
Rh & Rv inversion
Main
Hydrocarbon
Applications detection
Lithology
determination
Density imaging
Borehole volume
TNPH
RHOB (average)
RHOB (rotational)
PEF
DCAL
Hydrocarbon
detection
Lithology
determination
ATR
PSR
GR/SGR (U,P,Th)
PCAL
RBit
RRing
RSB
RMB
RDB
GR
Bit resistivity
DT compressional
4 x laterolog type from downhole
resistivities
waveform
Azi. gamma ray
Real-time DT
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,,
,,
,,
,,
D ATA Q U A L I T Y A N D A C Q U I S T I O N E F F I C I E N C Y
(b)
Formation 1
Up
Left
Right
Detectors
Left
Up
Right
Down
Down
Stabilizer
Formation
Formation 2
Figure 4.2
Attenuation
resistivity
Phase shift
resistivity
R
R
T
Volume investigated by the
Compensated Dual Resistivity (CDR)
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LOGGING WHILE DRILLING
Figure 4.3
Antenna
spacing (in.)
34
22
10
3
0
-3
-16
-28
T
R
Mixed
asymmetrical
BHC
Mixed
symmetrical
BHC
Mixed
symmetrical
BHC
Mixed
symmetrical
BHC
Mixed
pseudoBHC
Figure 4.4
Resistivity-at-the-Bit
(RAB) tool
Upper
transmitter
Azimuthal
electrodes
Ring electrode
Azimuthal GR
Lower
transmitter
Resistivity
at the Bit
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D ATA Q U A L I T Y A N D A C Q U I S T I O N E F F I C I E N C Y
Surfaceadjustable
bent housing
Figure 4.5
PowerPak
PDM
Geosteering tool
NBS with,
azimuthal resist.,
azimuthal GR,
inclination
and RPM
Stabilizer
+
Bit resistivity
bearings
Azimuthal resistivity
E-Mag
Azimuthal
gamma gay (GR)
Figure 4.6
.2
GR
0
(gAPI)
200
.2
Caliper
(in.)
.2
16 Depth
(ft) .2
RING
(ohm-m)
RBM
(ohm-m)
RBD
(ohm-m)
RBS
(ohm-m)
ROBB
2000 1.65
2000
60
(g cm3)
TNPH
(p.u.)
2.65
LWD applications
2000
PEB
2000 0
4200
4400
4600
10
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LOGGING WHILE DRILLING
.1
.1
0
GR
(gAPI)
200
.1
.1
Depth
(ft)
.1
P10H
(ohm-m)
P16H
(ohm-m)
P22H
(ohm-m)
P28H
(ohm-m)
P34H
(ohm-m)
1000
.1
1000
.1
1000
.1
1000
.1
1000
.1
A10H
(ohm-m)
A16H
(ohm-m)
A22H
(ohm-m)
A28H
(ohm-m)
A34H
(ohm-m)
RHOB
1000
1000
GR
0
(gAPI)
.2
200
LLD
(ohm-m)
2000
60
1000
1000
1.65
CALI
(in.)
1000
16 Depth .2
(ft)
LLS
(ohm-m)
(g cm3)
TNPH
(p.u.)
2.65
DRHO
2000
-.75
(g cm3)
.25
5600
4100
4200
5800
4300
4400
6000
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D ATA Q U A L I T Y A N D A C Q U I S T I O N E F F I C I E N C Y
Figure 4.9
GR
(API)
200
Depth
(ft)
.1
P10H
(ohm-m)
1000
.1
P16H
(ohm-m)
1000
.1
P22H
(ohm-m)
1000
.1
P28H
(ohm-m)
1000
.1
P34H
(ohm-m)
1000
17500
17600
17700
17800
Example 2
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LOGGING WHILE DRILLING
(p.u.)
11
100
GR
(gAPI)
0
VERD
(in.)
HORD
ROBB
ROBL
ROBU
ROBR 45
Depth
3
(
g
cm
)
2.15
1.65
(ft)
TNPH
15
Figure 4.10
4400
4500
4450
4600
4550
TD: 4/283
Bottom of
the borehole
4405
4410
4415
4420
4453
4454
4455
4456
4457
4458
4459
4425
Pre-invasion Rt determination
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D ATA Q U A L I T Y A N D A C Q U I S T I O N E F F I C I E N C Y
Figure 4.11
Moved water
Moved oil
Washout
.2
(in.)
Wireline Gamma Ray
16
.2
(gAPI)
150
.2
(gAPI)
20
Laterolog shallow
Wireline caliper
6
MSFL
(ohm-m)
Depth
(ft)
150
(ohm-m)
Phase shift resistivity
2000
(ohm-m)
2000
Attenuation resistivity
.2
(ohm-m)
2000
X650
X700
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LOGGING WHILE DRILLING
Figure 4.12
Drilling rate
100
(ft/hr)
Gamma Ray
(gAPI)
(in.)
16
200
Reaming in caliper
(in.)
16
200
Phase resistivity
0
150
2
Drilling
0
3
(RPS)
,
,
Reaming
0
3
(RPS)
(ohm-m)
Attenuation resistivity
(ohm-m)
X700
Reaming In
X800
(in.)
16
Successful geosteering depends on building a pre-job model and running a GST. The
pre-job model computes the LWD logs that
are expected along the planned trajectory of
the well. The model uses as input the local
geology (e.g., cross sections, seismic sections,
isopach maps), petrophysical properties of the
beds in and near the well, and accurate
knowledge of LWD tool response. The input,
computations, and output are handled by the
program INFORM. A more detailed description is given in Chapter 323.
Later, while drilling, the predicted LWD
logs are compared to the real-time LWD data
to confirm the validity of the geological
model or to re-evaluate it in real time. The
INFORM model can be used with conventional LWD tools and/or the GST. The
advantage of the GST is that the near-bit
sensors allow immediate correction of the
trajectory when unpredicted changes occur.
The GST can be used in connection with the
INFORM pre-job modeling or on its own, as
in the example below.
GeoSteering
X900
Drilling
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D ATA Q U A L I T Y A N D A C Q U I S T I O N E F F I C I E N C Y
Figure 4.13
4330
TVD (ft)
yyyyyyy
,,,,,,,
,,,,,,,
yyyyyyy
C
4380
TM
Sand 1
4430
U1/4
Sand 2
4480
2850
2650
2450
2250
2050
1850
1650
1450
70
140
60
120
100
50
GR
40
80
60
30
20
40
Res.
10
0
2850
2650
2450
2250
20
2050
1850
1650
1450
0
1250
THE PLATFORM
Conclusions
It can be observed from the examples
shown that LWD has moved from a costoriented alternative to wireline logging, to a
method of acquiring petrophysical data on
its own merits. This is seen in the increasing
number of vertical and slightly deviated
wells logged only with LWD.
LWD not only acquires conventional
petrophysical measurements under the optimal borehole conditions, but gives additional information such as azimuthal densities, pre-invasion R t, anisotropy evaluation,
and allows more precise geosteering.
Apart from the obvious aim to acquire
the best petrophysical data in any borehole,
LWD has a major function in placing
extended-reach wells in the optimum position in the reservoir, thereby maximizing production and minimizing future interventions.
EXPRESS
Introduction
Wireline logging has undergone many
improvements in the decades since the
Schlumberger brothers invented it in 1927.
However, the PLATFORM EXPRESS (PEX)
technology that was introduced into
Venezuela early in 1996 is one of the first to
focus so strongly on efficiency and reliability
as well as data quality. That becomes
apparent when this new technology is
compared to the industry standard, the triplecombo. PEX logging has proven to be much
4 11
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THE PLATFORM
Figure 4.14
Hours
9
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
Eastern Venezuela
Western Venezuela
Venezuela total
Average savings
per well
PEX Logging Time averaged over a one-year period (seven hours), and average
time saved using this technology (three hours).
Figure 4.15
Highly integrated
gamma ray
neutron sonde
HGNS
GR
24 in.
N
24 in.
EXPRESS
Electronics
cartridge
pb,Pe
16 in.,
8 in., 2 in.
High-resolution
mechanical
sonde
HRMS
High-resolution
azimuthal
laterolog
sonde
Array induction
imager tool
HALS
Rxo,hmc
2 in.
Rt
12 in.
AIT
Sensor descriptions
PEX sensors set new standards in formation evaluation accuracy. Either the AIT* Array
Induction Imager tool or the HALS* HighResolution Azimuthal Laterolog Sonde can be
used for resistivity measurements, and both
have a vertical resolution of 12 in. under
optimal conditions. The AIT consists of eight
three-coil arrays that all have a single frequency transmitter coil. In addition, each of
these arrays has a receiver coil and a secondary
bucking coil. The coils are spaced along the
sonde in a folded array structure, resulting in a
short, compact sonde. The various signals are
combined to produce outputs at 1-ft, 2-ft, and
4-ft vertical resolutions with a depth of
investigation into the formation fixed at 10 in.,
20 in., 30 in., 60 in., and 90 in. An Rm/SP sensor
provides an SP curve without adding an
external sensor, and also provides a highly
accurate, continuous Rm measurement
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D ATA Q U A L I T Y A N D A C Q U I S T I O N E F F I C I E N C Y
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THE PLATFORM
Figure 4.18
AIT-H 2'
10"
HMIN
50
DSOZ
(ohm-m)
20"
AIT-H
HCAL
BS
Resistivity
6
(in.)
16 Image
SP
RSOZ
2 (in.) 0 100
Depth
(ft)
HMNO
PEFZ
30"
60"
10
PXND
90"
AHTD2
DPHZ
RXOZ
AHTD1
RT
ECGR
(in.)
(gAPI) 150 90 90 0.2 (ohm-m) 200 0.5
(mv)
NPOR
(V/V)
VCL
(p.u.)
0 0
200 0
RWA
(ohm-m)
2440
2460
Figure 4.19
White = absent
(degf)
200
Corrected
velocity
(ft/hr)
0
7200
Deviation
Cable
5
(deg)
45
speed
(ft/hr)
ECGR
0
7200
0
(gAPI)
150
Tension
RSOZ
DSOZ
(lbf)
AIT-H borehole/form ratio
25
20
0 0
(in.)
HCAL
BS
(in.)
Track 1
16
1000
Depth
(ft)
sc
850
sc
900
sc
950
MCFL hardware
RXO processing
HAIT hardware
HAIT array[1-2]
HAIT array[3-4]
HAIT array[5-6]
HAIT array[7-8]
12 34567
Red/Black = bad
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Accelerometer
Pe correction
Density detector
Neutron porosity 3
3
Density comp.
Density correction
Pef computation
0.75 (g / cm3) 0.25
AIT-H QC fully
Hdrx
calibrated signals
Rwo/RBA ratio
A4
A8
0.5
1.5
Delta neutron
A3
A7
porosity
A2
A6
0.1
(V/V)
0.1
GR borehole
A5
A1
correction factor
(in.)
16 1 2 3 4 5 0.5
1.5
Nuclear flags
100
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
Resistivity flags
Cartridge temperature
Track 2
Track 3
EXPRESS
LQC curves and Flags. Note that once inside casing, the density, PEX, and all
resistivity flags are turned on, indicating invalid readings.
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D ATA Q U A L I T Y A N D A C Q U I S T I O N E F F I C I E N C Y
Figure 4.20
HMIN, HMIN_rep
HMNO, HMNO_rep
(ohm-m)
50
HCAL, HCAL_rep
DSO,
DSO_rep
(in.)
8
28
RSO,
RSO_rep
Depth
(ft)
PEFZ, PEFZ_rep
AIT-H 2'
10
SP, SP_rep
100
(mv)
(gAPI)
90", 90"_rep
NPOR, NPOR_rep
AIT-H
10", 10"_rep
DPHZ, DPHZ_rep
Resistivity
(p.u.)
150 Image
.2 (ohm-m) 200 50
0
GR, GR_rep
VCL
RWA, RWA_rep
0
(ohm-m)
4200
4300
4 15
Reliability
The PEX was specifically designed to be
a very reliable tool with a temperature and
pressure rating of 260F and 10,000 psi. These
ratings are lower than usual, but cover more
than 75% of the wells in Venezuela. The
major reason for this outstanding reliability,
which is more than three times greater than
that of conventional triple-combo tools, is the
total redesign of the components, boards, and
how they are mounted in the tool. All PEX
components must pass the same rigorous
shock and cyclical temperature tests used for
LWD tools (2000 shocks of 250 G/ 2 msec and
200 temperature cycles to 125C with a fivehour peak temperature stay each cycle). This
also makes PEX much more reliable to use for
TLC (pipe-conveyed logging) jobs where any
failure will cause excessive down time. The
tools short design in conjunction with
knuckles also make it the best candidate
available for pipe-conveyed logging. Shortradius wells with build rates from vertical to
horizontal in 100 ft have been logged without
the AIT; with the AIT the maximum build rate
to date has been 69/100 ft in a 7-in. hole.
This far surpasses what was available in the
past and allows a full evaluation in such
short- and medium-radius wells. There is a
more than a three-fold increase in jobs
between lost time failure seen in Venezuela
over the first year of operation.
Efficiency
PEX efficiency gains are made in a
variety of ways. The shorter length allows
the tools to be handled more easily and
quickly. Less rat hole is required to get log
readings over the lowest sections of the well.
Figure 4.21 provides a picture of just how
much this difference in length really is. This
reduction in length, together with the
increased speed of rig-up and rig-down,
reduced calibration time, and ability to log at
twice the speed while providing higher
quality measurements, all decrease the time
required to perform a job.
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THE PLATFORM
Figure 4.21
Triple-combo
90 ft
P PLATFORM
TFORM E XPRESS
EXPRESS
38 ft
Figure 4.22
EXPRESS
Table 4.2
PLATFORM EXPRESS Value
Day rig rate
$30,000
Drilling rate
50 ft/hr
Logging interval
7000 ft
Total depth
12000 ft
Event
PEX
0.76 hr
Triple-Combo
1.80 hr
0.25 hr
0.75 hr
Rig up tool
0.30 hr
1.00 hr
RIH to TD
0.80 hr
0.80 hr
1.94 hr
3.89 hr
POOH
0.33 hr
0.33 hr
0.25 hr
0.75 hr
0.30 hr
1.00 hr
4.9 hr
Conditioning trip
0.0 hr
12.0 hr
Additional run
0.0 hr
5.0 hr
Reliability
0.0 hr
1.0 hr
$6,172
$35,403
Measurement quality
10.3 hr
$1,000
$0
$0
$0
PLATFORM EXPRESS
$2,000
14
Rig-up
RIH 1
PEX/Triple-combo
TOOH 1
Change
12
Time (hours)
10
13.4
1.4
RIH 2
DSI/BHC
TOOH 2
Rig-down
1.3
3.6
8
6
6.5
1.0
1.1
1.3
1.0
2.6
2.9
3.0
0.7
0.8
5.5
0.8
0.9
4
2
0
1.0
PEX
PEX/BHC-DSI
Breakdown of PEX versus non-PEX logging times.
Non-PEX
Figure 4.23
3,500
3,000
Rig cost-avg/hr
Avg $/well saved
$3,100
Total $ saved
$490,000
$3,500
$3,600
450,000
400,000
350,000
$335,000
2,500
300,000
250,000
2,000
200,000
1,500
$155,000
1,000
500,000
$875
$1,050
$988
150,000
100,000
500
50,000
4,000
0
Eastern Venezuela
Western Venezuela
Venezuela total
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D ATA Q U A L I T Y A N D A C Q U I S T I O N E F F I C I E N C Y
Figure 4.24
LDT density
GR
0
(gAPI)
150
PLATFORM EXPRESS
density
16 1.7
(g / cm3)
2.7
CALI
Depth
6
(ft)
(in.)
1.8
Rhob LDT
2.2
2.4
2.6
2.8
2.8
2.4
2.2
2
11210
2.6
11180
1.8
Examples
LDT/TLD comparison example (Fig. 4.24):
Both the LDT and the TLD were run on this
well in central Lake Maracaibo. The logging
speeds were 1800 and 3600 ft/hr, respectively. The agreement, although not perfect, is
well within specifications of 0.01 g/cm3.
Several other comparison logs have been run
in Venezuela over the last year; generally
there is excellent agreement between the two
when pad contact with the LDT is good.
HMIN
50
HMNO
(ohm-m)
HCAL
DSOZ
BS
(in.)
16
SP
RSOZ
2 (in.) 0 100
Depth
(ft)
(mv)
AHTD2
0
ECGR
0
(gAPI)
AIT-H
Resistivity
Image
150
AHTD1
(in.)
90
90
3920
3950
4090
4110
4 17
AIT-H 2'
10"
20"
30"
60"
90"
RXOZ
RT
0.2 (ohm-m) 200
PEFZ
0
10
PXND
DPHZ
NPOR
0.5
(V/V)
VCL
(p.u.)
0
200
RWA
0
(ohm-m)
Conclusions
PEX provides a standard logging suite at
an entirely new level of reliability and efficiency. This has and will continue to translate
into large savings in time and costs. Over a
one-year period, savings of three hours of rig
time, or $3,500 per well, have been achieved.
Reliability has decreased down-time by a factor
of three to four. As a result, there are a variety
of service guarantees currently in use, such that
if logging time exceeds an agreed-upon
amount, a penalty is incurred. Improved
sensors and tool design provide more accurate
and precise measurements, especially in bad
hole or difficult borehole conditions.
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THE PLATFORM
EXPRESS
HMIN
Tens
0 (lb ft) 5000
50
DSOZ
HMNO
(ohm-m)
HCAL
BS
(in.)
16
SP
RSOZ
2 (in.) 0
100
(mv)
ECGR
Depth
(ft)
(gAPI)
150
AIT-H
Resistivity
Image
AHTD2
AHTD1
(in.)
90
90
0.2
AIT-H 2'
10"
20"
30"
60"
90"
RXOZ
RT
(ohm-m)
PEFZ
0
10
PXND
DPHZ
VCL
NPOR
RWA
(p.u.)
200
0.5
(V/V)
200
(ohm-m)
3170
3200
Track 1
Track 2
Quartz
Calcite
Dolomite
Vcl =
5%
Anhydrite
Vcl =
35%
Vcl =
65%
Vcl =
95%
Lithology calibration.
The color scheme indicates
quartz, dolomite, calcite
and anhydrite values.
Track 3
Track 4
Track 5
Track 6
Track 7
Track 5: Contains the environmentally corrected neutron porosity (TNPH) and a standard resolution density porosity (DPHZ) as
well as a xplot porosity (PXND) and the
photoelectric effect data (PEFZ) (note the
excellent overlay throughout most of the
sandstone (3173 to 3190 ft) even though
the hole is very washed out).
Track 6: A lithology quicklook using inputs
from density, photoelectric effect, and GR
or SP. The left margin is clay volume. Minor
changes in clay content stand out; i.e., the
thin streaks below 3192 ft.
Track 7: An Rwa curve rounds out the
presentation as a quicklook indicator of
hydrocarbons. An R xo /R t ratio can also be
displayed. In a clean, 100% wet sandstone,
Rwa equals the formation water resistivity.
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PRESSURE GAUGE PERFORMANCE
102
101
100
Derivative of model
101
104
102
101
100
101
102
102
101
Derivative of model
Derivative of model with
2 psi day gauge drift
k=100 md
100
104
103
102
101
100
101
102
homogeneous reservoir.
homogeneous reservoir.
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D ATA Q U A L I T Y A N D A C Q U I S T I O N E F F I C I E N C Y
103
102
101
Derivative of model
10
104
102
101
100
101
102
102
101
Derivative of model
10
103
102
101
100
101
102
103
103
102
101
Derivative of model
100
104
102
101
100
4 21
101
102
101
100
Derivative of model
Derivative of model with
0.25 psi noise
k=1000 md
101
104
103
102
101
100
101
homogeneous reservoir.
homogeneous reservoir.
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PRESSURE GAUGE PERFORMANCE
102
101
100
Derivative of model
Derivative of model with
0.1 psi gauge resolution
k=1000 md
101
104
103
102
101
100
101
102
102
101
Derivative of model
Derivative of model with 0.5 psi noise,
0.1 psi gauge resolution and 2 psi
gauge drift
k=200 md
100
104
103
102
101
100
101
102
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D ATA Q U A L I T Y A N D A C Q U I S T I O N E F F I C I E N C Y
Figure 4.35
Electric
line
section
Battery
section
Microcontroller
UNIGAGE
recorder
section
EEPROM
data memory
Processor
Sensor sub
section
CQG
sensor
Customized
quartzdyne
sensor
Sapphire
sensor
4 23
To obtain superior metrological performance, the entire gauge has been designed
for data quality, reliability and shock
resistance. To this end, the following design
features were imposed on the Universal
Pressure Platform tools:
The entire gauge, including the sensor
section, is rated for Class 6 (harsh
environment). A summary of Class 6 test
specifications are shock tests of 500 G for
2 msec repeated three times per axis,
and vibration tests from 10 to 185 Hz for
20 minutes repeated three times per axis.
A complete history log of cumulative
tool usage and jobs are stored in the
memory of the recorder. This provides a
way of tracking the gauge utilization so
that appropriate preventative maintenance and recalibration can be conveniently scheduled before any degradation in performance is observed.
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PRESSURE GAUGE PERFORMANCE
Table 4.3
Characteristics
WCQR
WTQR
WTSR
SLSR
16,000
18,000
20,000
10,000
Temperature rating, C
177
177
190
130
Battery autonomy
Standard option, days
Extended life option, months
50
9
70
12
40
6
50
6
1 to 2.5
3.2
5 to 10
0.01
0.01
0.1
0.05
Temperature accuracy, C
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.5
Temperature resolution, C
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
Nil
<2
<2
<2
0.029
0.1
< 0.57
< 0.57
< 2.0
<3
< 35
< 26
<1
<4
< 12
< 12
Field examples
Some examples from tests run in
Venezuela using the Universal Pressure
Platform tools are discussed below. They
serve to demonstrate the high performance
of these gauges.
Example 1. High temperature
and pressure environment
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D ATA Q U A L I T Y A N D A C Q U I S T I O N E F F I C I E N C Y
10,000
Pressure (psi)
8000
6000
4000
2000
0
20
WTQR
WCQR
Running in hole
Difference
10
0
-10
20
40
102
101
Type-curve model
Derivative of
pressure
h= 80 ft
kr = 29 md
hw = 36 ft
kz = 0.06 md
Zw = 38 ft
S = 91
kz
hw
Zw
kr
100
101
103
102
101
100
101
Buildup data from the WCQR shown in Fig. 4.36. The deriva-
80,000
7580
Flow rate
Simulated pressure
Pressure data
Derivative of model
Pressure (psia)
7560
7550
40,000
7540
20,000
Flow rate
7530
7520
20
30
40
50
60
60,000
Pseudopressure change
and derivative (psi2 cp)
Derivative of pressure
7570
107
106
kh = 337,000 mdft cp
S = 1.9
k = 240 md
105
104
103
102
101
100
4 25
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PRESSURE GAUGE PERFORMANCE
Pseudo-pressure change
and derivative (psi2 cp)
16000
Pressure (psia)
14000
12000
10000
8000
6000
107
kh = 59 md
S = 1.3
Mobility ratio = 0.45
Mobility change at
71 ft
Derivative of model
Derivative of data
106
105
4000
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
160
180
200
103
102
101
100
101
102
hot well.
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Traditionally, logging tools were designed for a specific measurement or environment. Typical examples are the induction
resistivity and laterolog resistivity tools, which
were each designed for different mud systems.
The induction works in non-conductive muds
and the laterolog in salt-saturated muds, and
both work in moderately conductive muds up
to certain limits. These tools were normally
run alone because the tool architecture and
recording systems did not support simultaneous measurements. Major gains in
efficiency were made by combining various
tools and expanding the recording systems to
handle more data. For example, developing
the three-channel recorder enabled the SP to
be recorded in the same pass as the resistivity
measurements. The recording systems and
tools continued to evolve throughout the
1970s and 1980s, allowing more and more
single-measurement tools to be combined and
more information to be recorded. This
approach greatly increased wellsite efficiency.
In these wells, pre-job planning was limited to
providing the tool requested or required for
the environment and minimizing the descents
into the well.
During the 1990s, data recording, analysis systems and borehole measurement platforms have evolved exponentially. The architecture of the borehole tools has changed
from a simple tool design for a specific
environment to a measurement platform that
is adaptable to the environment in which it
will be used. Changes in the surface recording systems allow many different combinations of measurements to be made at the
same time. The complete evaluation system
(surface and downhole) can now be adapted
to specific well environments and operating
conditions. This adaptive approach allows the
highest-quality measurements to be made in
the most efficient manner possible. While this
approach increases wellsite efficiency, it
requires more pre-job planning for determining the individual measurements and
4 27
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WIRELINE JOB PLANNING
Figure 4.42
Figure 4.43
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D ATA Q U A L I T Y A N D A C Q U I S T I O N E F F I C I E N C Y
Figure 4.44
CMRP and BFV
CALI
6 (in.)16
Depth
(ft)
13400
0.25
(Main Log)
(V / V)
T2 Distribution
0
(Fast Pass)
(V / V)
T2 Distribution
(Fast Pass)
4000
T2 Cutoff
(ms) 4000
1
1
(Main Log)
4000
T2 Cutoff
(ms) 4000
1
1
Mineralogy
T 2, Cut
(msec)
Speed
(ft/hr)
Sandstones
33
0.2
200
3600
Carbonates
100
0.6
600
1200
Cut
13600
Comparison of a normal
and a bound fluid pass
over the same interval.
4 29
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BOUND FLUID LOGGING
Fluids
CALI
Water Saturation
Oil
(in.)
16
BS
Sxo
(V / V)
Moved oil
Sandstone
Water
Bound water
(in.)
6
16
Depth
(ft)
1
K (CMR)
1000 (md)
0.1 1
Sw
(V / V)
Sw (CMR)
(V / V)
Limestone
0
0
Irreducible water
CMRP
0 0.25 (V / V)
Shale
T2 Distribution
3
(ms) 3000
Volume Analysis
(V / V)
0 3
0 1
T2 CutOff
(ms) 3000
13400
13500
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D ATA Q U A L I T Y A N D A C Q U I S T I O N E F F I C I E N C Y
Figure 4.46
Figure 4.47
4 31
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WIRELINE JOB PLANNING
Figure 4.48
Figure 4.49
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D ATA Q U A L I T Y A N D A C Q U I S T I O N E F F I C I E N C Y
4.50
Cartridge
Receiver
section
6 in.
9 ft
Isolation
joint
Monopole
2 ft
Upper dipole
Tool description
The transmitter section contains three
elements: one omnidirectional (monopole)
ceramic transducer, and two unidirectional
wide-band electrodynamic dipole transducers oriented perpendicular to each
other. The transducers can be driven at
different frequencies as required for different applications.
The isolation joint is a mechanical
filter that prevents transmitter signals from
traveling up the tool.
The receiver section consists of eight
receiver stations spaced 6 in. apart and
spanning 3.5 ft. Each station contains two
hydrophone pairs: one oriented in line
with the upper dipole transmitter, and the
other in line with the lower dipole transmitter. The outputs from each pair are
differenced for dipole reception and
summed for monopole reception.
The acquisition cartridge performs
automatic gain control, digitizes eight
waveforms simultaneously with a 12-bit
dynamic range, stacks waveforms from
more than one firing, detects crossing
times above an amplitude threshold, and
transmits signals uphole.
Lower dipole0.5 ft
Transmitter
section
DSI tool
4 33
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DIPOLE SHEAR IMAGER
4.51
Wellbore
Formation
Compressional
wave
Flexural
wave
Directional
source
Shear
wave
Compressional
wave
Shear
wave
Flexural
wave
4.52
Compressional
wave
Wellbore
Head
waves
Formation
Fluid
wave
Omnidirectional
soul
Compressional
wave
Shear
wave
Shear
wave
Stoneley
wave
ST Plane
projection
Slowness
ST Plane
(Semblance contour plot)
Depth Z
Varying moveout
Depth
Slowness
Depth
4.53
Arrival time
4.54
Slowness
Varying time
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D ATA Q U A L I T Y A N D A C Q U I S T I O N E F F I C I E N C Y
Figure 4.55
DSI job plannerSource Zone Advisor with data from this example marked in red.
Table 4.4
Measurement
System
Interval
Logging Logging
Rig
speed
time
up/down
PEX
CMR
DSI Comp/Shear
SDI Comp
Sub
7000
2000
2000
5000
3600
300
900
1800
1.94
6.67
2.22
2.78
PEX CMR
PEX CMR
DSI Comp/Shear
SDI Comp
Sub
2000
5000
2000
5000
300
3600
900
1800
6.67
1.39
2.22
2.78
PEX
CMR-DSI
CMR-DSI
Sub
7000
2000
5000
3600
300
1800
PEX CMR-DSI
PEX CMR-DSI
Sub
2000
5000
300
1800
1
1
1.5
RIH
ROH
Total
time
1
1
1
0.3
1
0.3
4.24
9.67
5.02
2.78
21.71
0.3
1.5
0.3
1.94
6.67
2.78
1
1
1
1
0.3
0.3
4.24
8.97
2.78
15.99
6.67
2.78
0.3
9.97
2.78
12.74
1.39
5.02
2.78
18.16
Summary
Two main factors have contributed to the
increased need for comprehensive job planning. First is the much greater complexity and
higher number of options in modern logging
tools. Second is the focus on improving
wellsite efficiency and reducing costs. The
important role of pre-job planning is optimizing efficiency while assuring high data
quality. The CMR, DSI and Well Evaluation
plans discussed above illustrate these tradeoffs
and show how simple, portable software can
be used by logging engineers and oil
company personnel to ease the task.
CONCLUSION
New technology has led to improvements in the quality of borehole data as well
as the efficiency with which it is recorded.
Several of the major advances have been
described: the rapid development of LWD; a
new standard in wireline triple-combo
logging (PEX); the importance of pressure
gauge metrology.
The modern flexibility in data acquisition
is considerable, whether it is in conveyance
type, tool response, vertical resolution or type
4 35
of sensor. Therefore, to obtain the best quality (fit for the purpose) and the best acquisition efficiency, good job planning is essential, and should be a concern of the data user
as well as the data recorder. The following
chapters show how this good-quality data can
be applied to solving problems of formation
evaluation, production enhancement and
reservoir description in Venezuela.
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REFERENCES
Platform Express
Tabanou, J.R., Bruce, S., Bonner, S., Wu, P., 1997, Time lapse opens new
opportunities in interpreting 2-MHz multispacing resistivity logs under difficult
drilling conditions and in complex reservoirs, paper II, Transactions of the
Society of Professional Well Log Analysts 38th Annual Logging Symposium,
Houston, Texas, June 15-18.
Barber, T., Orban, A., Hazen, G., Long, T., Schlein, R., Alderman, S., Tabanou,
J., and Seydoux, J., 1995, A multiarray induction tool optimized for efficient
wellsite operation, SPE Paper 30583, Society of Petroleum Engineers Annual
Technical Conference and Exhibition held in Dallas, Texas, U.S.A., October
22-25.
Bonner, S.D., Tabanou, J.R., Wu, P., Seydoux, J.P., Moriaty, K.A., Kwok, B.K.,
Kuchenbecker, M.W., 1995, New 2 MHz multiarray borehole compensated
resistivity tool developed for MWD in slim holes, SPE 30547, presented at
the Society of Petroleum Engineers 76th Annual Tecnical Conference and
Exhibition held in Dallas, U.S.A., October 22-25.
Eisenmann, P., Gounot, M-T., Juchereau, B., Trouiller, J-C., and Whittaker, S.
J., 1994, Improved Rxo measurements through semi-active focusing, SPE
Paper 28437, Society of Petroleum Engineers Annual Technical Conference
and Exhibition held in New Orleans, Louisiana, U.S.A., September.
Prilliman, J., Bean, C.L., Hashem, M., Bratton, T., Fredette, M.A., Lovell, J.R.,
1997, A comparison of wireline and LWD resistivity images in the Gulf of
Mexico, paper DDD, Transactions of the Society of Professional Well Log
Analysts 38th Annual Logging Symposium, Houston, Texas, June 15-18.
Carpenter, W.W., Best, D., Evans, M., 1997, Applications and Interpretation
of azimuthally sensitive density measurements acquired while drilling, paper
EE, Transactions of the Society of Professional Well Log Analysts 38th
Annual Logging Symposium, Houston, Texas, June 15-18.
Aron, J., Chang, S.K., Codazzi, D., Dworak, R., Hsu, K., Lau, T., Minerbo, G.,
Yogeswaren, E., 1997, Real-time sonic logging while drilling in hard and soft
rocks, paper HH, Transactions of the Society of Professional Well Log
Analysts 38th Annual Logging Symposium, Houston, Texas, June 15-18.
Eyl, K. A., Chapellat, H., Chevalier, P., Flaum, C., Whittaker, S. J., Jammes, L.,
Becker, A. J., and Groves, J., 1994, High resolution density logging using a
three detector device, SPE Paper 28407, Society of Petroleum Engineers
Annual Technical Conference and Exhibition held in New Orleans, Louisiana,
U.S.A., September.
Smits, J. W., Benimeli, D., Dubourg, I., Faivre, O., Hoyle, D., Tourillon, V.,
Trouiller, J-C., and Anderson, B. I., 1995, High resolution from a new laterolog
with azimuthal imaging, SPE Paper 30584, Society of Petroleum Engineers
Annual Technical Conference and Exhibition held in Dallas, Texas, U.S.A.,
October 22-25.
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4 36
Chapter 5
Evaluation of New Wells
Chapter overview
NMR: principles and petrophysics
Tar detection and permeability evaluation
in North Monagas
Identification of gas and tar layers with NMR tools
Reservoir fluid sampling
Evaluation in the Orinoco Belt
Carbonates: lithology-independent porosity
Prediction of water-cut in a sand with low
resistivity contrast
Identifying producible zones in OBM wells
Continuous wireline fluorescence logging
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E VA L U AT I O N O F N E W W E L L S
CHAPTER OVERVIEW
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Principle of measurement
Since NMR is involved in many of the
recent improvements in formation evaluation, a short summary of the principles and
petrophysics are given in this section.
Many nuclei have a magnetic moment
and behave like spinning bar magnets
(Fig. 5.1). These spinning magnets interact
with external magnetic fields, producing
measurable signals that can be maximized if
the field oscillates at the resonant frequency
of a particular nucleus. NMR logging uses
this signal to measure the amount and
distribution of hydrogen. Hydrogen has a
relatively large magnetic moment and is a
direct indication of pore fluids.
Figure 5.1
Precessional
motion
Spinning
motion
Magnetic field
Figure 5.2
z
z
Precessing
magnetic
moments
B0 field
b
B0 field
Net magnetization
along z-axis
B1 field
y
x
B0 field
Re-focusing signals
90
1
Decay due to
B0 variations
600
Decay due to
molecular interactions
Antenna pulse
Amplitude
Time (msec)
Spin echoes
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E VA L U AT I O N O F N E W W E L L S
Figure 5.3
Carbonates
30
60
25
Sandstones
70
50
40
30
20
20
15
10
10
0
0
20
40
60
10
20
30
Figure 5.4
1
Signal amplitude
T2 decay
0
0
100
200
300
400
Time (msec)
8
Signal distribution
T2 distribution
Large pores
Small pores
10
T2 (msec)
100
f CMR
f Free-fluid
Claybound
water
Capillarybound
water
Producible
fluids
The measured T2 decay is mathematically inverted to obtain a T2 distribution that can be related
to pore size and bound or producible fluids.
where 1/ T2S = r S/ V
1000
CMR derived
0
0.1
(1)
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NMR: PRINCIPLES AND PETROPHYSICS
Figure 5.5
0.049
1.0
Normalized amplitude
Sample 02-16
Cumulative
brine saturated
T2 distribution
Irreducible
water
volume
0.000
0.01
0.5
0.1
1.0
10
100
1000
0.0
10000
1.0
Normalized amplitude
Sample 02-16
Brine saturated
T2 distribution
Desaturated
T2 distribution
0.000
0.01
0.1
1.0
10
100
1000
0.5
0.0
10000
Figure 5.6
20
(SDR)
(2)
Well A
Well B
15
10
0
0
10
15
20
Comparison of the free fluid measured by centrifuge with the free fluid
( )
k=a'f 4 FFI
BFV
(Timur/Coates)
(3)
above T2,cut=33 msec for samples from two wells (Straley et al).
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E VA L U AT I O N O F N E W W E L L S
Figure 5.7
100
Well A, a = 2.8
Well B, a = 3.4
10
0.1
KNMR = a(fNMR)4(T2,log)2
0.01
0.01
0.1
10
100
Comparison of permeability
to brine and permeability
predicted by NMR using
equation (2) for two wells.
,,,
,,,
,,,
Figure 5.8
Protons in water
relax at grain surface
Protons in gas
or oil relax by
bulk + diffusion
mechanisms
Water
water-hydrocarbon interface
is not a relaxing surface,
Pores containing
oil and water
Bulk relaxation: When
pores contain more than
one fluid, the relationships
are more complex. In a
water-wet rock, the oil is
not in contact with the
pore surface. Since for light and medium oils
the oil-water interface is a non-relaxing
surface, the oil decays at the T2 of the bulk oil
independent of pore size (Fig. 5.8). Very
viscous oils start to behave more like a solid
and there can be relaxation at the surface.
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NMR: PRINCIPLES AND PETROPHYSICS
Figure 5.9
10,000
= Lab A
T1
= Lab B
T2 (TE = 0.32 msec)
1000
T2 (TE = 1 msec)
T, or T2 (msec)
Crudes
100
10
1 T2 = 1 T 1 + (1 T2)D
1
0.1
0.1
10
100
1000
10,000
100,000
Viscosity (cp)
Logarithmic mean T2 versus viscosity for bulk oil samples from the Belridge Field
(triangles), international oil field samples and oil viscosity standards (plus symbols)
(Morriss, 1994).
Sample 1
0.1
1.0
Sample 2
10.0
100.0
Hydrogen index
0.5
0.2
0.1
1000.0
0.05
T2 (msec)
10
20
30
40
50
60
API gravity
70
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E VA L U AT I O N O F N E W W E L L S
CMR Tool
Permanent magnet
Bowspring
eccentralizer
Borehole wall
Electronic
cartridge
14 ft
Antenna
Tool Specifications
Wear plate
CMR skid
Length
14 ft
Weight
300 lbm
Minimum hole
6.5 in.
Special cases
6.0 in.
Measurement aperture
6.0 in.
Mud resistivity
No limits
Max. temperature
350F
Sensitive zone
Permanent magnet
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TA R D E T E C T I O N A N D P E R M E A B I L I T Y E VA L U AT I O N I N N O RT H M O N A G A S
Figure 5.12
2
0
2
4
(a)
6
High
Medium
Low
8
10
0.0
2.0
4.0
6.0
8.0
10.0
Frequency (kHz)
Attenuation (1 q)
0.25
High
Medium
Low
0.20
(b)
0.15
0.10
0.05
0.00
0.0
2.0
4.0
6.0
8.0
Frequency (kHz)
10.0
Stoneley mobility
Correlations of permeability with
Stoneley wave slowness or attenuation have
been reported by many authors over the
years (e.g., Winkler et al., 1989). In a
cylindrical borehole with a rigid formation,
the Stoneley propagation would be both
nondispersive and nonattenuative. With an
elastic formation the Stoneley becomes
dispersive; in other words, it changes with
frequency, because the borehole wall yields
to the pressure in the fluid column. When
the formation fluid is mobile, the Stoneley
induces fluid flow in the formation, which
causes it to lose energy and slow down. This
happens even in the presence of a mudcake,
although the latter can have an important
effect. Theoretical and experimental results
have shown that the Stoneley is dependent
on the mobility of the fluid, k/m. Figure 5.12
shows the typical effect on Stoneley velocity
and attenuation in sandstones with permeabilities of 1.0, 0.1 and 0.01 darcy with a
fluid viscosity of 1.0 cp. Similar effects will
be observed if the permeability is held
constant and the viscosity varied. It can be
seen that at low frequency, the Stoneley is a
sensitive measure of mobility, providing the
latter is reasonably high.
The Stoneley was used successfully in
the late 1980s as an indicator of which zones
to test. A quick but reliable result was
important, so the efforts focused on use of
the Stoneley energy. The total amplitude
between 0.5 and 5.0 kHz at one receiver was
summed, inverted and then normalized
between 0 and 1 using the lowest and
highest values found in the well.
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E VA L U AT I O N O F N E W W E L L S
Figure 5.13
Oil
Water
. . . . . . . . . .. . .. . .. . .. . .. ...
. . . . . . . .Quartz
. . . . . .
Clay
Time
DCAL
Volume Analysis
VV
Stoneley Index
0 1 (in.) 9 0
13,960.0
1000
(msec)
5000
(a)
13,980.0
13,650.0
(b)
13,670.0
13,690.0
(4)
(5)
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TA R D E T E C T I O N A N D P E R M E A B I L I T Y E VA L U AT I O N I N N O RT H M O N A G A S
Figure 5.14
1
6
CALI
(in.)
GR
(gAPI)
16
150
Depth
(ft)
LLD
(ohm-m)
LLS
(ohm-m)
MSFL
(ohm-m)
1000
1000
1000
1.9
RHOB
(g / cm3 )
0.45
NPHI
(V V)
14,800
14,900
15,000
15,100
15,500
C
15,800
A
15,900
2.9
0.15
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E VA L U AT I O N O F N E W W E L L S
Figure 5.15
Hydrocarbon
Moved hydrocarbon
Mud cake
Water
Mobility effect
2
St Permeability
10,000
0.1
Core Permeability
Depth
(ft)
10,000
(md)
0.1 280
DCAL
(in.)
Vxw
8
Elastic t Stoneley
Vw
Fluid analysis
t Stoneley
Core porosity
(ms / ft)
(V V)
230 0.25
14,800
14,900
15,000
15,100
15,500
Shale
Sandstone
Porosity
Volumetric analysis
(V V)
0 1
0
15,800
A
15,900
5 11
Conclusion
In the Oligocene and Cretaceous sandstones of North Monagas, acoustic logs can
clearly distinguish between mobile and
immobile fluids. Unlike resistivity, this distinction works in OBMs as well as WBMs.
Acoustic logs can also be used to estimate
permeability. However, in the current state of
the art, this needs calibrating against another
source of permeability.
An alternative method of estimating
permeability and detecting tar in OBM wells
is with NMR. An example is shown in the
following pages.
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E VA L U AT I O N O F N E W W E L L S
Figure 5.16
fe
DensityNeutron
Depth of investigation
CMR
Depth of investigation
VIW
VXWA
VXOI
VIW
VXWA
VXOI
VXGA
VMF_CMR
VGAS_CMR
HI*CTOE*VGAS_CMR
fCMR
(6)
(7)
(8)
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I D E N T I F I C AT I O N O F G A S A N D T A R L AY E R S W I T H N M R T O O L S
Figure 5.17
Fluids
MDT Pressure
Water
Quartz
Gas
Coal
CMR Porosity
deficit
Bound
water
Oil
Clay
.1
Volume analysis
1
0
VV
T2 Cutoff
3
(ms)
3000
T2 Distribution
3
(ms)
3000
16,200
16,250
16,300
D
16,350
E
F
16,400
H
16,450
(10)
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E VA L U AT I O N O F N E W W E L L S
Figure 5.18
Water
Oil mud
filtrate
Filtrate volume
from CMR
.25
MDT Pressure
9950
1000
Depth
(ft)
1000
(psi)
MDT Mobility
10150
(md cp)
.1
CMR Permeability
(md)
.1
VV
Gas
Quartz
Water
Coal
Oil mud
filtrate
Bound
water
Gas
Clay
T2 Cutoff
1
(ms) 3000
T2 Distribution
(ms) 3000
14,500
14,550
5 15
Invasion effects
Another well from the same field
illustrates how OBM filtrate invasion can be
quite deep, contrary to what is normally
assumed, and that it can severely reduce the
gas effect on all shallow reading tools,
making gas detection considerably more
difficult. The intervals under study are
located in the known gas leg, and the
presence of gas in the formation is
unambiguously confirmed by MDT pressure
gradients. Our purpose here is again to
quantify the respective volumes of formation
gas and OBM filtrate seen by the porosity
tools and the CMR in the invaded zone.
Figure 5.18 is from an interval located in
the upper part of the well and presents a
direct comparison of gas volumes estimated
from density-neutron, red in track 3, and
CMR. The volume of liquid seen by CMR
(CMRL) is calculated by the method
described above so that the CMR gas volume
is the difference between CMRL and the
effective porosity. Even though the pressure
potential is low, the gas has had time to
return to the immediate borehole vicinity.
This is undoubtedly related to the high
permeability (track 1) predicted by the CMR,
and confirmed by the significant MDT
mobilities. As a consequence, the logs
exhibit a very strong gas effect, amounting
to nearly 50% of the total pore volume.
Furthermore, gas volumes calculated from
CMR and density-neutron values are virtually
identical, suggesting a homogeneous
distribution of gas at their respective depths
of investigation.
Figure 5.19, over an interval close to the
bottom of the well, shows a much reduced
hydrocarbon effect. Based on densityneutron interpretation alone, and the fact
that this interval is deeper and at higher
pressures, this interval could have been
interpreted either as a mixture of gas and
invading oil filtrate, as shown in Fig. 5.19,
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I D E N T I F I C AT I O N O F G A S A N D T A R L AY E R S W I T H N M R T O O L S
Figure 5.19
Water
Oil mud
filtrate
Filtrate volume
from CMR
.25
MDT Pressure
9950
1000
Depth
(ft)
1000
(psi)
MDT Mobility
(md cp)
CMR Permeability
(md)
10150
.1
.1
VV
Gas
Quartz
Water
Coal
Oil mud
filtrate
Bound
water
Gas
Clay
T2 Cutoff
1
(ms) 3000
T2 Distribution
(ms) 3000
15,100
15,150
C
15,200
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E VA L U AT I O N O F N E W W E L L S
Figure 5.20
.03
T2 Amplitude
.03
.1
5 17
10
100
1000
T2 Distribution (msec)
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Types of hydrocarbons
Reservoir engineers often describe
reservoir fluids using classical, but rather
unscientific, terms that are widely understood
in the industry. These are: tar, heavy oil, black
oil, volatile oil, gas condensates, wet gases
and dry gases. These definitions do not have
distinct boundaries of application and so they
become difficult to employ in the transition
areas between volatile oil and gas
condensate, and volatile oil and black oil.
Table 5.1
Fluid type
Color of stock
tank liquid
API
gravity
GOR (1)
Phase in
Bo
reservoir (2) (3)
Mole%
heptanes plus
Tar
Black Dark
Visc >10,000 cp
<10
no gas
Liquid -
<1.05
>45
Heavy Oil
Black Dark
1025
<100
Liquid - pb
<1.2
>35
Black Oil
Black Dark
3040
1002500
Liquid - pb
<2.0
>20
Volatile Oil
Various colors
4050
>3000
Liquid - pb
>2.0
2012.5
Gas Condensate
Pale
5070
3000100,000
Gas - pd
n/a
<12.5
Wet Gas
Colorless
6070
>100,000
Gas -
n/a
<4
Dry Gas
No Liquid
No liquid 100,000
Gas -
n/a
<0.7
(1)
(2)
(3)
Figure 5.21
2700
Liquid
2600
2500
2300
100 %
90 %
80 %
70 %
2200
60 %
2400
Pressure (psia)
ui
Liq
db
y vo
Bubble point
lume
Dew point
Gas
0%
2100
2000
50 %
1900
1800
40 %
1700
1600
1500
30 %
1400
1300
60
20 %
10 %
80
100
120
140
160
180
200
220
240
260
Temperature (F)
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RESERVOIR FLUID SAMPLING
Figure 5.22
Electric power
module
Hydraulic power
module
Probe module
OFA
module
Multisample
module
Pump-out
module
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E VA L U AT I O N O F N E W W E L L S
A schematic of the
single-probe architecture is shown in
CQG
Crystal Quartz Gauge
Fig. 5.23. Once set, a
pre-test can be performed that involves
Isolation
withdrawing up to
valve
20 cm3 of fluid by
Equalizing
the displacement of
valve
a small piston. The
Wellbore
pressure
resulting perturbation of the formation
Strain
pressure is used to
gauge
estimate the permeability of the formaBlock diagram
tion surrounding the
of the singleprobe. The subseprobe module.
quent buildup deterPretest
mines the formation
pressure. The permeability
helps
Resistivity
decide the feasibility
cell
of attempting a sample at that depth,
Packer
while the pressure
profile versus depth
Probe
helps identify the
nature of the formation fluid. If it is
Flowline bus
decided to take a
sample, then the
pump-out is used to pump fluid from the
formation through the flowline bus and into
the borehole. The resistivity cell adjacent to
the probe helps discriminate between saline
water and hydrocarbon. The resistivity of the
fluid being pumped will initially be characteristic of the mud filtrate. As the fluid cleans
up, the resistivity will trend to a constant
value characteristic of the formation fluid.
Figure 5.23
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RESERVOIR FLUID SAMPLING
Figure 5.24
Gas detector
Lamp
@P,Q
Q,P@
@@@@
PPPP
,,,,
QQQQ
Q,P@
@@@@
PPPP
,,,,
QQQQ
Fluid flow
Flowline
Liquid detector
Water
Oil
Gas
The OFA module with its two sensor systems: one for liquid detection and analysis
and the other for gas detection.
Figure 5.25
Sample point
Single-shot
control valves
Motor-driven
throttle seal
valve
Water
cushion
line
Manual
shut-in
valves
Flowline bus
Water
cushion
choke
Motor-driven
throttle seal
valve
Water
receiver
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Figure 5.26
Dual-packer
module with
its basic
components
and a singleprobe module.
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RESERVOIR FLUID SAMPLING
Figure 5.27
Example of an
Oil
Resistivity
(ohm-m)
Fluid coloration
Water
Elapsed
Highly
(FCOL)
time absorbing
2 (sec)
0.0001
fluid
1620
pumping out
before sampling.
1530
1440
1350
1260
1170
1080
990
900
810
720
630
540
450
360
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E VA L U AT I O N O F N E W W E L L S
Reservoir
fluid
Buffer
fluid
Nitrogen
Clock
Regulator
valve
Hydraulic
oil
Floating
piston
Nitrogen charge
maintains sample
pressure above
reservoir pressure
Sampling
ports
Nitrogen
charge
the hole.
charge activated.
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RESERVOIR FLUID SAMPLING
Figure 5.30
Tool fires
10,000
Pressure (psi)
8,000
Sample is pressure-compensated
Pressure test in
W.L. lubricator
6,000
4,000
Complete
sampling
2,000
Sample is recovered
above reservoir
pressure
Start
sampling
0
0
10
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E VA L U AT I O N O F N E W W E L L S
Figure 5.31
8900.0
pb
Dew Point
7240.0
pd
55 %
60 %
62 %
Pressure (psia)
5580.0
24 %
23 %
3930.0
21 %
2280.0
1000.0
100
200
400
300
Temperature (F)
Phase diagram for the fluid from Well C, Jabillos Formation, showing that it is very
close to the critical point.
Table 5.2
Well
STO API
Color
GOR
(scf STB)
pb
(psia)
pd
(psia)
A - NI
33
Dark
2577
7265
(302F)
A - NM
35
Dark
8270
10,724
(281F)
33
Dark
5662
9968
(301F)
33
Dark
2842
7850
(288F)
5 27
Sample analyses in
North Monagas,
There are some striking examples of
critical fluids from North Monagas. For example, in Well A the two major sandstones are
the Naricual Media (NM) and Naricual
Inferior (NI) from 16,430 to 16,678 ft and
17,230 to 17,400 ft, respectively. The former
contains rich gas condensate with a dew
point pressure of 10,724 psia at 281 F, while
the latter produces a classical example of
volatile oil very close to the critical temperature. The bubble point of the fluid is 7265
psia at a reservoir temperature of 302F.
However, at only 500 psia below this pressure, the fluid is 43% gas. Identifying this
behavior without the availability of laboratory studies would be virtually impossible.
The stock tank fluid of Well A-NI is dark in
color with a gravity of approximately 33API,
very similar to the tank fluid from Well A-NM.
However, the latter fluid is gas condensate
but that in Well A-NI is volatile oil.
An additional parameter that is often
given too little attention is the producing
GOR. The GORs of the fluids in the example
wells range from 2577 scf/bbl for Well A-NI
to 5662 for Well B and 2842 for Well C (Table
5.2). The phase diagram of the fluid from
Well C, shown in Fig. 5.31, clearly
demonstrates that the fluid is very close to the
critical point. For the cases of Wells A and C,
it can be seen that the difference in the GORs
is very little, approximately 10%. The
reservoir temperatures are within 5%, the
tank liquid densities within 3% and colors are
almost identical. However, when the reservoir
fluids are examined in the laboratory, Well ANI exhibits a bubble point pressure and Well
C a dew point pressure, demonstrating that
these fluids are on opposite sides of their
respective critical points. An error of only
270 scf/bbl and a 4% change in temperature
could result in an incorrect identification of
either fluid, with potentially serious implications on the final recoveries and hence
economics of the field development project.
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RESERVOIR FLUID SAMPLING
Table 5.3
MDT OH
MDT CH
SRS NRS
Surface
sample
Overview of optimum
sampling techniques
for different fluids.
Highly recommended
Recommended with some limitations
Not recommended
Conclusions
The technology to acquire PVT-quality
samples has undergone rapid development
in recent years and is still evolving. The
discussion above shows that the flexibility
now exists to be able to sample either in
openhole or cased hole conditions. In some
cases there is a preferred method of sampling
because of the requirements of obtaining the
best PVT-quality sample; in other cases the
method chosen may be driven by operational
limitations or preferences. The choice of
sampling methods available are shown in
Table 5.3, with an indication of the suitability
of each method.
Accurate PVT properties are essential
for optimal, cost-effective reservoir management and field development. The ability to
capture representative samples of reservoir
fluids that have been difficult to sample in
the past is a major advancement for the
benefit of the industry.
E VA L U AT I O N I N T H E O R I N O C O B E LT
Figure 5.32
Scanning Electron Microscope photograph of a clean, mediumgrained, loosely packed Oficina sand sample. Magnification 80x.
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E VA L U AT I O N O F N E W W E L L S
Figure 5.33
Fluids
Estimated
Permeability
(Herron)
Water
Coal
Orthoclase
Quartz
T2 P2
Core
Permeability
Oil
Bound water
MDT
Mobility
Tar
Shale
Depth
(ft) 1000
(md)
T2 P1
T2 Distribution
.01 0.5
CMRP
VV
0.0 1.0
Volume analysis
VV
0.0 0.3
0.3
T2 Cut-off
(ms)
3000 0
VV
Amplitude
3000
Stoneley
permeability
indicator
50
MDT pressure
700
850
(psia)
1900
2000
2100
2200
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E VA L U AT I O N I N T H E O R I N O C O B E LT
Figure 5.34
1100
1000
Overshoot
Pressure (psia)
900
800
Reservoir
pressure
700
600
Drawdown
500
400
0
50
100
150
200
250
300
Time (sec)
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E VA L U AT I O N O F N E W W E L L S
Figure 5.35
10,000
= Lab A
T1
= Lab B
1000
T, or T2 (msec)
Crudes
100
10
Orinoco Belt
sample
1 T2 = 1 T 1 + (1 T2)D
1
0.1
0.1
10
100
1000
10,000
100,000
Viscosity (cp)
Amplitude
Figure 5.36
0.1
10
100
1000
10000
Time (msecs)
T2 distribution measured by the CMR tool on an oil sample from the Orinoco Belt
heated to downhole temperature. The oil signal corresponds to the short T2 peak. The
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E VA L U AT I O N I N T H E O R I N O C O B E LT
Figure 5.37
440
Rt
400
Mid-point reading
Rt
Rxo
360
RB0
RB1
RB2
Resistivity (ohm-m)
320
280
B2
B0
B1
240
200
160
120
80
Rxo
40
0
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.2
1.4
Characterizing invasion
This volume of movable oil seen by the
CMR is always greater than or equal to the
flushed oil volume estimated from the MCFL
(Chapter 413) Rxo reading, even in the upper
part of the reservoir where MCFL displacement is maximum. To clarify this apparent
contradiction, it is necessary to go back to the
physics of the MCFL tool. The MCFL is
designed to estimate three parameters: Rxo,
mudcake resistivity and mudcake thickness.
To achieve this objective, three measurement
buttons, B0, B1 and B2, located within the
main electrode, provide resistivities at three
different depths of investigation. The central
button B0 reads primarily the flushed zone
resistivity, while B1 and B2, located
progressively closer to the edge of the pad,
are predominantly sensitive to mudcake
properties. An inversion algorithm provides
real-time estimates of Rxo, mudcake resistivity
and thickness.
In this heavy oil environment, the mudcake thickness, if any, is negligible, and the
invasion is very shallow. B0, B1 and B2 will
therefore respond primarily to the invaded
zone, and their individual responses will depend on their respective depths of investigation. To clarify this, their responses were
simulated with Rxo=40 ohm-m, Rt=400 ohmm, similar to resistivities encountered in this
well, and for a varying step profile of
invasion from zero to 1.5 in. As shown in
Fig. 5.37, the midpoint reading of B2 is
approximately 0.28 in., B1 is 0.52 in. and
B0 is 0.62 in., all lower than the median
depth of investigation of the CMR of 1 in.
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E VA L U AT I O N O F N E W W E L L S
Figure 5.38
Synthetic resistivity
from CMR free-fluid
LLD
B2 resistivity
B1 resistivity
Depth
(ft)
B0 resistivity
1
(ohm-m)
1000
1900
2000
2100
2200
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E VA L U AT I O N I N T H E O R I N O C O B E LT
Figure 5.39
N
1981.5 ft
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E VA L U AT I O N O F N E W W E L L S
Figure 5.40
FMI
dynamic
image
PHIE
Vw from B2
Bed boundary
True dip
FMI
static
image
Inter-cross bed
True dip
N
NN
N0
(deg)
90 1
B2 resistivity
Vw from B1
B1 resistivity
Vw from B0
B0 resistivity
Vwirr
VV
Depth
0.0 (ft)
2185
2190
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E VA L U AT I O N I N T H E O R I N O C O B E LT
Figure 5.41
Borehole
drift
FMI image
S
True dip
True dip
(deg)
N
Depth
(ft)
10
10
(deg)
90
1950
2000
2050
Conclusion
In a complex environment such as the
heavy oil reservoirs of the Orinoco Belt, the
availability of a very complete, high-quality
logging suite, including PLATFORM EXPRESS,
MDT, DSI, FMI and CMR, allows the log
analyst to go beyond the traditional volumetric interpretation to characterize reservoir
quality and oil type, and estimate oil recovery.
The CMR allowed us to estimate the
viscosity of the oil and to quantify the pore
fluids, separating displaced oil from the
remaining oil in the pore space and estimating
the fraction of this oil directly coating the
grains. Because of the irregular nature of
invasion in heavy oil, the estimate of producible oil from CMR was considered more
reliable than the one obtained from conventional microresistivity curves. The DSI allowed
us to independently corroborate indications of
fluid displacement from MDT and other logs
and to derive a stand-alone mobility indicator.
The FMI, beyond information on rock texture
and invasion patterns, also supplied an easy
way to delineate sandstone units, determine
stratigraphic dips and infer the direction of
sediment transport, an important factor in
planning reservoir development.
FMI image and dips reveal a strongly heterogeneous sandstone. From the dip
orientation, the paleocurrent direction can be inferred.
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E VA L U AT I O N O F N E W W E L L S
Figure 5.42
Bound fluid
volume
Oil
Dolomite
Porosity difference
GR
(gAPI)
0
RHOB
(g cm3)
NPHi
300 1.95
CALI
in.
.45
Depth
BS
(ft) 6 in. 16 .45
Calcite
CMR-FF f ELAN
CMRP
.15 0.2
(V V)
.15 0.2
Bound water
(V V)
0.3
3000
T2 Distribution
Shale
0.0
CMR-FF
T2 Cut-off
Quartz
2.95 0.2
0.0
ELAN Porosity
(V V)
CMRP
Water
Volume analysis
0.0 1.0
(V V)
0.0 0.3
3000
12050
B
12100
12150
12200
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C A R B O N AT E S : L I T H O L O G Y- I N D E P E N D E N T P O R O S I T Y
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E VA L U AT I O N O F N E W W E L L S
Figure 5.43
LLS
130
SP
(mV)
6.0
CALI
(in.)
GR
(gAPI)
BFV
1000 0.5
0.1
30
0.0
1000 1.825
RHOB
(g cm3)
2.65
10 0.5
TNPH
(V V)
1000 0.5
0.1
16
0.1
MSFL
(ohm-m)
Depth
RWA
(ft)
200
0.001 (ohm-m)
0.0
CMRP
(V V)
LLD
T2 Distribution
T2 Cut-off
0.0 0.5
(ms)
3000
5900
6000
6100
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P R E D I C T I O N O F WAT E R C U T I N A S A N D W I T H L O W - R E S I S T I V I T Y C O N T R A S T
Figure 5.44
Quartz
Carbonate
Chert
Illite
Qtz+ Chert
Smectite
K-Feld
Kaolinite
Na-Feld
Chlorite
Ca-Feld
Glauconite
Feldspar
Clay
40
20
60
80
_ _
Evaporite
Mineralogy of the six samples, as determined by FT-IR. The top four samples
40
20
60
80
are typical of the shaly sandstone facies, while the bottom two are essentially shale.
Figure 5.45
Silicon
Core (wt %)
40
Core (wt %)
Calcium
40
30
20
10
Iron
15
30
Core (wt %)
50
20
10
10
0
0
10
20
30
40
50
Reconstructed (wt %)
10
20
30
40
Reconstructed (wt %)
Potassium
Reconstructed (wt %)
Core (ppm)
10
15
10
5
15
10
15
Comparison of
volumes of elements
7.5
measured directly
versus reconstructed
2.5
20
Reconstructed (wt %)
Uranium
10
20
10
Reconstructed (wt %)
Thorium
30
15
Core (ppm)
Core (wt %)
Core (wt %)
Core (wt %)
10
10
Sulfur
20
Reconstructed (wt %)
Aluminum
15
(11)
from mineralogy.
0
0
10
20
30
Reconstructed (wt %)
2.5
7.5
10
Reconstructed (ppm)
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E VA L U AT I O N O F N E W W E L L S
Figure 5.46
100
80
60
40
20
0
0
50
100
150
100
80
60
40
20
0
0
20
40
100
80
60
40
20
0
50
100
Spectrolith
Table 5.4
Sand
Clay
Quartz
Illite
Smectite/ Orthoclase
Kaolinite
Density, g/cm3
2.64
Neutron porosity, V/V 0.0016
PEF
2.43
Gamma ray, API
56.5
Sigma, c.u.
11.35
CEC, meq/g
0.0
Wet clay porosity, V/V 0.0
2.782
0.309
3.71
161
31.47
0.264
0.16
2.65
0.002
2.50
0.47
2.28
0.73
2.52
0.00
45
180
100
100
0.0
0.0
0.25
0.156
0.45
0.24
0.0
0.0
WSi, p.u.
WCa, p.u.
WFe, p.u.
WAI, p.u.
WK, p.u.
WTh, p.u.
WU, p.u.
22.3
0.6
7.3
13.6
2.6
21.9
4.0
41.8
1.0
0.7
2.3
1.4
5.3
1.6
NMR parameters
The laboratory NMR measurements
were used to determine the bound fluid cutoff, T2,cut, and also to examine how much of
the bound fluid was attributable to clay and
how
much
to
irreducible
water.
Measurements were made with watersaturated and desaturated samples, as
explained above page (54). The results are
given in Table 5.6, and show that the
optimum value of T2,cut, is 21 msec.
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P R E D I C T I O N O F WAT E R C U T I N A S A N D W I T H L O W R E S I S T I V I T Y C O N T R A S T
Figure 5.47
Sample 1
Sample 2
Sample 3
10
1
0.01
0.1
Brine saturation
Figure 5.48
0.15
0.15
1:1 line
Clay-bound
fluid
0.10
(a)
Capillary-bound
fluid
0.05
0.0
0.0
0.1
0.2
0.3
100
Clay-bound
fluid
0.10
(b)
Capillary-bound
fluid
0.05
0.0
0.0
0.1
0.2
0.3
Clay-bound fluid from mineralogy versus NMR signal below (a) 3 msec, and (b) 1
msec.The black line is the 1:1 clay-bound fluid line.
Table 5.5
Sample
N
Porosity
V/V
Formation
factor, F
Porosity
m
Exponent
m*
0.290
2.66
1.19
9.39
1.81
1.830
12
0.302
2.66
0.82
8.45
1.78
1.795
20
0.253
2.67
2.54
10.6
1.72
1.760
Electrical and other properties measured on three samples. The CEC was measured
on wet chemistry. The resistivity of the brine was 0.273 ohm-m at 25C. The
effective confining stress was 2000 psi.
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E VA L U AT I O N O F N E W W E L L S
Figure 5.49
X Zone Oil
VXBW
Moved Hydrocarbon
VMON+VKAO
Irreducible Water
VILL
BFV .CMR
VMON
VUWA
VCL
VXWA
Depth
(ft)
10000
KCMR
(md)
1 0.5
PIGN
(V V)
T2 Distribution
VILL
0 1
PIGN
(V V)
T2 Cut-off
0 0.3
(ms)
3000
5850
5900
5950
Conclusion
The combination of CMR and other
openhole logs correctly predicted water-free
production from a zone of low resistivity that
gave a quicklook water saturation above 50%.
This gave confidence in the test planned for
this zone and established guidelines for the
interpretation of similar zones in other wells.
CMR-based permeability gave a reasonable
prediction of well test permeability.
6000
6050
6100
Log interpretation results using ELAN and parameters from log-core integration.
Table 5.6
Sample
No.
Porosity,
(Buoyancy)
V/V
Porosity,
(NMR)
V/V
Permeability
(air, 2000psi)
md
BFV, after
desaturation
V/V
T2 Cut-off
msec
BFV, with
21 msec cut-off
V/V
BFV
<3 msec
V/V
BFV
<1 msec
V/V
Clay-Bound Water
(Mineralogy)
V/V
0.323
0.302
344
0.075
18
0.092
0.033
0.011
0.018
0.326
0.308
508
0.054
17
0.062
0.010
0.002
0.016
0.206
0.326
1.14
0.25
0.279
0.205
0.104
11
0.319
0.304
661
0.055
27
0.048
0.009
0.008
0.017
14
0.299
0.261
240
0.07
21
0.070
0.011
0.003
0.018
24
0.176
0.240
1.54
0.19
0.189
0.128
0.066
NMR properties measured on six samples using low field NMR with echo spacings of 0.16 and 0.4 msec.
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P R E D I C T I O N O F WAT E R C U T I N A S A N D W I T H L O W R E S I S T I V I T Y C O N T R A S T
The predictions were confirmed and explained by core analysis. FT-IR spectroscopy
and chemical analysis determined the mineralogy, and hence the optimum log interpretation model and tool response parameters to be used. Electrical measurements
determined the correct porosity and saturation exponents. NMR analysis determined the
cut-offs to be used for capillary- and claybound fluid volumes. These parameters can
Hydrocarbon Zone
(at irreducible water)
Water zone
a) Incomplete flushing
Rxo > Rt
c) Normal flushing
b) Complete flushing
Rxo > Rt
Sw = Sxo = Swirr
Irreducible water
Free water
Rxo = Rt
OBM filtrate
Formation oil
Rxo > Rt
Sw > Sxo
Sw = Swirr
Sxo = Swirr (CMR)
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E VA L U AT I O N O F N E W W E L L S
BFV
Shale
Moved water
Shale
Oil
Bound water
Oil
Bound water
KCMR
Depth
(ft)
1000 (md)
0.1 0.25
MDT Mobility
1000 (md cp) 0.1 10900
BFV
Moved water
CMRP
(V V)
0.0
MDT Pressure
(psi)
Quartz
T2 Distribution
Volume analysis
T2 Cut-off
11400 1.0 (V V) 0.0 1.0
6000
KCMR
Depth
(ft)
1000 (md)
0.1 0.25
MDT Mobility
1000 (md cp) 0.1 10900
CMRP
(V V)
MDT Pressure
(psi)
0.0
Quartz
T2 Distribution
Volume analysis
T2 Cut-off
6000
11400 1.0 (V V) 0.0 1.0
B
18600
18000
18700
18100
A
18800
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Figure 5.53
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E VA L U AT I O N O F N E W W E L L S
Figure 5.54
AHO60
AHO30
AHO20
SP
80
AHO10
(V V)
BFV
RXOI
NPOR
GR
AHORT
CMRP
(gAPI)
(V V)
20
(mV)
16
0.0
2.9
T2 Distribution
HCAL
6
Depth
(ft)
RHOZ
1.9
Blue
Red
induced induced
fluores. fluores.
.15 1.5
0.0 0.0
T2 Cut-off
1150
1160
1170
5 47
Two principal design areas must be considered: optical and mechanical. Schlumberger is the leader in delivering optical
technology to the borehole. The first commercial, optical wireline service is the OFA,
which analyzes the contents of the MDT
flowline. The quantity of oil, water, and to
some extent, gas are determined (Smits et al.,
1993). In addition, OBM filtrate can be
distinguished from crude oil by colorimetry.
The optical components employed in the
OFA are similar to those required in the FLT*
Fluorescence Logging Tool. The windows of
the FLT are subject to greater abrasion than
those of the OFA, yet they have been shown
to survive intact.
For the optical design of the FLT, we have
used two light sources of different wavelength,
one light source measuring the amount of
blue-induced fluorescence, the other measuring the amount of red-induced fluorescence. The spectral information obtained by
measuring the blue and red fluorescence
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CONTINUOUS WIRELINE FLUORESCENCE LOGGING
Figure 5.55
Moved water
Moved hydrocarbon
Water
Gas
Oil
B2
B1
HCAL
Depth
(ft) 6.0
B0
BS
(in.)
16 1
Quartz
Blue induced
fluorescence
2.0
2.0
Red induced
fluorescence
Bound water
T2 Distribution
Illite
T2 Cut-off
Volume analysis
2.0 0.0
(V V)
1.0
0.3
(msec) 3000
2500
2600
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E VA L U AT I O N O F N E W W E L L S
This chapter was written by V.Patel (BP de Venezuela), E.Decoster, A.Douglas, R.Chambers,
O.Mullins, Xu Wu, M.Kane, P.Rabbito, T.Terabayashi, N.Itagaki and J.Singer.
with contributions from D.Flores, J.C.Porras and A.di Massimo (Corpoven), A.Lamus,
C.Curtis and T.Clancy (Petrozuata), O.Ortiz, A.Khayan and R.Sanseviero.
and with the permission of Corpoven, Maraven, Petrozuata, BP de Venezuela
and YPF to publish data from their wells.
5 49
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REFERENCES
General
Sampling
Morris, C. W. and Sonnier, B., 1991, Evaluation of
reseroir fluids using formation tester tool samples,
SPE Paper 22129, Society of Petroleum Engineers
Annual Technical Conference and Exhibition held in
Anchorage, Alaska.
Schlumberger Oilfield Services 1996, Wireline Formation
Testing and Sampling.
Felling, M.M., Morris, C.W., 1997, Characterization of
in-situ fluid responses using optical fluid analysis,
SPE 38649, presented at the 1997 SPE Annual
Technical Conference and Exhibition, San Antonio, Texas,
October 5-8.
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Chapter 6
Evaluation and Monitoring of Existing Wells
Chapter overview
Saturation through casing
Porosity through casing
Lithology through casing
Permeability and pressure
Advances in production logging
Hydraulic integrity
Permanent monitoring systems:
Extending the life of a reservoir
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E VA L U AT I O N A N D M O N I T O R I N G O F E X I S T I N G W E L L S
CHAPTER OVERVIEW
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S AT U R AT I O N T H R O U G H C A S I N G
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E VA L U AT I O N A N D M O N I T O R I N G O F E X I S T I N G W E L L S
(3)
Charts (Schlumberger Log Interpretation
Charts, 1997) are available to determine Sw
and Sh. Sw is directly related to the salinity
of the water, its value ranging from 20 capture units (c.u.) for fresh water to more
than 120 c.u. for salt-saturated water. Sh
typically varies between 18 c.u. and 22 c.u.
for oil and remains below 17 c.u. for gas.
The quantity f(Sw-Sh) in the denominator
of equation (3) shows that PNC logging
requires a contrast between Sw and Sh. Hence,
the water must be salty and the salinity must
be known to evaluate Sw. There are no hard
limits, but it is generally considered that when
f is less than 10 p.u. and water salinity less
than 30,000 ppm, the contrast is insufficient.
These conditions are usually not met in
reservoirs where production is maintained by
water injection programs. The resulting formation water, a mixture of injection water and
connate water, has a variable and often low
salinity. Also, most Venezuelan reservoirs have
connate water salinities outside this range.
6 3
YC
K + K f(1-Sw) + KC3(1-yw)
= C1 C2
KOX1 + KOX2fSw + KOX3yw
YOX
(4)
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S AT U R AT I O N T H R O U G H C A S I N G
Figure 6.1
Counts
Hydrogen
Oil
Carbon
Oxygen
Water
Energy (Me V)
RST spectra obtained in an oil tank and a water tank. The broad energy windows
used across the region of the predominant C and O peaks are indicated.
Figure 6.2
VUOI-COR
ELAN effective porosity
Depth 10
(ft)
(p.u.)
VUOI-WIN
40
20
VUOI-ALFA
(p.u.)
70
3650
3675
3700
3725
Alpha processing results in an accurate volume of oil with low statistical variations.
Alpha processing
Spectral processing is hampered by
large statistical uncertainties and requires
very low logging speeds to ensure that
enough gamma rays are measured.
Another approach uses broad energy
windows in the gamma ray spectrum across
the region of the predominant C or O peaks
(Fig. 6.1). This method gives better statistical
precision but the interpretation is prone to
bias. The windows do not only represent C
and O, but are strongly influenced by other
elements present in the formation and by the
gamma radiation induced by the tool itself.
Consequently, the ratio from the C and O
windows is very dependent on environmental
effects, especially borehole effects such as
washouts and cement integrity.
To improve the statistical precision without losing accuracy, a method called Alpha
Processing combines the windows and spectral processing to obtain an accuracy comparable to the C/O yields ratio and a precision comparable to the C/O windows ratio.
Figure 6.2 shows for one well the
formation porosity with the volume of oil
computed from the yields (VUOI-COR) and
windows (VUOI-WIN) ratios, and the same
volume resulting from alpha processing
(VUOI-ALFA). VUOI-WIN exhibits substantially fewer statistical variations than
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Oil in borehole
rh = 0.74 g cm3
Gravel pack f = 35%
Sw (gravel pack) = Sw (for
.7
.6
Sw = 0 %
.5
.4
.3
Sw = 100 %
.2
.1
.0
0
.1
Porosity
(a)
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S AT U R AT I O N T H R O U G H C A S I N G
Figure 6.4
Oil in borehole
rh = 0.74 g cm3
Gravel pack f = 35%
Sw (gravel pack) = Sw (formation)
.7
.6
Sw = 0 %
.5
.4
.3
Sw = 100 %
.2
.1
.6
Sw = 0 %
.5
.4
.3
Sw = 100 %
.2
.1
.0
.0
0
.1
.2
Porosity
(a)
.3
.1
.2
.3
Porosity
(b)
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E VA L U AT I O N A N D M O N I T O R I N G O F E X I S T I N G W E L L S
Figure 6.5
Sigma borehole
Depth
(ft)
250
(c.u.)
GR
(gAPI)
Sigma formation
0
100 .2
Deep induction
(ohm-m) 2000
Near COR
60
(c.u.)
.1
60
RST porosity
(p.u.)
.1
.4
Far COR
.4
3500
3600
3700
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S AT U R AT I O N T H R O U G H C A S I N G
Figure 6.6
Water
Moved oil
Sw RST
100 (p.u.)
Sw OH
RST porosity
50 (p.u.)
0 100 (p.u.)
Depth
(ft)
Oil
Water
Water
Oil
Oil
0 Fluid analysis
from RST
0 50 (p.u.)
Sand
Bound water
Fluid analysis
from OH logs
0 50
(p.u.)
Clay
0 0
Volume analysis
(p.u.)
100
8
7
6
3500
3600
3700
Figure 6.7
1400
Fluid conduit
Theoretical performance
Predicted performance
assuming 30% water cut
Pressure (psig)
1200
1000
800
600
400
200
0
0
100
200
300
400
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,
,,
@@
A
PP
Q
B
R
C
S
B
R
,
,
,,
@
A
P
C
BB
Q
S
RR
@
P
,
,
A
Q
,,
@@
PP
,
,
BB
C
RR
S
A
Q
,,
@@
PP
,
BB
C
RR
S
A
Q
,,
@@
PP
,
,
,
,
,,
@
A
BB
P
C
Q
RR
S
@
P
,
,
E VA L U AT I O N A N D M O N I T O R I N G O F E X I S T I N G W E L L S
Figure 6.8
Water
Moved oil
Water
Perfs.
Depth
(ft)
Sw RST
100 (p.u.)
Sw OH
Permeability
0
(md) 200 100 (p.u.)
Oil
0
0 25
(p.u.)
2
15,300
15,500
9
15,600
10
11
12
13
15,700
Sand
Oil
Fluid analysis
from RST
15,400
Oil
Water
Bound water
Fluid analysis
from OH logs
0 25
(p.u.)
0 0
Clay
Volume analysis
(p.u.)
100
Conclusion
A crucial piece of information for
reservoir monitoring is water saturation.
By combining and improving two techniques
to obtain this information, the RST is a breakthrough in cased-hole logging. Sigma logging
can quickly provide Sw in formations
with known and high water salinity.
C/O logging is the alternative in reservoirs
with low formation water salinity or under
water injection.
RPB@
QRPAB@,,
SRR
CBB
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RST
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S AT U R AT I O N T H R O U G H C A S I N G
RST
Figure 6.9
Figure
6.10a
Inelastic scattering
Nucleus
Fast
neutron
6.10b
Thermalization
Nucleus
Fast
neutron
6.10c
Neutron capture
Excited
nucleus
Nucleus
Slow
neutron
6.10d
Time (msec)
Fig. 6.11
100
80
C
60
Net inelastic =
A bB
40
Net inelastic
B
20
A
Counts
Counts
Neutron
generator
Counts
Far
Near
detector detector
Counts
Acquisition
cartridge
Neutron
burst
Telemetry,
casing collar
locator
(CCL)
Gamma ray
(optional)
Neutron
burst
Energy
0
Energy
g-ray
Activation
n + 16O 16N + p 16O* + b 16O + g with half life = 7.1s
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E VA L U AT I O N A N D M O N I T O R I N G O F E X I S T I N G W E L L S
RST
Fig.
6.12
Counts
Oxygen
Silicon
Tool background
Calcium
Iron
Carbon
Energy (MeV)
Flowing
signal
Stationary
signal
Background
signal
Fast flowing signal
Count rate
Time
Long burst
Fig. 6.14
Counts
Short burst
500
1000
1500
Time (msec)
Fig. 6.13
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Various methods are used to obtain porosity in old wells. If an adequate modern openhole logging suite is available, it is usually
sufficient to rely on the openhole porosity.
However, in many cases the openhole logging
suite is insufficient or non-existent. In other
cases, the openhole porosity is no longer accurate; for example, carbonates that have been
acidized. Nuclear and acoustic measurements
must then be used to determine the porosity.
The most commonly used technique is a
neutron-type porosity measurement. Such
measurements are relatively insensitive to the
casing and the cement, and can be characterized so as to remove these effects. The
most convenient is a through-tubing measurement, such as from the 11116-in. or 212-in. RST .
The
next
section
describes
the
characterization and processing of this
measurement and shows an example in a
complicated completion. Density tools are
also used. However, in general, the effects of
casing and cement are significant, and unless
the cement bond is excellent, the results are
considered unreliable.
Figure 6.15
Borehole
salinity
0 kppm
Count rate
Count rate
Borehole
salinity
0 kppm
200 kppm
200 kppm
Long
burst
Short
burst
50
100
150
200
600
1000
1400
Time (ms)
Time (ms)
a.) Typical signal decay from the short burst of the RST near
b.) Typical signal decay from the long burst of the RST far
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E VA L U AT I O N A N D M O N I T O R I N G O F E X I S T I N G W E L L S
Figure 6.16
Input
Time decay spectra
Correction to spectra
Counting loss corrections
Background adaptive filtering
Background subtraction
SBNA
SFFA
TRAT
etc.
Environmental
parameters
Database
Borehole size
Casing size weight
Lithology
Outputs
Borehole salinity Cross section
Porosity
Corrected near and far sigma
Sigma formation
BSAL SIBF
TPHI
SFNC SFFC
SIGM
Openhole
6.4
2.8755
3.5
12.7
Porosity2
Formation
flush3
(kppm NaCl)
Borehole
fluid4
(kppm NaCl)
LS
LS
LS
Z*M H
Z*M H
Z*M H
0 70 140 210
0 70 140 210
0 70 140 210
6
6
6
4.5
5.0
Openhole
10.5
18
LSD
LSD
LSD
Z*M H
Z*M H
Z*M H
0 70 140 210
0 70 140 210
0 70 140 210
8
8
8
5.5
7.0
Openhole
15.5
32
LSD
LSD
LSD
Z*M H
Z*M H
Z*M H
0 70 140 210
0 70 140 210
0 70 140 210
10
10
10
5.5
7.0
7.625
15.5
32
26.4
LSD
LSD
LSD
Z*M H
Z*M H
Z*M H
0 70 140 210
0 70 140 210
0 70 140 210
11
12
12
7.625
9.625
9.625
26.4
32.3
53.5
LS
LS
LS
Z*M H
Z*M H
Z*M H
0 70 140 210
0 70 140 210
0 70 140 210
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POROSITY THROUGH CASING
Figure 6.17
60
50
40
30
20
10
-1.5 -0.5 0.5 1.5
Deviation from assigned sigma (c.u.)
0
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
Figure 6.18
Water
Gas
Depth
(ft)
CALI
30 (in.)
CALI
0 (in.) 30
50
TPHI
(p.u.)
50
NPHI
(p.u.)
1.85
RHOB
(g / cm3)
2.65
50
Moved Oil
Oil
Water
Sand
Gas
Bound water
Oil
Clay
Fluid analysis
(p.u.)
Volumetric analysis
0
(p.u.)
100
5800
B
C
5900
E
6400
Example of porosity and C/O measurements from an RST run inside a 3 1/2-in.
processed (see page 64) to improve precision, using SFFC as the accurate measurement and SFFA as the more precise one.
The accuracy of the processing has been
checked against the database itself. Figure
6.17 shows the measured sigma versus. the
assigned sigma for 900 points where Sf < Sb,
which is the normal situation. The average
absolute errors for the RST-A tool are 0.22 c.u.
for SIGM, 0.9 p.u. for TPHI, and 5.5 kppm for
BSAL. For the RST-B tool the corresponding
errors are 0.2 for SIGM, 1.7 p.u. for TPHI and
6.9 kppm for BSAL. The overall accuracy of
the measurement has also been checked
against the industry standard calibration
pits in Houston and in the EUROPA facility
in Aberdeen.
Figure 6.18 shows an example of a well
logged from inside a 312-in. tubing lying within a 958-in. casing. The well produces from a
lower formation and has a packer set at
6963 ft, approximately 500 ft below the
interval logged. Since the well is deviated 20,
the tubing is expected to lie against the side
of the casing. There is a gas lift mandrel in the
interval logged at 5933 ft, which could
possibly cause some stand-off. However, this
is opposite a shale and the effects on the RST
outputs are not significant. There was water
in the tubing and the tubing-casing annulus at
the time of logging.
Such a dual-string completion had not
been included in the database at the time of
logging. However, it could be approximated
by taking the total thickness of both casings
as the casing thickness. The results show
that this is a good approximation, with good
agreement between the openhole neutron
(NPHI) and the RST porosity (TPHI).
Track 4 shows the evaluation of the openhole logs. Track 3 shows the openhole fluid
analysis compared to the fluid analysis from
the RST C/O measurement. As in Figs. 6.6 and
6.8, moved oil is the difference between the oil
seen by the RST and the openhole logs. Track
2 shows NPHI, density and TPHI.
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E VA L U AT I O N A N D M O N I T O R I N G O F E X I S T I N G W E L L S
Figure 6.19
GR
0
(gAPI)
S / T Projection
Depth
150
(ft)
40
(ms / ft)
Sonic Waveform
240
500
(ms )
1700
S / T line
150
S / T Plane : P & S (Rec.)
3660
200
15,000
175
150
125
100
75
50
500
Time (ms )
S / T line
150
S / T Plane : P & S (Rec.)
3660
15,100
175
150
125
100
75
50
500
Time (ms )
S / T line
150
S / T Plane : P & S (Rec.)
3660
15,200
225
200
175
150
125
100
75
50
500
Time (ms )
15,300
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POROSITY THROUGH CASING
Figure 6.20
CALI
(in)
Vp Vs
SP
20
(mV)
GR
(gAPI)
0.1
120
150
16
Depth
(ft)
LLS
(ohm-m)
1000
1.825
LLD
0.1
(ohm-m)
1000
113
RHOB
(g / cm3)
DTCO
(ms / ft)
2.65
55
15,000
15,100
15,200
15,300
Zone D (5900 ft) was found to be gasfilled when the well was drilled. However,
TPHI shows no gas effect, and the COR
indicates oil. This is an interesting indication
of the movement of fluids in the reservoir.
Zone E (6375 ft) shows no change in
fluid content between the openhole logs
and the RST log. NPHI and TPHI overlay
almost exactly, as they do in the water zone
below, except opposite the shalier intervals
where NPHI reads higher.
Overall, this example confirms that the
RST porosity gives good results through two
strings in 1214-in. hole in these conditions of
25 p.u. sands and eccentered tubing. It also
shows the benefit of monitoring old wells.
The comparison of RST porosity and saturation with the original openhole results not
Acoustic measurements
through casing
First arrivals have been used for many
years to determine compressional slowness
through casing. However, success depends
on the cementation being good enough to
allow the generation and transmission of
strong formation signals. Also, unless there is
a near-perfect cement bond, the formation
slowness and casing slowness must be
significantly different.
These limitations can be overcome by
recording and processing full waveforms.
Two special techniques are recommended to
improve the results. First, the data should be
acquired at a lower transmitter frequency
than in openhole. Second, the processing
should include a wave separation technique
to remove the casing signal.
The amplitude of the compressional signal
increases with frequency because of the effects
of borehole resonance. However, in cased
holes more casing propagation modes are
excited at higher frequency, especially when
the cement bond is poor. Therefore, the frequency must be lowered, but without reducing
the amplitude of the compressional signal below measurable limits. This limit depends on
formation slowness, since the compressional
amplitude also increases with formation
slowness because of lower contrast (better
coupling) between borehole and formation.
Therefore, the recommended transmitter frequency is 7.5 kHz in a hard formation, which
is reduced to 5 kHz in medium and soft formations, and 3 kHz in very soft formations
(Dtc > 130 msec/ft). Other parameters, such as
filter range, sampling interval and length
must be chosen accordingly.
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LITHOLOGY THROUGH CASING
Figure 6.21
Clay wt%
100
Well 1
Well 2
Well 3
Well 4
Well 5
Well 6
Well 7
Well 8
Well 9
Well 10
Well 11
Well 12
50
Clay wt%
100
50
Clay wt%
100
50
0
0
100
200
Gamma ray
Synthetic GR (computed
from Th, U and K concentrations) plotted against total
clay (kaolinite, illite, smectite,
chlorite and glauconite)
measured on the same
sample for 12 data sets.
Wells 3 and 7 are from
Lake Maracaibo.
100
200
Gamma ray
100
200
Gamma ray
100
200
Gamma ray
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Figure 6.22
Clay (wt%)
100
50
0
0
10
20
Thorium (ppm)
10
Uranium (ppm)
2.5
Potassium (wt%)
Clay (wt%)
100
50
0
0
10
20
Aluminum (wt%)
Titanium (wt%)
10
Gadolinium (ppm)
Clay (wt%)
100
50
0
0
25
50
Silicon (wt%)
15
30
Iron (wt%)
20
40
Calcium (wt%)
Figure 6.23
100
Clay wt%
Well 1
Well 2
Well 3
Well 4
50
Clay wt%
100
Well 5
Well 6
Well 7
Well 8
Well 9
Well 10
Well 11
Well 12
50
Clay wt%
100
50
0
0
50
100 0
Estimated clay
50
100 0
Estimated clay
50
100 0
Estimated clay
6 19
GR spectroscopy
The same database was used to examine
other estimators of clay. Figure 6.22 shows
the relationship of various elements to clay
in Well 3. Of the three elements thorium,
uranium and potassium (Th, U and K) that
make up the natural GR signal, only K shows
a better correlation than the total GR.
Aluminum (Al) correlates well, and silica (Si)
anti-correlates well except for a few points
that have a high iron (Fe) percentage.
In general, the most reliable estimator
is found to be Al. However, it is a complicated
measurement to make in a borehole, currently
requiring a chemical source, two spectrometers and a measurement of formation capture cross section. K is not generally as
reliable as in the example in Fig. 6.22.
Therefore, an alternative estimator is used
which is based on the observation that as the
clay percentage increases, the amounts of
several elements decreases. This was already
noted for Si in Fig. 6.22. Similar anticorrelations can be observed with calcium
(Ca) in carbonate intervals, and with Fe where
siderite or pyrite are present. After converting
from elemental to oxide concentrations and
optimizing the coefficients for the data from
Wells 1-10, the following algorithm has been
found:
50
100
Estimated clay
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LITHOLOGY THROUGH CASING
Figure 6.24
100
50
0
0
50
100
(6)
Figure 6.25
10,000
10,100
10,200
Depth (ft)
10,300
10,400
10,500
10,600
10,700
10,800
0.1 0 0.1
Silicon
0.1 0 0.1
Calcium
0.2 0.4
Iron + .14Al
0.1
Sulfur
0.1 0.1
0.1
0.2 0.4
Titanium Gadolinium
Capture yields from the RST far detector in a Lake Maracaibo well, unsmoothed
and not corrected for casing or cement.
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E VA L U AT I O N A N D M O N I T O R I N G O F E X I S T I N G W E L L S
Figure 6.26
350
300
Frequency
250
200
150
100
50
0
0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
Fe yield
Figure 6.27
300
250
Frequency
200
150
100
50
0
0.1 0.05
0.05
0.1
0.15
0.2
0.25
Ca yield
capture Ca yield.
Wi = F Yi /Si
10,000
10,100
10,200
10,300
10,400
10,500
10,600
10,700
10,800
0.1 0 0.1
Silicon
0.1 0 0.1
Calcium
0.2
0.4
Iron + .14Al
0.1
Sulfur
0.1 0.1
0.1
Titanium
0.2 0.4
Gadolinium
(8)
Capture yields from the far detector, after casing and cement correction.
6 21
(7)
Figure 6.28
Depth (ft)
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LITHOLOGY THROUGH CASING
Figure 6.29
10,100
10,200
Depth (ft)
10,300
10,400
10,500
10,600
10,700
0
50 0
Silicon
(wt%)
20
Calcium
(wt%)
40
10
20
Iron + .14Al
(wt%)
10
Sulfur
(wt%)
20
Titanium
(wt%)
20
40
Gadolinium
(ppm)
Elemental Concentration Logs computed with SpectroLith are compared with cores.
Elements to minerals
Equations (5) and (6) provided a means
for obtaining minerals from elements, based
on core data. There are two complications
using log data. First, magnesium (Mg) is not
normally measured by spectroscopy logging
tools, although recent work shows this can be
done. However, as discussed above, the sum
(Ca + 1.455Mg) is independent of whether
there is calcite or dolomite, which is the same
as saying that this sum equals the Ca
measured by logs. Therefore, the log Ca can
be used to estimate the total carbonate.
Second, the optimization for clay percentage
needs to allow for the fact that the
Fe measurement is contaminated by Al.
Equations (5) and (6) are therefore modified
as follows:
Clay (log) =1.91 ( 100 - SiO2
- CaCO3 - 1.99Fe)
(9)
(10)
(11)
In the case of sandstones rich in feldspar or mica, such as Wells 11 and 12, the
alternative clay computation is as follows:
Clay2(log)=
-18.5+3.34(100-SiO2 -CaCO3 -1.99Fe)
(12)
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E VA L U AT I O N A N D M O N I T O R I N G O F E X I S T I N G W E L L S
Figure 6.30
10,100
10,200
Depth (ft)
10,300
10,400
10,500
10,600
10,700
0
50
Clay (wt%)
100
50
100
Carbonate (wt%)
50
100
Quartz-Feld-Mica (wt%)
Figure 6.31
100
90
GR
Spectrolith
80
Clay (wt%)
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
X650
X700
X750
X800
X850
Depth (ft)
Clay weight percentage in a Orinoco Belt well from SpectroLith, GR and cores.
X900
The SpectroLith processing was automatic. As can be seen, the two log estimates
agree well between X855 ft and X885 ft.
Elsewhere, and in spite of the scaling factor,
the GR gives too high a clay percentage by
about 10 to 20 wt%. Furthermore, it shows
excursions, such as at X760 ft and X815 ft,
which would be interpreted as sealing shales,
but which are not shales at all. SpectroLith
gives a better picture of the reservoir.
Summary
In shaly sandstone intervals, it is important to know the percentage of clay to estimate
porosity, saturation and permeability. Very
often the clay percentage is estimated from the
GR. However, it has been shown that the GR
is unreliable as a quantitative estimator of clay.
This is especially true in old wells where core
and other logs are not often available to
calibrate and help interpret the response.
An alternative technique is to use
capture GR spectroscopy yields from an RST
tool. Using the SpectroLith procedure, these
yields can be turned into elemental and
mineralogical concentrations. Based on
examples from Lake Maracaibo and the
Orinoco Belt, it has been shown that more
accurate clay percentages can be obtained by
this technique. This improvement was
significant in enhancing the reservoir
evaluation, so that potentially good zones
were not falsely judged to be poor quality
reservoir, and so that facies with high GR
were not treated as reservoir barriers.
The SpectroLith value clearly agrees more closely with the cores.
6 23
(13)
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(14)
(15)
(16)
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E VA L U AT I O N A N D M O N I T O R I N G O F E X I S T I N G W E L L S
Pressure
One of the simplest and best established
methods of obtaining layer pressure is to
make openhole wireline formation tests in a
nearby new well. The key to success is a
good correlation between the old and new
well, and a good knowledge of sealing faults
and other factors that might cause a
discontinuity in pressure. Typically in old
wells the correlation is based on a good
geological model, and on GR and resistivity
logs. Here again the SpectroLith lithology
can improve results. Chemostratigraphy,
which is based on the elemental volumes
from SpectroLith, can help make correlations
that are better than those from GR and
resistivities alone (Herron, 1988).
Figure 6.32
10,500
10,600
10,700
Depth (ft)
10,800
10,900
11,000
11,100
Shell
core data
Maraven
core data
11,200
0
50
Clay (wt %)
6 25
100
0.1
10
100
1000
10,000
Permeability (md)
Example
The example shown in Fig. 6.33 is from
Bloque IV in the Maracaibo Basin. VLD-1112
is a new well and VLD-775 is an old well in
the same block. An extensive study of cores
and logs in this area led to a new definition
of layers for the reservoir, shown as layers I
to XII on the left. This layering was strongly
confirmed by the MDT* Modular Formation
Dynamics Tester pressures recorded in VLD1112. Some layers are clearly much more
depleted than others. The permeabilities
were estimated with the K-L method using
the openhole mineral volumes.
The old well, VLD-775, is about 1 km
SE of VLD-1112 and was drilled in 1978.
After producing about 5 MMBbl of oil it
recently showed a large increase in gas cut.
The fluids in the different layers at the time of
the original openhole and a recent RST are
summarized on the right of Fig 6.33. In this
case, the openhole logging suite was
sufficient to make a reasonable estimate of
porosity and lithology. The permeability in
track 2 was derived from the mineralogy and
the K-L model. The correlation between the
two wells is based on the new layer model,
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PERMEABILITY AND PRESSURE
Laguna
(gAPI)
-20
GR
120
f =19%
k =31 md
XI
f =18%
k = 4 md
f =19%
k =152 md
10,500
IX
10700
f =16%
k= 3 md
f= 16%
k = 2 md
VI
10,600
VII
VI
V
f= 22%
k =1498 md
IV
IV
10800
III
II
,
XI
VIII
VII
10000
XII
VIII
KINT (md)
1
10600
f =23%
k = 306 md
IX
md
ft
2 79
-80
10,400
XII
Lagunillas I nferior
SP
Hist + RST 4 94
GR
0
Layer
MDT Pressure (psig)
Average
1300
1050
Porosity and
K (md)
120 Depth
Permeability
(ft) 1.00
10000.
Layer
Sand
Layer
Member
2 79
6 94
12 91
VLD 775
VLD 1112
Openhole 12 78
Figure 6.33
f 24%
k 1585 md
10,700
III
II
Open perforations
Oil
Sequence boundary
Flooding surface
Other marker
Gas
Closed perforations
Water
Indirect estimates of dynamic properties in an old well (VLD-775). Permeability is from openhole measurements and pressure by correlation
with the new well VLD-1112, (after Bryant, et al, 1996).
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(18)
(19)
where:
q = flow rate, hp = heavy phase
lp = light phase, y = phase hold-up,
vs = slippage velocity,
qs = slippage flow rate defined as
yhp ylp A Vs
In a bubble flow regime; i.e., when one
phase is continuous while the other is
distributed as bubbles within it, then it is
assumed that the spinner can determine the
total flow rate qt. The hold-up of the phases
has to be determined from measurements,
while the slippage velocity is found from
laboratory-established correlations.
6 27
(20)
(21)
(22)
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ADVANCES IN PRODUCTION LOGGING
Figure 6.34
Probe
Probe
Flow
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E VA L U AT I O N A N D M O N I T O R I N G O F E X I S T I N G W E L L S
Figure 6.35
Water
Moved oil
Average BUB count
(cps)
0
Depth
(ft)
Fluid density
.5
(g / cm3)
(%)
Sand
Spinner velocity
(rps)
1.5 0
Average holdup
Hold up
image 0
Oil
Perforated
zones
500
20
Fluid temperature
1 177
(oF)
183 0
Water phase
Clay
Oil phase
Bound water
Flow rate
(B / D)
Combined model
750
(V / V)
B
C
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ADVANCES IN PRODUCTION LOGGING
Figure 6.36
Counts sec
600
400
200
10
20
30
40
50
Time (sec)
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E VA L U AT I O N A N D M O N I T O R I N G O F E X I S T I N G W E L L S
Figure 6.37
LL3
ILM
ILD
0.02
200
( ohm-m )
GR
(gAPI)
200
Depth
(ft)
Perforations
11,800
Water velocity up
(ft min)
20
CPS cycle
Time (sec)
11,900
12,000
12,200
CPS cycle
12,100
Time (sec)
12,300
An example of a WFL
showing water flowing down
from an upper zone, and not
up from a lower zone.
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ADVANCES IN PRODUCTION LOGGING
Figure 6.38
Oil
6000
Water
Oil
1500
Water
Oil
600
Water
80
89
90
91
Figure 6.39
Combinable Production
Reservoir Saturation Tool
Logging Tool
Oil hold-up
Pressure & temperature Gas indicator
Gamma Ray
Detector
Dual DEFT
Spinner
Water velocity
Water hold-up index
Water flow-rate index
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E VA L U AT I O N A N D M O N I T O R I N G O F E X I S T I N G W E L L S
Figure 6.40
0.5
Flow rate (B D)
6000
0.57
0.52
0.51
0.49
0.74
0.63
0.48
0.40
0.87
0.68
0.34
0.21
1500
0.5
600
1
80
89
90
91
The cross-sectional hold-up image maps are shown that were acquired with the
Dual-DEFT of the Flagship string during the same flow-loop experiment that is
shown in Fig. 6.38.
Figure 6.41
Marker signal
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
Time (sec)
Oil-miscible marker
Casing
Oil
Water
RST
An oil-soluble gadolinium-based marker is injected into the oil phase. The arrival of
the marker at the RST is detected by a perturbation of the capture cross section of
the borehole fluid. Time of flight is used to compute phase velocity. A water-soluble
marker can be ejected downward for water velocity.
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ADVANCES IN PRODUCTION LOGGING
Spinner measurement
Figure 6.42
500
400
300
200
100
14,000 B D
(5-in. liner)
Oil
Water
0
0
100
200
300
400
500
Auxiliary measurements
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ADVANCES IN PRODUCTION LOGGING
Figure 6.43
Oil
Water
Normalized flow rate
Flow profile
2000
(B D)
Q T ratio
Computed oil flow rate
(B D)
WFL station water
flow rate
(B D)
0
7378.0ft
Hold-up image
(DFH)
Above 0.94
0.88 - 0.94
0.82 - 0.88
0.76 - 0.82
0.71 - 0.76
0.65 - 0.71
0.59 - 0.65
0.53 - 0.59
0.47 - 0.53
0.41 - 0.47
0.35 - 0.41
0.29 - 0.35
0.24 - 0.29
0.18 - 0.24
0.12 - 0.18
0.06 - 0.12
Below 0.06
10400
10300
10200
10000
9900
9800
9700
9600
9500
9400
9300
9200
9100
9000
8900
8800
8700
7383.0ft
Borehole gas
7378.0ft
Hold-up image
(DFH)
Borehole gas
7383.0ft
Above 0.94
0.88 - 0.94
0.82 - 0.88
0.76 - 0.82
0.71 - 0.76
0.65 - 0.71
0.59 - 0.65
0.53 - 0.59
0.47 - 0.53
0.41 - 0.47
0.35 - 0.41
0.29 - 0.35
0.24 - 0.29
0.18 - 0.24
0.12 - 0.18
0.06 - 0.12
Below 0.06
A Flagship log run in a horizontal well in Trinidad. The hold-up images of water and oil for flow and shut-in conditions are shown
together with gas hold-up indication. The interpreted flow profile of water and oil is shown. The cross-sectional hold-up images at
9200 ft and 9000 ft indicate a difference in oil and water hold-up due to deviation changes only.
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HYDRAULIC INTEGRITY
SSS
CCC
BBB
RRR
AAA
QQQ
,,,
@@@
PPP
,,,
CCC
SSS
BBB
RRR
AAA
QQQ
,,,
@@@
PPP
,,,
CCC
SSS
BBB
RRR
AAA
QQQ
,,,
@@@
PPP
,,,
,
,,
@@
A
BB
C
PP
Q
RR
S
,
,,
@@
A
BB
C
PP
Q
RR
S
Figure 6.44
Formation
Cement
Casing
Acoustic
beam
transducer,
b) casing resonance
Transducer
and reflections,
Rotation
a)
Metal
plate
c) received signal
with large first
dependent signals.
b)
Transducer
Zmud
Vmud
Zsteel
Vsteel
a
Mud
Casing
Zcem
Cement
Formation
Cement
Water
tc
Amplitude
c)
50
60
70
80
90
Time (sec)
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HYDRAULIC INTEGRITY
Figure 6.45
4
Setting slurry
cement + mud
t
gh
tc
em
en
Slurr
Li
Impedance (MRAY)
Default
threshold
WBM
max
Fluids
Diesel
1.2
1.4
1.6
1.8
2.0
2.2
2.4
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E VA L U AT I O N A N D M O N I T O R I N G O F E X I S T I N G W E L L S
Figure 6.46
Fluid compensated
CBL amplitude
(mv)
Acoustic
impedance
Max
50
Transit time
400
(ms)
Gamma ray
(gAPI)
100
Acoustic
impedance
Min
200
Liquid
Depth
(ft)
Avg
Gas
(MRAY)
Cement 0
10
Min
10
200
VDL variable
density Max
(ms)
1200
17,650
17,700
17,750
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HYDRAULIC INTEGRITY
Figure 6.47
-500.0000
Depth
(ft)
(gAPI)
150
0.0760
Internal radii
minus average
(IRBK)
External
radius
average
(ERAV)
0
(in.)
External
radius
average
(ERAV)
150 0
(in.)
150
7553
7560.5
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E VA L U AT I O N A N D M O N I T O R I N G O F E X I S T I N G W E L L S
Figure 6.48
200
Depth
(ft)
Travel time
(Ms)
1000
GR
(gAPI)
CBL amplitude
100
(mv)
Average map
0
100
(mv)
Casing attenuation
150 40
0
(mv)
0
20
Cement map
17,700
17,750
17,800
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PERMANENT MONITORING SYSTEMS: EXTENDING THE LIFE OF A RESERVOIR
Figure 6.49
Surface sensors
and controls
Single-phase flow rate
Valve and chok e control
Pressure measurements
Sand detection
Field office
Production reports
Alarms
Problem identification
Integrated
applications
Downhole sensors
FloWatcher* monitors (flow
rate and density)
PumpWatcher* gauges
(ESP control)
PressureWatch* gauges
(pressure and
temperature)
Host server
and database
District office
Production engineering
Head office
Field performance
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E VA L U AT I O N A N D M O N I T O R I N G O F E X I S T I N G W E L L S
Table 6.2
Main Applications
Description
Restricted access
Highly deviated wells
Pumping wells
Reservoir management
Production optimization
Figure 6.50
Section A
Cable
protector
Cable
Gauge
mandrel
Section A
Pressure and
temperature
gauge
Exploded view of
metal-to-metal seal
Wellhead
Wellhead
outlet
outlet
Interference testing
Reservoir pressure control
Transient well testing
History matching
As the technology evolves further, monitoring will be combined with downhole control
(intelligent completions), allowing even
greater control of production, which will find
particular applications in the new generation
of multilateral wells.
Several reservoirs in Venezuela already
benefit from permanent monitoring installations, and there are many more that could do
so. As seen in Chapter 2, Venezuela is distinguished worldwide by the large variety of its
reservoirs in terms of rock and fluid properties, drive mechanisms, depth, well
completions and production practices. There
are two broad groups of applications for
permanent monitoring systems (Table 6.2):
improved reservoir management and production optimization due to the availability
of continuous, real-time downhole data; and
difficult field or well conditions, in which the
problems of well intervention prevent the
recording of downhole data at all. The
following sections describe briefly the
technique, and show examples of applications in Venezuela and elsewhere.
6 43
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PERMANENT MONITORING SYSTEMS: EXTENDING THE LIFE OF A RESERVOIR
Figure 6.51
Wellhead
outlet
Cable
pentrator
Control
line
Electrical
cable
Upper
Filter
Flapper
valve
Digital
permanent
gauge
Packer
Lower
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E VA L U AT I O N A N D M O N I T O R I N G O F E X I S T I N G W E L L S
Figure 6.52
Well A
4900
Pressure pulses
4800
Pressure (psi)
4700
4600
4500
4400
4300
4200
4100
4000
Well B
Pressure (psi)
5060
5040
5020
Effect of
short pulses
5000
Effect of
long pulses
4980
4960
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
June
6 45
Reservoir management
Complex fields require careful reservoir
management. Two North Sea fields, Gullfaks
and Veslefrikk, illustrate how permanent
monitoring can help.
In Veslefrikk, commingled production
and injection was planned from the Brent and
Intra Dunlin Sand reservoirs to reduce total
investment. Here gauges are used in dedicated wells to monitor the two reservoirs
independently. Control is obtained by selective perforation in producers and downhole
chokes in injectors. A carefully planned data
acquisition program during the initial
production phase provided information about
reservoir properties, production potential and
well behavior. In addition, two of the largest
uncertainties were partially resolved: the
degree of communication across the main
arcuate fault, and the vertical transmissibility
between the Lower and Middle Brent through
the low-quality Rannoch sandstone.
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PERMANENT MONITORING SYSTEMS: EXTENDING THE LIFE OF A RESERVOIR
Pressure (kPa)
Figure 6.53
28,000
27,000
3000
2500
1000
1500
2000
2500
3000
3500
4000
4500
Time (hr)
Production optimization
Careful optimization of the producing
conditions is essential in reservoirs with oil
near the bubble point, and with near-critical
fluids. More generally in high producing
wells, small improvements in the operating
point can significantly increase the production rate. These conditions exist in the
deep Oligocene fields of North Monagas, and
in the Center Lake area. Permanent pressure
data makes it easier to regularly monitor and
adjust the producing conditions. For example,
in the reservoir shown in Fig. 6.52, the bubble
point of the oil in one of the zones is 3700 psi
and the initial formation pressure is 4600 psi.
So drawdown had to be less than 900 psi to
sustain gas-free production. High skin factor
in the first well meant that as large a drawdown as possible would be needed for adequate production, introducing a further complication. However, the pressure could be
carefully monitored and production optimized to maintain reservoir pressure at
around 40 psi above bubble point.
The state-of-the-art
Permanent monitoring systems are an
important factor in a long-term effort to
improve recovery factors by continuous
monitoring and control of the key processes
in the reservoir. At the present time, most
systems allow continuous real-time measurements of pressure and temperature at the
bottom of the tubing. These measurements
alone offer significant advantages in three
areas: reservoir management, production
optimization, and where well conditions or
logistics make normal wireline interventions
too difficult or expensive.
Future directions
Current research is directed at extending
permanent in-situ installations to include
arrays with a large number of diverse
sensors (Fig. 6.54). Arrays of sensors
distributed at many points in the reservoir
will allow time-varying distributions of
reservoir properties, such as saturation and
pressure, to be continuously monitored.
These measurements can eventually be used
to continuously update the reservoir model
for optimum reservoir management. Figure
6.54 is a conceptual idea of how this might
eventually be done.
One direction is the development of
sensors in direct contact with the formation.
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E VA L U AT I O N A N D M O N I T O R I N G O F E X I S T I N G W E L L S
Figure 6.54
I
A1
A2
Q1
P5
A3
P6
S1 S2 S3 S4 S5
Q3
R1 R2 R3 R4 R5
A4
P7
Q4
P1
Q2
P2
C1
C2
C3
P3
P4
T1
T2
T3
T4
CONCLUSION
6 47
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REFERENCES
Saturation
Roscoe, B.A., Stoller, C., Adolph, R.A., Cheeseborough, J.C., Hall, J.S.,
McKeon, D.C., Pittman, D., Seeman, B., Thomas, S.R., 1991, A new throughtubing oil saturation measurement system, Paper SPE 21413, presented at
the International Arctic Technology Conference, Anchorage, May 29-31, and
the Middle East Oil Show and Conference, Bahrain, November 1991.
Bryant, I.D., Baygun, B., Coll, C., Cordova, P., Gamero de Villaroel, H.,
Hernandez, L., Herron, M.M., Jimenez, Z., Leon, K., Matteson, A.,
Ramamoorthy, R., Rondon, L., Stewart, L., and Tariq, S.M., 1996, Integration
of old and new measurements to optimize redevelopment of the Lower
Lagunillas reservoir of Bloque IV, Lake Maracaibo, Venezuela, SPE 36096,
Presented at the Fourth Latin American and Caribbean Petroleum
Conference, Port-0f-Spain, Trinidad, April.
Johnson, D.L., Koplik, J., Schwartz, L.M., 1986, New pore-size parameter
characterizing transport in porous media, Phys. Rev. Let, 57, p 2564-2567.
Stoller, C., Scott, H. D., Plasek, R. E., Lucas, A. J., and Adolph, R. A., 1993,
Field tests of a slim carbon/oxygen tool for reservoir saturation monitoring,
SPE Paper 25375, Presented at the Asia Pacific Oil & Gas Conference &
Exhibition, Singapore, February 8-10.
Halford, F. R., MacKay, S., Barnett, S., and Petler, J. S., 1996, Production logging measurement of distributed local phase holdup, SPE Paper 35556 A,
Society of Petroleum Engineers Annual Technical Conference and Exhibition
held in Denver, Colorado, U.S.A., October 6-9.
Roscoe, B., Lenn, C., Jones, T. G. J., and Whittaker, C., 1996, Measurement
of the oil and water flow rates in a horizontal well using chemical markers and
a pulsed-neutron tool, SPE Paper 36563, Society of Petroleum Engineers
Annual Technical Conference and Exhibition held in Denver, Colorado, U.S.A.,
October 6-9.
Locke, J. and Butler, J., 1993, Characterization of rock formations for the
improved calibration of nuclear logging tools, Paper R, Transactions of the
15th European Formation Evaluation Symposium, Stavanger, Norway, May.
Plasek, R. E., Adolph, R. A., Stoller, C., Willis, D. J., Bordon, E. E., and Portal,
M. G., 1995, Improved pulsed neutron capture logging with slim carbon-oxygen tools, SPE Paper 30598, Society of Petroleum Engineers Annual Technical
Conference and Exhibition held in Dallas, Texas, U.S.A., October 22-25.
Hydraulic Integrity
Hayman, A. J., Hutin, R., and Wright, P. V., 1991, High resolution cementation
and corrosion imaging by ultrasound 1191, Paper KK, Transactions of the
Society of Professional Well Log Analysts 32nd Annual Symposium, Midland,
Texas, U.S.A., October.
Hayman, A. J., Parent, P., Rouault, G., Zurquiyah, S., Verges, P., Liang, K.,
Stanke, F. E., and Herve, P., 1995, Developments in corrosion logging using
ultrasonic imaging, Paper W, Transactions of the Society of Professional Well
Log Analysts 36th Annual Logging Symposium, Paris, France, June.
Silva, M. G. P., Miranda, C. R., and Vincente, R., 1996, Optimization of
cementing and acidizing operations is the key to minimize acid damage to the
cemented annulus, SPE Paper 36112, Presented at the 4th Latin American
Petroleum Engineering Conference, Port of Spain, April.
Permanent monitoring
Oilfield Review, Winter 1995, p. 32-47.
The Search for Oil and Gas in Latin America & the Caribbean, No. 5, 1997,
p. 28-41.
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Chapter 7
Production Enhancement
Chapter overview
Production Enhancement Groups:
Methodology and practices
Identification of bypassed zones
Controlling water production
Maximizing fracture conductivity
Fracture optimization
Controlling fines migration
Customized perforating
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PRODUCTION ENHANCEMENT
CHAPTER OVERVIEW
Reservoir
completion
Pressure (psia)
4000
3500
Fluid conduit
artificial lift
3000
2500
Performance
gap
Potential
Existing performance
2000
20
40
60
80
100
Flow rate (B D)
The main objective for single-well production enhancement is to identify wells exhibiting a production gap between current and
potential performance (Fig. 7.1), and to design
production enhancement solutions using
appropriate technologies. Different approaches are suitable for different problems. One of
the more recent initiatives has been the creation
of Production Enhancement Groups or PEGs.
The PEG is an integrated and multidisciplinary
team that is proactive in looking for opportunities and is focused on rapidly finding
the most appropriate economic solutions.
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Figure 7.2
Flowline
Flow conduit
Completion
Reservoir
Surface
facilities
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PRODUCTION ENHANCEMENT
Artificial lift
performance
Bottomhole
flowing pressure
Figure 7.3
Actual
Gas lift design/
pump operating
conditions
Potential
Bottomhole
flowing pressure
Flow conduit
performance
Actual
Potential
Flow rate
Completion
performance
Pressure drop
through perforations
Production gap
Flow rate
2 spf
Actual
12 spf
Reperforate
Gravel pack
Squeeze cementing
Acidizing
Potential
Flow rate
Reservoir
performance
Bottomhole
flowing pressure
Potential
Actual
Flow rate
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PEG METHODOLOGY AND PRACTICES
Figure 7.4
Analysis process
Catalog multiwell info
Identify production anomalies
Choose first well
Analyze current producing zone
Move to next zone
Candidate selection
The overall PEG candidate
selection process is shown in
Prioritize candidates (Risk vs. NPV)
Fig. 7.4. First, a field for
Present proposal
enhancement is identified. The
(FracCADE, StimCADE, PacCADE, CoilCADE)
well files are scanned and a set
Execute
of possible candidates are
Post-job evaluation
identified based on anomalies in
The overall PEG
production, estimates of remaining oil in
analysis process.
place and other factors. Each well is
analyzed
for
current
performance,
production history and sensitivity to different
enhancement actions. At this stage logs and
tests may be recommended to quantify the
reservoir parameters needed to estimate the
production potential, calculate the net
present value (NPV) of various options and
assess associated risks. Appropriate
intervention plans are designed for the
selected candidates. After execution, the
results are analyzed and the experience used
in subsequent wells.
Risk analysis
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PRODUCTION ENHANCEMENT
Figure 7.5
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I D E N T I F I C AT I O N O F B Y PA S S E D Z O N E S
A good example of a production enhancement alliance is the one started in mid1996 between Lagoven and Schlumberger
Oilfield Services, with the charter to maintain
and repair wells for Ta Juana District on Lake
Maracaibo. The objective of the alliance is to
recognize candidates for workover using
PEG methodology and software, and to
enhance well productivity through the
optimum use of technology.
Figure 7.6
Sedco Forex
Rig operations,
Operational engineers
Dowell
Stimulating,
Cementing,
Sand control,
Coil tubing,
Reservoir
engineering
Lagoven
Reservoir Engineering
and Completion departments
Workover
alliance
Barge
LGV - 406
W&T
Perforating,
Production logging,
Reservoir engineering
Reservoir characterization
The Ta Juana District controls several
large reservoirs located near the eastern
coast of Lake Maracaibo (Fig. 7.7, following
page). Many of the reservoirs are shallow
and
produce
from
unconsolidated
sandstones. They require sand control
completions, the internal gravel pack being
the most common. Most are undergoing
secondary recovery with active water and
gas injection projects. In such large
reservoirs, characterized by heterogeneities,
faulting, and poor lateral sand body
continuity, some major concerns are water
or gas break-through and bypassed oil
zones.
The Lagunillas Inferior 4 reservoir
(LGINF-04) is an old and shallow reservoir
producing heavy oil (18API). The reservoir
consists of three main unconsolidated and
high-porosity (30 p.u.) Miocene sandstone
formations known as the Laguna, Lagunillas
Inferior, and La Rosa (Chapter 212). These
three members are subdivided into 11
different sandstone lenses, all of them with
limited lateral extent and complex facies
distribution. The formation tops vary from
2300 to 2500 ft. The thickness varies from 10
to 100 ft for each unit, the La Rosa being the
most well developed and continuous sandstone. Formation water salinity is approximately 6000 ppm. The structure is a monoclinal plane dipping 4 to the southwest.
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PRODUCTION ENHANCEMENT
Figure 7.7
47A
101
556
709 1146
69
910
48
883
886
53
46
1144 805
61
100
909
1091
62
1093
794
Cabimas
932
731
931
Ta Juana
LGINF - 04
Lagunillas
= Injectors
Lake
Maracaibo
Bachaquero
Figure 7.8
800
700
Oil
Water
Production (bbl / D)
600
shut - in
(high water cut)
500
sanded up
400
300
200
100
0
'81
'82
'83
'84
'85
'86
'87
'88
'89
'90
'91
'92
'93
Year
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I D E N T I F I C AT I O N O F B Y PA S S E D Z O N E S
Figure 7.9
Water
Moved oil
CRRA
1.6 2.6
Depth
(ft)
Oil
Water
Water
Oil
Oil
Fluid analysis
from RST
Fluid analysis
from OH logs
Sand
Bound water
Sw RST
100 (p.u.) 0
Perfs
after
Perfs
before
Sw OH
100 (p.u.)
0 50
(p.u.)
0 50
(p.u.)
0 0
Clay
Volume analysis
(p.u.)
100
2400
J
2500
I
H
G
2600
F
E
D
C
B
A
2700
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PRODUCTION ENHANCEMENT
500
Contaminated
Liquid
Gaseous
Gas
Bonded
Acoustic impedance
with thresholds (AIKB)
10,000
Depth
(ft)
2450
2500
2550
the interval.
These intervals with near-initial oil saturations are clear examples of bypassed oil
caused by an irregular water front.
The Sigma passes found the sandstone
body at 2400 to 2430 ft to be invaded with gas
(see the count rate indicator, CRRA, in the
depth track). This is not surprising considering the pressure history of the reservoir,
and that this lens is not influenced by water
injection. The original perforated intervals
were in the middle or bottom of the
sandstone for this reason.
Well repair
These excellent results enabled the
team to quickly establish a procedure to
reactivate the well. The integrity of the
cement sheath is crucial when producing
zones close to an active aquifer, especially in
older wells (TJ-886 was drilled in 1981).
Therefore, the first priority after recovering
the completion and gravel pack was to
monitor the cement integrity, and squeeze
more cement if necessary. Following this,
new intervals would be perforated and the
completion reinstalled.
The USIT/CBL Ultra Sonic Imaging
Tool/Cement Bond Log showed poor
cement quality in the entire interval to be
completed (Fig. 7.10). Squeeze perforations
were opened from 2520 to 2525 ft and a
packer set at 2600 ft. 12 bbl of cement were
forced into the old open perforations and
circulated up to the squeeze perforations. A
second USIT-CBL was run 18 hours after the
cement squeeze. It showed a successful
cement repair (Fig. 7.11) with a bond index
of almost 1.
Experience shows that these formations
need stimulation to produce properly.
In this case, the team decided to avoid
hydraulic stimulation to avoid the risk of
opening communication between the
aquifers and the open perforating intervals.
Instead, it was decided to use deep penetrating guns to go beyond the damaged zone.
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I D E N T I F I C AT I O N O F B Y PA S S E D Z O N E S
Figure 7.13
1000
inflow as modeled
ideal inflow (e.g., no skin)
outflow (tubing intake)
900
Pressure (psia)
800
conditions.) The Inflow Performance Relationship (IPR) and outflow curves indicated a
minimum of 190 BOPD of oil (Fig. 7.13).
However, after the well was put back on
production, productivity tests showed a total
production of 530 BOPD with 7% water cut
without choke.
The pay-out time of the RST log and
workover is estimated to be 35 days. The
cumulative recovery, taking into account
reservoir decline, is predicted as 500,000 bbl
over three years.
Conclusions
TJ-886 was rejuvenated by applying new
technology for reservoir monitoring in the difficult environment of a gravel pack completion, and by taking a new, integrated approach to customizing solutions for workover.
The following conclusions can be drawn:
1. The RST is a reliable tool to be used in
gravel pack completions at least in
formations with porosities greater than
20%, as was the case with the LGINF-04
reservoir.
2. There are still significant recoverable
reserves that have been bypassed in
secondary recovery schemes such as
water or gas injection. These need to be
addressed in the near future.
3. An integrated, multidisciplinary team,
such as Lagoven and Schlumberger
Oilfield Services, makes use of bestvalue technology and gives the best
chance of success in procedures such as
workover.
700
600
500
400
300
200
100
0
0
50
100
150
200
250
300
350
400
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C O N T R O L L I N G WAT E R P R O D U C T I O N
Figure 7.14
Oil
Oil
Oil
Oil
Water
High-permeability layer
(No crossflow)
Water coning
Injector
Injector
Producer
Injector
Producer
Producer
Gravity-segregated layer
Fissures to an injector
,,
,,
,,
Six typical reservoir conditions leading to bad water production.
Figure 7.15
Formation damage
Cavern
Previously
sealed
fracture
7 11
There are several reasons for the deterioration of the cement bond, such as exposure
to adverse conditions of temperature,
pressure, and perhaps sulfate waters.
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C O N T R O L L I N G WAT E R P R O D U C T I O N
Figure 7.16a
100
WOR
Coning
WOR'
WOR
WOR or WOR'
10
0.1
WOR'
0.01
10
100
1000
10000
Time (days)
100
Thief layer
WOR
WOR'
WOR
WOR or WOR'
10
production
0.1
WOR'
0.01
Frequent stimulation in
0.001
1
10
100
1000
10000
Time (days)
Near wellbore
WOR
WOR'
10
1
WOR
0.1
WOR'
0.01
0.001
1
10
100
1000
10000
Time (days)
Figure 7.16b
100
100
Normal displacement
with high water cut
WOR
WOR'
Multilayer channeling
WOR
WOR'
WOR
10
0.1
WOR'
WOR or WOR'
10
WOR or WOR'
WOR or WOR'
the vicinity of
the well
100
WOR
1
0.1
WOR'
0.01
0.01
0.001
0.001
1
10
100
Time (days)
1000
10000
10
100
1000
1000
Time (days)
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PRODUCTION ENHANCEMENT
Figure 7.17
VLE-1156
Depth
(ft)
VLE-1119
La Rosa
La Rosa
11,500
WOC @ 11,630 ft
B-6 9
C-1
12,000
C-1
Misoa
C-2
C-2
12,500
C-24
13,000
C-3
C-4
TD @ 12,900 ft
13,500
13,408 ft
C-5
13,589 ft
Guasare
Figure 7.18
10
WOR
Derivative
0.1
0.01
0.001
0.0001
0.00001
1
10
100
1000
7 13
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C O N T R O L L I N G WAT E R P R O D U C T I O N
Figure 7.19
(ohm-m)
(ohm-m)
LLD
GR
0
(gAPI)
150
SP
80
(mv)
1000
20
Depth
(ft)
1000
Perforations
13,200
13,250
13,300
13,350
13,400
Interval
Qo
Qw
(ft)
BOPD BWPD
13,262-13,268 0.0
203.5
13,281-13,286 0.0
0.0
13,296-1,3310 18.0
95.1
13,318-13,326 7.0
25.1
13,353-13,358 13.2
47.4
13,364-13,376 262.9 195.3
Total
301.1 566.4
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PRODUCTION ENHANCEMENT
Figure 7.20
1200
Oil
Water
Gel
lnjection
1000
800
600
Choke change
400
200
0
0
12
15
18
21
Figure 7.21
VLA-36
VLA-12
6364'-70'
6388'-00'
6424'-30'
BLR
Merging
C-5
7 15
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C O N T R O L L I N G WAT E R P R O D U C T I O N
Figure 7.22
100
Water/oil ratio
Derivative
10
0.1
0.01
0.001
10
100
1000
Figure 7.23
Perforations
GR
(gAPI)
150
Depth
(ft)
6350
6400
A
6450
6500
ILD
(ohm-m)
1000
SN
(ohm-m)
1000
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PRODUCTION ENHANCEMENT
Rigless Workover
Figure 7.24
700
Oil
Water
Gel
injection
600
Choke change
500
400
300
200
100
0
0
12
15
18
21
7 17
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C O N T R O L L I N G WAT E R P R O D U C T I O N
Monocable
7.25
Head
Displaced oil
Water
Upper
anchor
Sandstone
Cartridge
Buttress
backup
Seal
elements
Before
Petal
backups
Bound water
Shale
Perfs.
Depth
(ft)
After
Setting
tool
11116 in.
25 ft
7.26
Oil
Combined model
100
(p.u.)
12,400
12,500
12,600
7 ft
12,700
Lower
anchor
12,800
Cement
21 8 in.
12,900
PosiSet
plug
13,000
13,100
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Since the early 1950s, the Miocene oilbearing formations of Lake Maracaibo have
been stimulated using a technique developed
by Exxon called Sand Oil Squeeze (SOS).
This technology proved fairly successful in
the past when reservoirs had their original
pressures, but now that pressures are low, it
has been unsuccessful in providing good
productivity from the wells.
What is needed to improve the productivity is a high-conductivity path from the
undamaged formation to the wellbore. This
article describes how the introduction of a
new high-permeability stimulation technique, HyPerSTIM*, has solved this problem,
leading to significantly improved production
performance and revised expectations from
the reservoir. We first describe the previous
technology, then the HyPerSTIM technique,
its introduction and case histories.
Figure 7.27
7 19
Previous technology
The SOS technique was developed by
Exxon as a low-cost, quick stimulation for
damaged high-permeability formations
(2001000 md) by creating high-conductivity
channels driven from each perforation
through the damaged zone and into the
undamaged formation. These treatments are
usually followed by the conventional
gravel packing of a slotted liner, essential
in containing the sand production from
these highly unconsolidated sandstones.
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MAXIMIZING FRACTURE CONDUCTIVITY
Figure 7.28
6000
12
Pressure
10
4000
3000
2000
1000
0
0
14
21
28
35
42
Rate (BPM)
Pressure (psia)
Rate
5000
0
56
49
3200
600
Pressure
Pressure
Derivative
Max
Instantaneous shut-in pressure
2800
500
Closure pressure
Min
Pressure (psia)
2800
2400
2000
2400
400
2000
200
1600
0
Shutintime (t (min))
100
0
Derivative (psi)
Straight line
approximation
Gfunction (1 / sec)
closure pressure.
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PRODUCTION ENHANCEMENT
To complement and improve the analysis, radioactive tracers are run with the fluid
during the pumping period, and both
Temperature and Radioactive logs are run
prior and after the treatment to determine the
actual fracture height. However, in this case,
logs were omitted to keep costs at the same
level as for SOS.
Figure 7.30
1600
Expected production
Total production
Net oil production
1400
Production (bbl D)
1200
1000
800
600
400
200
0
LL-2558
TJ-855
LL-484
Figure 7.31
Production (BOPD)
400
Expected (BOPD)
Actual (BOPD)
200
100
390
170
133
107
SOS'95
HPS'96
Comparison of average
production results for SOS
and HyPerSTIM.
7 21
LL-3094
LL-686
TJ-1110
LL-3422
LL-1671
Well name
Summary of production
300
TJ-254
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MAXIMIZING FRACTURE CONDUCTIVITY
Table 7.1
Treatment
type
Reservoir
No. of
wells
Expected
increase
(BOPD)
Actual
increase
(BOPD)
Actual /
expected
(%)
SOS
LGINF-04
145
(95-250)
99
(0-201)
68
SOS
LGINF-05
25
121
(60-240)
114
(0-473)
94
SOS
LGINF-04/05
34
133
(60-250)
107
(0-473)
80
HyPerSTIM
LGINF-04
LGINF-05
1
8
170
(110-250)
390
(195-993)
229
Figure 7.32
250
$ bbl
200
205 $ bbl
150
100
81 $ bbl
50
0
SOS
HyPerSTIM
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PRODUCTION ENHANCEMENT
Table 7.2
Well
name
Frac. grad.
psi ft
Closure pres.
psi
Leak-off
ft (min)0.5
Fluid
efficiency
TJ-254
0.54
1370
0.0160
0.03
LL3094
0.63
2500
0.0045
0.37
LL-686
0.67
2596
0.0190
0.05
LL3422
0.64
2580
0.0210
0.06
LL1671
0.65
2801
0.0035
0.27
Well
name
Pad
bbl
Conc.
PPA
Proppant
type
Quantity
lbm
LL2588
200
2-7
16/30 Brady
45,000
TJ-855
170
2-7
16/30 Brady
35,000
LL-484
200
2-8
16/30 Brady
40,000
TJ-254
300
2-8
16/30 Brady
60,000
LL3094
35
2-8
16/30 Jordan
45,000
LL-686
40
2-8
16/30 Brady
32,000
TJ1110
55
2-5
16/30 Jordan
53,700
LL3422
80
2-5.5
16/30 Jordan
30,600
DataFRAC results.
Table 7.3
7 23
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FRACTURE OPTIMIZATION
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PRODUCTION ENHANCEMENT
Figure 7.33
Depth
(ft)
14,000
Well
4
8
= No improvement
13A
15
16
22E
26
27
28
30
31
32
33
37E
49
50
= Loss of production
= Prop flowback
NAR-3
= Propnet
14,500
14,800
K-B
15,200
K-C
KP
1) = 0.19 psi ft
high gas
KP
NAR-3
K-D
2) = 0.22 psi ft
medium gas
K-E
KP
K-D
15,600
K-B, C
K-E
GOC
K-B
K-D
K-D
NAR-3
3) = 0.24 psi ft
low gas
K-C
GOC
4) = 0.25 psi ft
high oil
16,000
5) = 0.30 psi ft
medium oil
16,200
NAR-5
6) = 0.34 psi ft
low oil
16,400
KP
KP
NAR-3
17000
NAR-3
7 25
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FRACTURE OPTIMIZATION
K-C, D, E
KP
NAR-3
NAR-3
15,000
Treating pressure (P3D simulation)
Pressure psia
Mechanical properties
from DSI log analysis
Seven completions that also had DSI logs
over the producing interval were selected for
further review. The DSI logs had been processed to provide dynamic values for Poissons
ratio (n) and Youngs Modulus of Elasticity (E).
The logs were reviewed, zones selected, and
average values of porosity, n and E estimated
per zone. These dynamic values were
converted to static values using the transform
suggested by Morales (1993). Static values
were then used along with other log and
completion data to calculate the minimum insitu stress of the formation. The contrast in
minimum in-situ stress is an important input in
designing a fracture stimulation treatment that
will remain within the zone of interest and
obtain the desired fracture height, width and
length for optimum production response from
the well completion. The actual fracture
simulation was done with the FracCADE
program using the P3D and P3D_LAT models.
Three of the well completions reviewed
will be discussed in detail:
SBC 27 SC NAR-3
New Completion
No Improvement
gas well
(zone 1)
SBC 50 SL KP
Increase only
3.5 MMscf/D
oil well
(zone 6+)
SBC 27 SL K-D
gas well
(zone 2)
Figure 7.34
12,000
9000
6000
3000
0
0
10
20
30
40
50
Time (min)
Surface pressures from P3D simulation and actual job data on SBC 27 SC.
60
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PRODUCTION ENHANCEMENT
Figure 7.35
14,900
3.0 3.5
2.5 3.0
2.0 2.5
1.5 2.0
1.0 1.5
0.5 1.0
0.0 0.5
-0.5 0.0
Depth (ft)
14,950
Prop. conc.
(Ib ft3)
15,000
15,050
15,100
15,150
15,200
14,0000.1
0.0
0.1
100
200
ACL width
at wellbore (in.)
Stress
(psi)
300
400
500
Fracture profile and proppant concentration for SBC 27 SC as predicted by the P3D
model and the stress profile on the left. Perforated intervals are shown in blue.
Figure 7.36
12,000
Treating pressure (P3D simulation)
Treating pressure (job data)
11,000
Pressure (psia)
10,000
9000
8000
7000
6000
5000
0
10
20
30
40
50
Well SBC 50 SL KP
Surface pressures from P3D simulation and actual job data on SBC 50 SL.
Figure 7.37
17,650
Prop. conc. (lb ft3)
Depth (ft)
17,700
17,750
3.0 3.5
2.5 3.0
2.0 2.5
1.5 2.0
1.0 1.5
0.5 1.0
0.0 0.5
-0.5 0.0
17,800
17,850
17,900
17,950
12,000 14,000 -0.4
0.0
0.4 0
25
50
75
Fracture half-length
ACL width
(ft)
at wellbore
(in.)
Fracture profile and proppant concentration for SBC 50 SL as predicted by the P3D
Stress
(psi)
100
model and the stress profile on the left. Perforated intervals are shown in blue.
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FRACTURE OPTIMIZATION
Figure 7.38
12,000
Pressure (psia)
10,000
8000
6000
4000
Treating Pressure (P3D simulation)
Treating Pressure (Job data)
2000
0
10
20
30
40
50
Time (min)
Figure 7.39
16,480
Prop. conc.
(Ib ft3)
3.0 3.5
2.5 3.0
2.0 2.5
1.5 2.0
1.0 1.5
0.5 1.0
0.0 0.5
16,500
Depth (ft)
16,520
16,540
-0.5 0.0
16,560
16,580
16,600
16,620
12,000
15,000
-0.2 -0.1 0.1
Stress
(psia)
0
0.2
100
200
ACL width
at wellbore
(in.)
Fracture profile and proppant concentration for SBC 27 SL as predicted by the P3D
model and the stress profile on the left. Perforated intervals are shown in blue.
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PRODUCTION ENHANCEMENT
Sandstone
2.0 1.0
3.0
(psi / ft)
YME Static
PR Dynamic
RHOB
Volumetric analysis
0.0
1.0 0.0
0.5 1.9
2.9
5.0 0.0
(Mpsi)
(g / cm3)
(V / V)
Clay
Depth
(ft)
Volume clay
Vp/Vs
Bound water
L 0
0.0
I
Zoning: stress gradient
0.5
100
Bulk modulus
(psi)
Stress gradient
(psi / ft)
Toughness
(psi)
Effective porosity
1.0 16
0.5
0.5 0.01
100
Young's modulus
(psi)
2.9E+08
Water saturation
(p.u.)
4.3E+08 100
15,900
16,000
16,100
Figure 7.42
15,850
15,900
Depth (ft)
15,950
16,000
Prop. conc.
(Ib ft3)
3.0 3.5
2.5 3.0
2.0 2.5
1.5 2.0
1.0 1.5
0.5 1.0
0.0 0.5
16,050
16,100
-0.5 0.0
16,150
10,000
14,000
-0.3 -0.1 0.1
Stress
(psia)
0
0.3
25
50
75
ACL width
at wellbore
(in.)
100
125
The number of zones for use in the fracture simulation model and the in-situ stress
contrast were altered from the preliminary (2D) fracture stimulation treatment design. A
Datafrac was run (page 720) to validate the
minimum in-situ stress and to calculate the
fluid efficiency from an analysis of the fall off
data. With this data, and after refining the
zoned inputs, the stimulation treatment
design was finalized on location. Figure 7.40
shows the FracCADE Advisor log, with a
formation evaluation and the various
mechanical properties needed for stimulation
design. Figure 7.41 shows the ZoneAid log
with the zones selected.
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FRACTURE OPTIMIZATION
Table 7.4
Name
Top
height
Class
Gross
height
Net
height
Leak
Off
Frac
gradient
YME
static
Poissons
Ratio
SHALE
15,828
SHALE
30
0.8180
1.32E+06
0.30
KP
15,858
ss
0.6530
5.92E+06
0.20
SHALE
15,863
SHALE
12
0.7600
1.32E+06
0.30
KP
15,875
ss
20
20
20
0.6530
5.92E+06
0.20
SHALE
15,895
SHALE
0.8160
1.32E+06
0.30
KP
15,901
ss
73
73
73
0.6510
5.92E+06
0.20
SHALE
15,974
SHALE
11
0.8150
1.22E+06
0.30
KP
15,985
ss
103
103
103
0.6490
5.62E+06
0.20
SHALE
16,088
SHALE
24
0.8120
1.32E+06
0.30
Figure 7.43
12000
Treating pressure (Final design)
Treating pressure (Real data)
Treating pressure (P3D data)
Treating pressure (PKN design)
Pressure (psia)
11000
10000
9000
8000
7000
6000
5000
4000
0
10
20
30
40
Surface pressures from actual job data on MUC 34, compared to pressures
predicted by the PKN model, the P3D model and the P3D_LAT model.
Table 7.5
Name
Top
height
Class
Gross
height
Net
height
Leak
Off
Frac
gradient
YME
static
Poissons
ratio
KP
15,805
ss
25
25
25
0.7270
3.65E+06
0.22
SHALE
15,830
SHALE
15
15
15
0.8400
3.65E+06
0.27
SHALE
15,845
SHALE
12.5
12.5
12.5
0.7200
3.97E+06
0.20
SHALE
15,857.5
SHALE
14.5
14.5
14.5
0.7190
3.56E+06
0.21
KP
15,872
ss
22
22
22
0.6930
3.38E+06
0.20
KP
15,894
shaly sand
4.5
4.5
4.5
0.8000
3.30E+06
0.24
KP
15,898.5
ss
48
48
48
0.7205
3.33E+06
0.20
KP
15,946.5
ss
28.5
28.5
28.5
0.7203
3.51E+06
0.18
SHALE
15,975
SHALE
0.7510
3.75E+06
0.23
KP
15,984
ss
14
14
14
0.7201
3.20E+06
0.21
KP
15,998
ss
88
88
88
0.7201
3.38E+06
0.19
SHALE
16,086
SHALE
0.7770
3.64E+06
0.24
KP
16,095
ss
61
61
61
0.5980
3.68E+06
0.14
SHALE
16,156
SHALE
9.5
9.5
9.5
0.6820
3.51E+06
0.22
SHALE
16,165.5
SHALE
11.5
11.5
11.5
0.7150
3.19E+06
0.24
KP
16,177
ss
100
100
100
0.6220
3.58E+06
0.16
ss = sandstone
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PRODUCTION ENHANCEMENT
Figure 7.44
15,850
Depth (ft)
15,900
15,950
Prop. conc. (Ib ft3)
3.0 3.5
2.5 3.0
2.0 2.5
1.5 2.0
1.0 1.5
0.5 1.0
0.0 0.5
-0.5 0.0
100
16,000
16,050
16,100
10,000
13,000 0.2
0.0
0.2
ACL width
Stress
(psi) at wellbore (in.)
50
Conclusions
1. Useful and accurate formation mechanical properties data can be obtained
from analysis of DSI log data.
2. When accurate formation mechanical
property data are used in a P3D fracture
treatment design, the surface pressures
recorded during the treatment are
accurately matched by the simulation.
3. The FracCADE ADVISOR and Zone Aid
logs provide convenient and accurate
The Ceuta Field is located in the southeastern part of Lake Maracaibo (Chapter 220).
The field has a large production potential from
reservoirs belonging to the Misoa Formation,
Upper and Lower Eocene B and C. This
Table 7.6
Fluids
Additives
Concentration
Solvent
Kerosene
Xylene
Butyl
Demulsifier
60%
30%
10%
0.5%
HCL - 15%
HCL
Water
Demulsifier
Inhibitor
EDTA
HCL
Water
Ammonium bifloride
Demulsifier
Inhibitor
EDTA
Diverter
Benzoic acid
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CONTROLLING FINES MIGRATION
Figure 7.45
6000
4000
2000
0
86
87
88
89
90
91
92
93
94
Year
3000
2000
1000
0
86
87
88
89
90
91
92
93
94
Year
Figure 7.47
6000
Coiled tubing
clean
4000
Matrix
RMA
2000
0
86
87
88
89
90
91
92
93
94
Year
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PRODUCTION ENHANCEMENT
7 33
Mineralogical analysis
Quartz
86
65100
of 10 samples from
Feldspar
0.7
05
Ceuta Field.
Calcite
0.4
02
Kaolinite
6.25
225
Illite
0.8
05
Mixed-Layer
1.7
05
HCl Solubility
0.4
01.45
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CONTROLLING FINES MIGRATION
Figure 7.49
140
120
Pure
water
Permeability (md)
100
6 % NaCI brine
80
60
40
20
0
0
200
100
300
400
500
600
700
Changes in permeability
Figure 7.50
300
B
r
i
n
e
Permeability (md)
250
200
F
i
l
t
e
r
e
d
B
r
i
n
e
HCl
RMA
1.5% HF
HCl
C
l
a
y
Distilled
water
A
c
i
d
m
u
d
150
100
50
0
0
200
400
600
800
1000
1200
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PRODUCTION ENHANCEMENT
7 35
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CONTROLLING FINES MIGRATION
Figure 7.51
3000
Clay Acid
Matrix
RMA
2000
Matrix
RMA
W-O
1000
0
86
87
88
89
90
91
92
93
94
Year
Figure 7.52
4000
3000
Clean-up
2000
Matrix
clay acid
Matrix
RMA
1000
0
80
82
84
88
86
90
Year
92
94
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PRODUCTION ENHANCEMENT
Figure 7.53
2000
1500
Matrix
Clay Acid
1000
500
'74
'76
'78
'80
'82
'84
'86
'88
'90
'92
'94
(Year)
Conclusions
1. The use of Clay Acid in the design of
matrix treatments for the Ceuta Field has
made it possible to minimize formation
damage problems resulting from fines
migration, and it has been possible to
attain stabilized well production rates for
more than four years.
2. The residence time of Clay Acid in the
formation, as well as the controlled
opening of the well, have a very
important role in the chemical reactions
taking place in the formation as far as
stabilization of clays is concerned.
CUSTOMIZED PERFORATING
Perforator-related
Completion-related
Compressive strength
Stress distribution
Presence of fractures
Heterogeneity
Anisotropy
Tendency to sand
Penetration
Entrance hole
Shot density
Shot phasing
Borehole fluid
Casing wt. and grade
Cement properties
Cement thickness
pbpf while perforating
pbpf after perforating
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CUSTOMIZED PERFORATING
Figure 7.54
Mono adapter
HSD gun
ESIC
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PRODUCTION ENHANCEMENT
Figure 7.55
EFI
HNS Pellet
Spacer
Aluminum disk
Foil
Air gap
Bridge
Booster
ESIC
Spacer
Plasma bubble
Aluminum disk
Flyer
7 39
Booster
Booster
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CUSTOMIZED PERFORATING
Figure 7.56
Release
housing
Release
pin
Support
sleeve
Release
mandrel
Release
piston
Break
plug
As assembled
The SXAR as
assembled (left)
and ready to drop
off (right).
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PRODUCTION ENHANCEMENT
Figure 7.57
Flow
ports
closed
Flow
ports
open
Pup joint
Firing
head
Upper
adapter
Detonating
cord tube
adapter
Piston
housing
Operating
piston
Shifting
piston
Cushion
Release
housing
Release
pins
Support
sleeve
Break plug
support
Mandrel
release
Break
plug
7 41
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CUSTOMIZED PERFORATING
Figure 7.58
Stinger adapter
Sealed ballistic
transfer donor
Breech
lock sleeve
Sealed ballistic
transfer receptor
Slick joint
Upper end of
next gun down
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PRODUCTION ENHANCEMENT
Figure 7.59
Cable
Stuffing box
Pick-up and
lay-down
assembly
Snaplock
connector
Guns
first lift
Snaplock
connector
upper half
Lubricator
Master
valves
open
Master
valves
Master
valves
closed
Robot ram
unlocks
snaplock
connector
Snaplock
connector
lower half
locked in
no-go ram
Wellhead
Snaplock
connector
upper half
string is deployed.
Master
valves
opens
Robot ram unlocks
snaplocks
Connectors breech
lock sleeve
Coiled tubing
Firing head
Snaplock
connector
upper half
Master
valves
closed
Master valves
open
7 43
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CUSTOMIZED PERFORATING
Figure 7.60
Nitrogen
spring
Counter
Detent
Latch
profile
Ball
valve
Closed
position
Shifting
tool
This chapter was written by F.Paz (Intevep), S.Lpez, F.Portillo, M.Martnez, J.Mayol, A.
Snchez (Maraven), L.Ortega, (Corpoven), F.J.Colmenares (Maraven), T. Ceccarelli,
E.Nordmeyer, J.Haskell, K.Bennaceur, J.J.Gutirrez, F.Montoya.
with contributions from F.Gonzlez (Lagoven), C.Economides, and M.Ardila,
and the permission of Lagoven, Maraven and Corpoven to publish data from their wells.
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REFERENCES
Perkins, T.K. and Kern, L.R., 1961, Widths of hydraulic fractures, Journal of
Petroleum Technology, pp 937-949.
Roegiers, J.C. and Neda, J., 1993, Summary of Joint Geomechanical Study
North of Monagas Field, U. Oklahoma-Intevep Report.
Olivares, M., Chang, E., Alvarez, G., 1988, Modelo geolgico y de yacimiento del Campo Ceuta, Lago de Maracaibo.
Martins, J.P. et al, 1989, Tip Screen-Out fracturing applied to the Ravenspurn
South Gas Field Development, SPE 19766, San Antonio, TX.
Morales, R.H., Norman, W.D. and Park, E.I., 1996, Why fracture unconsolidated high permeability formations, SPE 35031, Lafayette, LA.
Sharma, M.M., Yortsos, Y.C. and Handy, L.L., 1985, Release and deposition
of clays in sandstone. Paper SPE 13562, International Symposium on Oilfield
and Geothermal Chemistry, Phoenix, Arizona. April 9-11.
Nolte, K.G., 1986, Determination of proppant and fluid schedules from fracturing pressure declines, SPE Production Engineering, pp 255-265.
Boggio, C. E., Montoya, F.F., 1996, Tcnica de arenamiento controlado, INGP2-22, Ingepet, Per.
Mathur, A.K., Ning, X., Marcinew, R.B., Economides, C.E., and Economides,
M.J., 1995, Hydraulic fracture stimulation of highly permeable formations:
the effect of critical fracture parameters on oilwell production and pressure,
SPE 30652, Dallas, TX.
Economides, M.J. and Nolte, K.G., 1987, Post-treatment evaluation and fractured well performance, Reservoir Stimulation, Schlumberger Educational
Services, p 1101.
Cinco Ley, H. and Samaniego, F., 1981, Transient pressure analysis, Finite
conductivity fracture case versus damaged fracture case, SPE 10179, San
Antonio, TX.
Fracture optimization
Geertsma, J. and de Klerk, F., 1969, A rapid method of predicting width and
extent of hydraulically induced fractures, Journal of Petroleum Technology,
December, pp 1571-1581.
Morales, R.H. and Marcinew, R.P., 1993, Fracturing of high-permeability formations: Mechanical properties correlations, SPE Paper 26561, Presented at
the 68th Annual Technical Conference and Exhibition of the Society of
Petroleum Engineers, Houston, Texas, 3-6 October.
Nordgren, R.P., 1972, Propagation of a vertical hydraulic fracture, Journal of
the Society of Petroleum Engineers, August, p. 306.
7 45
Ortega, L., Brito, L. and Ben-Naceur, K., 1996, Hydraulic fracturing for control
of sand production and asphaltine deposition in deep hot wells, SPE Paper
36461, Presented at the 71st Annual Technical Conference and Exhibition of
the Society of Petroleum Engineers, Denver, Colorado, 6-9 October.
Thomas, R.L. and Crowe C.W., 1978, Matrix Treatment Employs New Acid
System for Stimulation and Control of Fines Migration in Sandstone
Formations, Dowell Division, Journal of Petroleum Technology, August, pp
1491-1500.
Inteverp, 1989, Estimulacin del Pozo VLG-3715, Campo Ceuta. August.
Customized perforating
American Petroleum Institute, 1991, RP-43 Fifth Edition Procedures.
Halleck, P. M. and Behrman, L. A., 1990, Penetration of shaped charges in
stressed rock, Rock Mechanics Contributions and Challenges, p.629-636,
Proceedings of the 31st U. S. Symposium held in Rotterdam, The
Netherlands,
Blosser, W.R., 1995, An assessment of perforating performance of high compressive strength non-homogeneous sandstones, SPE 30082, presented at
the European Formation Damage Conference, The Hague, May 15-16.
Smith, P.S., Behrmann, L.A., Wenbo Yang, 1997, Improvements in perforating performance in high compressive strength rocks, SPE 38141, presented
at the 1997 SPE European Formation Damage Conference, The Hague, June
2-3.
Pelling, R., Scott, P., Huber, K., and Edwards, G., 1995, TCP perforating on
coiled tubing utilising a deployment system, 3rd World Oil Coiled Tubing conference held in Houston, Texas, March 13-16.
Schlumberger Oilfield Services, 1995, Perforating Services.
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Chapter 8
Reservoir Description around the Well
Chapter overview
Sedimentary analysis of sandstone reservoirs
Evaluation of fractured carbonates
A multioffset seismic profile in an old well
Complementing a poor surface seismic
A multiazimuth walkaway seismic profile
Reservoir description around a horizontal well
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RESERVOIR DESCRIPTION AROUND THE WELL
CHAPTER OVERVIEW
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S E D I M E N TA R Y A N A LY S I S O F S A N D S T O N E R E S E R V O I R S
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RESERVOIR DESCRIPTION AROUND THE WELL
,,,,,
,,,,,,,
,,,,,,
,,,,,
,,,,,,,
,
,,,,,,
,,,,,,,
Figure 8.1
Mainland
Marsh
Marsh
Washover fan
Lagoon
Flood-tidal
delta
ne
et
Inl
n
ha
Grassflat and
marsh
Beach-dunes
ridges
Shoreface
Storm
channel
Beach
Ebb-tidal
delta
Offshore
or shelf
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,,,,,
,,,,,
,,,,,
RESERVOIR DESCRIPTION AROUND THE WELL
Figure 8.2
Lateral accretion bedding, showing dips towards channel (from Elliot, 1987).
Figure 8.3
RXOZ
AHF90
SP
100
0
CALI
AHF60
6 (in.)10
BS
AHF30
AHF20
0 6 (in.)10
(mV)
GR
Depth
(ft)
200
(gAPI)
AHF10
0.2
Sand 1
X200
X250
Sand 2
RHOZ
1.95
(ohm-m)
2000 0.45
(g / cm3)
NPHI
(V V)
2.95
0.15
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S E D I M E N TA R Y A N A LY S I S O F S A N D S T O N E R E S E R V O I R S
Figure 8.4
Azimuth of cross-bedding
and accretion surfaces
(X158 to X182 ft)
0 40
X155.0 ft
Tidal flat deposits
Top Sand 1
330
0
20%
30
15%
300
60
10%
Accretion surfaces
dipping to the WSW
5%
270
5%
10% 20% 90
15%
120
150
210
180
Ebb cross-laminations
dipping to the NNW
330
0
60%
30
40%
Accretion surfaces
dipping to the SW
60
300
20%
20%
270
40%
60% 90
120
240
150
210
180
Rich in carbonaceous
X187.0 ft
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RESERVOIR DESCRIPTION AROUND THE WELL
Figure 8.5
Tide - dominated
estuary
Tidal
flat
Tidal
flat
Barrier
Lagoon
Bayhead Well A
delta
Barrier
Drowned
river
valley
Tidal power
VLC-1184
Wave power
Tidal power
Wave power
indicated.
Figure 8.6
0 40
X246.0 ft
Azimuth of cross-bedding
and accretion surfaces
(X250 to X275 ft)
Top Sand 2
330
0
20%
30
15%
Accretion surfaces
dipping to the S
300
60
10%
5%
10%
20% 90
5%
15%
270
Cross-laminations
dipping NW. They
are formed by
sandwaves migrating
to the NW by ebb
processes
240
120
180
0
30%
30
20%
300
Accretion surfaces
dipping to the NE
150
210
60
10%
270
10%
20%
30%
90
120
210
150
180
X279.0 ft
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S E D I M E N TA R Y A N A LY S I S O F S A N D S T O N E R E S E R V O I R S
Figure 8.7
LLHR
(gAPI)
(in.)
18
NPHI
LLS
150
CALI
8
LLD
GR
Depth
(ft)
.45
(V V)
1.95
g cm3
MSFL
.2
(ohm-m)
.15
RHOB
2000
2.95
B52
9500
9600
B6
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RESERVOIR DESCRIPTION AROUND THE WELL
Figure 8.8
9486.0 ft
9504.0 ft
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S E D I M E N TA R Y A N A LY S I S O F S A N D S T O N E R E S E R V O I R S
Figure 8.9a-f
N
9581.0 ft
N
9625.0 ft
A= Truncation surfaces
B= Large scale crosslamination sets.
A
B
9586.0 ft
9590.5 ft
Soft sediment
deformation and
clay drapes.
9632.0 ft
FMI image and core photograph of the sediments underlying the B-6
9593.0 ft
9598.5 ft
f
C
A= Truncation surfaces
A
9604.0 ft
9605.0 ft
A=cross-laminations
B=truncation surfaces
Lateral accretion
C=clay clasts.
surfaces dipping to
the SE (above) and
9648.0ft
NW (below).
9611.0 ft
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E VA L U AT I O N O F F R A C T U R E D C A R B O N AT E S
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E VA L U AT I O N O F F R A C T U R E D C A R B O N AT E S
Figure 8.10
Borehole
90
180
270
360
S
W
N
W
E
Figure 8.11
s1
Conjugated shear
fracture planes
30
q q
s3
s3
s2
3-D View
(Planes of rupture)
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RESERVOIR DESCRIPTION AROUND THE WELL
Figure 8.12
Q1
Q2
Q3
Normal
fault
Extensional
basin (divergent)
Q3
Q1
Q1
Q2
Thrust fault
Q1
Q3
Wrench
fault
Pullapart
basin (shearing)
Figure 8.13
Extension
or
al
si
Re
on
ve
r
se
fa
ul
ts
Compression
fa
es
ul
Co
m
pr
ts
Strike-7
ts
60
Th
Fo
ld
ru
ax
st
f
es
au
lts
slip faul
N
al
m
or
ts
ul
fa
8 13
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Figure 8.15
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E VA L U AT I O N O F F R A C T U R E D C A R B O N AT E S
Figure 8.14
N
E
W
S
Open
Partially
mineralfilled
Mineralfilled
Vuggy
Vuggy
Mineralfilled
Partially
mineralfilled
Open
D
U
'
70
0'
70
0'
70
0'
'
'
0'
0'
0'
50
U 6
730
50
0
0'
30
0
50
0'
50
0'
90
0'
10
0'
90
Structural
90
0'
0'
41
00'
49
'
0
30
116
'
00
0'
156
'
00
0'
D
U
0'
0
37
4
90
'
2900
770
6
10
0
'
'
'
00
930
8900
D U
7300
0
10
U
D
890
'
8
90
0'
90
0'
U D
6
N
8
10
0'
10
0'
Figure 8.15
Fracture morphology
The morphology of fracture planes can
be defined by core or Borehole Electrical
Imagery data. Four types of morphology are
recognized (Fig. 8.14). They are: 1) open
fractures, 2) deformed fractures, 3)
cemented fractures, and 4) vuggy fractures.
Deformed fractures may form during
the fracturing process or slightly after. The
movement along fracture planes may
increase or decrease the fracture attributes,
depending on the ductility of the rocks.
Vuggy fractures develop when circulating underground fluids cause dissolution
on the fracture walls. They are normally
associated with unconformities and karst
topography in carbonates (Nelson, 1985).
Fault
Well
0.5
1.0 km
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RESERVOIR DESCRIPTION AROUND THE WELL
Top : 5540.0 ft
Top : 5540.0 ft
Bottom : 9240.0 ft
Bottom : 9240.0 ft
Strike Histogram
: A Fracture (opened)
: B Fracture (partially opened)
: C Fracture (cemented)
: A Fracture (opened)
: B Fracture (partially opened)
: C Fracture (cemented)
Depth
(ft)
Tadpole
90
DEG.
6000
7000
8000
9000
Fault zone
8 15
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E VA L U AT I O N O F F R A C T U R E D C A R B O N AT E S
Figure 8.19
DM - 116
NW
1000
SE
2000
3000
Post-Eocene
Depth (ft)
4000
Mito Juan/Coln
5000
Mito Juan/Coln
6000
7000
Marac
a
Socuy
Maraca
Ro Negro
8000
9000
Lisure
La Luna
Lisure
S.T P.T-8200
0.5
1 km
Apn
TD=8506 ft
Basement
Basement
Scale
Socuy
La Luna
N
5932.0 ft
5766.0 ft
5772.0 ft
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RESERVOIR DESCRIPTION AROUND THE WELL
Figure 8.22
10
Fracture density
(# ft)
Depth
(ft)
0.0010
Mean aperture
(mm)
10
Fracture aperture
0.30
(mm)
6050
6100
: A Fracture (opened)
: B Fracture (partially opened)
: C Fracture (cemented)
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E VA L U AT I O N O F F R A C T U R E D C A R B O N AT E S
N
N
5889.0 ft
6064.0 ft
5988.0 ft
5997.0 ft
5901.0 ft
6928.5 ft
6562.5 ft
6572.0 ft
de-watering.
6077.0 ft
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RESERVOIR DESCRIPTION AROUND THE WELL
Figure 8.28
0
10%
330
30
8%
6%
300
60
4%
2%
270
2%
2%
4%
6%
240
8%
10%
90
120
210
150
180
Fracture orientation
in DM-156.
Figure 8.29
6433.0 ft
A
6447.5 ft
8 19
Conclusions
Two dominating fracture orientations
were defined within the Cretaceous carbonates in DM-116 and DM-156 wells. They strike
in NW-SE and ENE-WSW orientations and
form a 60 to 70 dihedral angle between
them. The fracture orientation in these wells
suggests that convergent wrench fault-related
stresses initiated the development of these
fractures. The wrench fault is possibly
trending in a WNW-ESE orientation.
The maximum stress component has a
NW-SE orientation. The least stress component
is located in the NE-SW orientation and parallel to the elongation of the West Mara anticline.
M-116 crossed the bounding thrust zone
that is located to the NW of the well. The fault
zone consisting of several fault slivers has
been demonstrated by high values on the GR
curve.
The wells closest to major faults encountered a higher number of fractures with better
attributes. However, open, partially open, and
cemented fractures within the studied wells
exhibit no preferential orientation. Apparent
fracture aperture within these wells ranges
between 0.01 mm and 0.1 mm. The fractured
rocks have an average porosity of 0.1%.
Formation damage that occurred during
drilling and testing operations is most likely
affecting the reservoir quality in these wells.
Induced fractures are present within the
main stress orientation. They may connect the
natural fractures and enhance the fracture
network over borehole walls.
The image data show several zones of
intergranular and vuggy porosity within these
wells. Dissolution processes enhanced the
effective porosity in these zones and occasionally created a permeability network.
Dolomitization processes played an
additional role in enhancing the porosity and
permeability of certain zones. These processes
and the detrimental distribution of fractures
created numerous compartments within the
reservoir section, which has variable net pay
zone thicknesses.
90
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A M U LT I O F F S E T S E I S M I C P R O F I L E I N A N O L D W E L L
Figure 8.30
100 m
39
97
09
18
22
Faulted out
'
'
25
8
57 28
7
75
12
'
50
0'
10
'
75
'
100
50'
0'
10
75'
25'
Well
Geological setting
The reservoir is located at an average
depth of 1300 ft, is Pliocene in age, and has
already produced oil extensively from wells
drilled to the SW. The sedimentary environment is a deltaic channel fan, trending SW to
NE, with the source of the sediments from
the SW (Fig. 8.30). This trend is expected to
continue to the NE, and the operator will
explore the reservoir until the sandstone
either shales-out or becomes totally wet.
The reservoir is faulted, and each fault
has a different oil-water contact. Shallower
sandstones are also oil-bearing but are not
as productive as the objective sandstone.
Deeper sandstones are also present but may
be wet.
VSP ray-trace modeling
To determine the proper number of
source locations and receiver depth stations,
ray-trace modeling is performed. Prior to
any modeling attempt, a structural model is
extracted using the existing structural interpretation. Interpretation shows a large
anticlinal structure oriented NE to SW. The
VSP profiles should be oriented NE (the
direction of investigation) to study the
presence of faults and the lateral continuity
of the sandstone-shale sequence in the
interval of interest.
Ray-trace modeling tells us that the best
lateral coverage is obtained if four singlesource offset locations are selected. Basically,
a single zero-offset VSP is needed for velocity
and correlation studies at the well site (200 ft
of offset), and a non-zero-offset (2000 ft of
offset) is needed to study the lateral continuity of the sandstone/shale sequence.
50
'
N
t
en ion
im ect
d
r
Se di
w
flo
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RESERVOIR DESCRIPTION AROUND THE WELL
Figure 8.31
Well
NE
Source-1
Source-2
Source-3
Source-4
Depth (ft)
500
1000
1500
2000
1
2500
500
500
1000
1500
2000
2500
Offset (ft)
Results of ray-trace
modeling, showing the
coverage from each offset
at different levels.
Figure 8.32
SEG-Y
tape
Field
tape
Field
tape
Demultiplex
and editing
Sonic log
Stack
Signal based
polarization
True amplitude
recovery and
bandpass filter
Median velocity
filter
Predictive and
waveshape
deconvolution
SEG-Y
tape
Kirchoff
migration
8 21
Velocity
Model
Downhole tool
The downhole seismic tool
used in this acquisition is the
CSAT* Combinable Seismic
Acquisition Tool that digitally transmits the signal
recorded at the geophone to
the surface. This tool has a
modular architecture, which
allows the use of a small,
light-weight sensor that
makes the tool (seismically
speaking) more sensitive to
the wanted signal and less
sensitive to unwanted signals, such as the tube wave.
This sensor module is
decoupled from the tool
body and strongly coupled
against the wellbore.
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A M U LT I O F F S E T S E I S M I C P R O F I L E I N A N O L D W E L L
Figure 8.33
Vertical plane
Plane: well-source-sensor
Horizontal plane
Y
account the source offset distance. A ninetrace coherence window is used to help the
program differentiate between upgoing
energy and downgoing energy. VSP data
after velocity separation in the case of
source position 2 are shown in Fig. 8.35,
next page.
HMN
HMX
a
a
Sensor
Reorientation of the
measured signals (X and Y)
to the reference coordinate
system (HMX and HMN).
Figure 8.34
Horizontal projection
260.0
650.5
970.5
260.0
650.5
970.5
0.000
0.500
Time (sec)
Data from source location 2 in the vertical axis, and the horizontal projection.
1.000
Migration
The Kirchoff integral is used to get a
simultaneous migrated picture of all the VSP
traces for each source offset location.
According to the Kirchoff integral, for a given
geometry (the relative position of the sources
and receivers for all the source offset locations) and for a given velocity model (simple
structure is taken into account inside the
velocity model), each point of the subsurface
is imaged by sending a ray from a particular
source point (X, Y) and receiving it back later
(reflected) at a particular receiver point (X',
Y') that corresponds to the well location.
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RESERVOIR DESCRIPTION AROUND THE WELL
Figure 8.35
Horizontal projection
260.0
650.5
970.5
260.0
650.5
970.5
0.000
0.500
1.000
Time (sec)
260.0
650.5
970.5
260.0
Results
Each offset VSP data set shows good
frequency content and signal-to-noise ratio.
These two factors are a result of the high
quality of the seismic source used in data acquisition and the relatively shallow depth of
the sandstone-shale sequence being studied.
Compared to the ray-trace modeling,
refraction from the far source offset location
was not as large as expected, because of a
high velocity layer found near the surface.
The first 1500 ft of formation (Fig. 8.37)
can be characterized as a relatively parallel
stratigraphic sequence, divided into two
blocks by a reverse fault (almost vertical)
located approximately 300 ft away from the
well. The fault throw is relatively small, so at
the reservoir level (1300 ft) this fault might not
interrupt the lateral continuity of the
sandstone body.
The relatively small amplitude values
below 1500 ft suggest that this stratigraphic
sequence does not go deeper. The log data
also show little character and confirm this
result. However, further away from the
borehole we start to see reflectors, suggesting there may be more sandstone-shale
sequences in this direction.
650.5
970.5
0.000
0.500
1.000
Time (sec)
8 23
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A M U LT I O F F S E T S E I S M I C P R O F I L E I N A N O L D W E L L
Figure 8.37
GR
ILD
1500 ft
0
500
1000
1500
Conclusions
A multioffset VSP was successfully
recorded in an old producing well. The
good quality of the depth-indexed migrated
version of the VSP results allows us to
conclude that:
the vertical and horizontal resolutions of
the migrated image are sufficient to
clearly identify the top and bottom of
the sandstone objective. This sandstone
body can also be correlated laterally on
both sides of the fault plane.
a reverse fault can be defined following
lateral body changes. This fault plane
may or may not be causing abrupt
lateral permeability changes, as a small
throw is observed.
the sandstone objective continues on
the other side of the fault plane and
shows important amplitude variations.
A horizontal reentry was considered
risky because of the fault being so close to
the well. A vertical well penetrating the
block to the right of the fault was considered
a safer way to look for additional oil
reserves. This well could also investigate the
deeper seismic events (below 1500 ft).
2000
(ft)
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RESERVOIR DESCRIPTION AROUND THE WELL
Figure 8.38
Typical terrain in the Orocual area, showing a 35-m depression with difficult access.
(Note small white-roofed house in the left-center).
Figure 8.39
792
1000
1250
1500
1750
2000
Time (msec)
At the same time, there is a large collapsed zone within the surface formations. It
has been suggested that the Carapita collapsed
as the result of a deep strike-slip fault that left
a large valley in the Carapita, but not in the
basement, after the blocks were pulled apart.
The valley was subsequently filled with
sediments from the north.
A multioffset VSP recorded in a suitably
chosen well offered the best chance of
overcoming the uncertainties in the surface
seismic. It was hoped that it would show
reflectors in the area around the well, verify
the existence and extension of the faults,
and detect the presence of certain sandstones of interest in the Las Piedras
Formation.
2250
2500
2750
3000
3250
3500
3750
4000
23 50
100
150
200
250
300
350
400
450
500
550
600
650
700
Trace number
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COMPLEMENTING A POOR SURFACE SEISMIC
Figure 8.40
Las Piedras
Carapita superior
Carapita inferior
Areo
San Juan
Figure 8.41
Time (sec)
1.0
Refractions
1.2
1.4
1.6
20
40
60
80
Trace number
Vertical data for offset C showing effects of refraction at wide angle.
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RESERVOIR DESCRIPTION AROUND THE WELL
Mesa
Figure 8.42
Time
sec
4000
1.0
Las Piedras
1.5
5700 ft
1.8
2.0
Carapita
Overpressured zones
2.5
Ca
ra
ta
s
3.0
Fault plane
200
500
400
500
Trace number
8 27
Determining the
overpressured zones
As an added and unexpected bonus, the
VSP helped determine the extent of a highly
overpressured zone. Before setting the
1338-in. casing, the well had been drilled
through the Carapita to 5301 ft with a 812-in.
pilot hole. Drilling was very difficult over the
last 20 ft because of a high-pressure zone that
produced asphalt. The asphalt acted similarly
to salt, closing in each time a few hours after
it had been drilled. This shallow, highpressure asphalt zone is believed to be
created by communication through the
vertical fault planes (already seen on the VSP
migrated image) of a deeper high-pressure
reservoir.
The hole was eventually reamed out to
5260 ft and casing set at this depth. The
Integrated Project Management Team (who
were responsible for drilling the well)
decided to place a cement plug in openhole
over the highly overpressured zone, and if
this did not solve the problem, to run an
1134-in. liner. However, it was not clear how
far this zone extended or how far to go
before setting the plug. The VSP could solve
this problem by providing a log of
impedance below the casing shoe.
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COMPLEMENTING A POOR SURFACE SEISMIC
A M U LT I A Z I M U T H W A L K A W AY S E I S M I C P R O F I L E
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RESERVOIR DESCRIPTION AROUND THE WELL
Figure 8.43
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A M U LT I A Z I M U T H W A L K A W AY S E I S M I C P R O F I L E
Figure 8.44
20
Trace number
40
60
80
100
120
140
0.5
1.5
2.5
3.5
4.5
5.5
Time (sec)
Processing
The processing of this very large VSP
data set was executed on a Ultra Sparc II Sun
station, using the latest GeoFrame VSP
processing software. The following steps
were involved:
a) Data editing. An inventory of bad shots
was made and, as noted above, only two were
discarded. In line 6 at 12,500 ft, the vertical
axis data were sometimes affected by power
supply multiples (120 Hz and 180 Hz). The
low-frequency shots mentioned above were
not discarded as they had good coherency.
b) Navigation data. The UTM navigation
data were recorded using the WSG-84 coordinate protocol, and subsequently shifted to
be in agreement with the La Canoa reference.
Various shot line discontinuities were
observed, especially in line 1 (due to the
obstacles as noted above).
c) Sorting. The data were preprocessed to
obtain a walkaway configuration; i.e., they
were sorted using first the trace header with
geophone depth and then with shot offset.
Shots located within 1 m of each other are
stacked together. The Sercel Telemetry allowed
a maximum error of 5 m in the in-line direction
and 20 m perpendicular to the line, far above
the precision required for the sorting.
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RESERVOIR DESCRIPTION AROUND THE WELL
Figure 8.45
Frequency (Hz)
40
40
40
Amplitude
40
40
40
80
120
160
200
240
Trace number
Frequency spectrum
before predictive
deconvolution.
Figure 8.46
Frequency (Hz)
20
40
60
Amplitude
80
100
40
80
120
160
200
Trace number
8 31
240
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A M U LT I A Z I M U T H W A L K A W AY S E I S M I C P R O F I L E
Figure 8.47
Results
The comparison between the walkaway
lines 3 and 4 and the corresponding line in
the 3-D surface seismic data (Figs. 8.47, and
8.48, next page) can be summarized as
follows:
enhanced frequency content in the VSP
for shorter offsets, with bandwidth
decreasing with offset
good correspondence of events at
Cogollo, Coln, and Misoa levels
confirmation of the known fault planes.
A pseudo 3-D image was built with the
Charisma seismic interpretation software to
help visualize the results (Fig. 8.49, page
834). A good correlation in time is observed
between the three lines in the foreground.
Some tectonic events such as faults are easily
seen on line 3 (in front) and on line 4 (on
the right).
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RESERVOIR DESCRIPTION AROUND THE WELL
Figure 8.48
Summary
A large multiazimuth walkaway with
2450 shots was acquired in the Urdaneta
Field. Six lines were recorded out to 6500 m
offset, each four times at two adjacent
source positions and two adjacent geophone
positions to minimize aliasing. One line was
also recorded at a deeper horizon to provide
a convolution operator for the shallower
lines. A VSP was also recorded to enable the
walkaway events to be correlated with the
well data. The following aspects of the
processing were noted:
refractions due to the large offsets and
formation velocity inversions in the La
Rosa, Misoa and Coln Formations.
These were seen by a change in the
polarity of the first arrival
excellent performance of the short
predictive deconvolution operator,
reducing ringing on each component
and flattening the spectrum
excellent performance of the P/S
parametric inversion on all the lines in
spite of the large offset
preservation of the continuity of events
by carefully optimizing the migration
model
decontamination of shallow multiples
and residual ringings by using the deep
walkaway convolution operator
only average behavior of the spectral
whitening on the migrated data.
Interpretation and data analysis is in the
initial stages at the time of going to press.
However the following conclusions can be
drawn:
the bandwidth of the walkaway VSP data
is superior to that of the 3-D surface seismic data at near offsets, thus achieving
the primary objective of the survey. Bandwidth degrades at higher offsets to become the same as, and eventually poorer
than the 3-D surface seismic data due to
migration stretch and refraction effects
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A M U LT I A Z I M U T H W A L K A W AY S E I S M I C P R O F I L E
Figure 8.49
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RESERVOIR DESCRIPTION AROUND THE WELL
Figure 8.50
Resistivity
2
(ohm-m)
CALI
4
in.
14
GR
0
(gAPI)
20000
Density
150
g cm3
1.65
Depth
(ft)
2.65
Neutron porosity
60
p.u.. (ss)
7100
7200
ILM
ILD
SFL
NPHI
RHOB
7300
A
7400
C
7500
7600
7700
7800
7900
8000
8 35
Post-job modeling
Post-modeling evaluation can help
define the final placement of the well within
a sequence of beds. It can also answer
questions about actual petrophysical properties of beds and anisotropy effects. This, in
turn, can give a better understanding of log
responses seen in future wells and allow for
clearer geosteering decisions. The example
discussed is the same well that was used to
illustrate pre-planning and geosteering in
Chapter 322. One of the main features
noticed on the logs in this well was a significantly higher resistivity in the sandstones as
compared to the pre-well models (800 versus
100 ohm-m). These models were created by
INFORM for geosteering, and were based on
logs from a nearby vertical well. Such differences could be caused by four factors: anisotropy, invasion, the effect of surrounding
beds, or an R t that is actually much higher in
the horizontal well.
Anisotropy is observed in shales and
laminated sandstones, causing resistivity
perpendicular to the bedding (Rv) to be
higher, in general, than parallel to it (Rh).
Large values of Rv/Rh (> 10) have been
observed, such as in clean sandstones with
layers of rapidly changing grain size. These
changes cause strong contrasts in water
saturation and hence resistivity, and give
very different results when averaged
vertically or horizontally (Klein et al., 1995).
In the traditional case of vertical wells with
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RESERVOIR DESCRIPTION AROUND A HORIZONTAL WELL
,,,,
,,,
Figure 8.51
6200
7060
7110
6210
Sand 1 25
Shale 1 10
7160
6220
Shale 2 5
7260
6230
6240
Sand 2 40
7210
True vertical
depth logs (ft)
Sand 3 25
Shale 3
6250
6260
7200
1200
1300
7300
1400
1500
7400
1600
7500
1700
7600
1800
7700
1900
7800
7900
2000
2100
8000
8100
2200
2300
The cross section interpreted from the logs shown in Fig. 8.50.
Figure 8.52
ILD Modeled
GR Measured
0.0
NPHI Measured
ILD Measured
150
(gAPI)
SP Measured
100
0
(mv)
Depth
(ft)
0.45
RT (Horizontal)
0.2
2000 1.9
(ohm-m)
0.15
(V / V)
RHOB Measured
(g / cm3)
3450
3500
Measured logs and modeled resistivity log from the nearby vertical well.
2.9
The measured log is strongly affected by shoulder effect. To explain this effect,
the true resistivity must be much higher.
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RESERVOIR DESCRIPTION AROUND THE WELL
Figure 8.53
Measured
Modeled
resistivity (ohm-m) resistivity (ohm-m)
1.67
2.20
2.22
2.89
2.99
3.33
10.20
17.01
19.29
118.79
122.91
900.00
Trajectory
Modeled
PS 10"
PS 22"
PS 16"
Measured
PS 16"
PS 22"
PS 10"
100
10
1
1000
100
10
1
3575
TVD (ft)
3579
3583
Sand
3587
3591
Shale
3595
1700
1640
1580
1520
1460
1400
Measured logs (top), modeled logs (middle) and model (bottom) from the horizontal well.
The measured logs are best explained if the borehole approaches within 6 in. of the
boundary. In the model at the bottom, the resistivity scale is indicated by the color code.
Figure 8.54
Section Xsect-1: N 36 E - GR formation property
150
PS28
GR
PS10
resistivity (ohm-m) resistivity (ohm-m) (gAPI)
120
90
60
30
0
1000
100
10
1
Polarization horns
1000
GR
100
PS-28
10
PS-10
15.00
45.00
50.00
62.00
67.00
75.00
94.00
120.00
135.00
Trajectory
Modeled
Measured
Modeled
Measured
Modeled
Measured
1
3500
TVD (ft)
3530
U1 top
3560
U1
objective
3590
3620
3650
3250
2850
2450
2050
1650
1250
Measured logs, modeled logs and model with GR assuming the well leaves the
sandstone by the top at -3000 ft drift. The GR scale is indicated by the color code.
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RESERVOIR DESCRIPTION AROUND A HORIZONTAL WELL
Figure 8.55
Section Xsect-1: N 36 E - Rh formation property
150
GR
(gAPI)
120
90
60
30
Modeled
Measured
resistivity (ohm-m) resistivity (ohm-m)
0
1000
1.67
2.20
2.22
2.89
2.99
3.33
10.20
17.01
19.29
118.79
122.91
774.99
2000
Trajectory
Modeled
GR
PS 10"
PS 22"
PS 34"
Measured
GR
PS 34"
PS 22"
PS 10"
100
10
1
1000
100
10
1
3500
TVD (ft)
3530
3560
U1 top
3590
U1
objective
3620
3650
3250
2860
2470
2080
1690
1300
Measured logs, modeled logs and model with resistivity (scale in color) assuming
the well approaches the bottom of the sandstone at -3000 ft drift.
CONCLUSIONS
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RESERVOIR DESCRIPTION AROUND THE WELL
Modeled
resistivity (ohm-m)
BOUNDARY MODELING
Section Xsect-1: N 36 E - Rh formation property
1000
1.67
2.20
2.22
2.89
2.99
3.33
10.20
17.01
19.29
118.79
122.91
800.00
Well
Trajectory
Modeled
PS-10"
Modeled
PS-22"
Modeled
PS-34"
100
10
1
3570
TVD (ft)
3576
3582
3588
2 ft
U1 Sand
3594
3600
1800
Shale
1700
1600
1500
1400
These diagrams show the effects on ARC5 phase measurements of varying depths of investigation, as a boundary
of high resistivity is approached by a curving well
trajectory. The 34-in. ARC5 curve is the first to react to the
boundary. At a distance of 2 ft (left) the shallower 10-in.
and 22-in. curves are dropping in resistivity because of the
approach of the conductive shale, but the 34-in. curve is
already starting to show some polarization effects.
1300
Modeled
resistivity (ohm-m)
1.67
2.20
2.22
2.89
2.99
3.33
10.20
17.01
19.29
118.79
122.91
800.00
Trajectory
Modeled
PS-10"
Modeled
PS-22"
Modeled
PS-34"
100
10
1
3570
TVD (ft)
3576
3582
1 ft
3588
U1 Sand
3594
3600
1800
Shale
1700
1600
1500
1400
1300
Modeled
resistivity (ohm-m)
1.67
2.20
2.22
2.89
2.99
3.33
10.20
17.01
19.29
118.79
122.91
800.00
Well
Trajectory
Modeled
PS-10"
Modeled
PS-22"
Modeled
PS-34"
100
10
1
3570
TVD (ft)
3576
3582
U1 Sand
3588
3594
3600
1800
Shale
1700
1600
1500
1400
1300
TVD (ft)
Modeled
resistivity (ohm-m)
3582
3588
U1 Sand
3594
Shale
3600
1800
1700
1600
1500
1400
1300
8 39
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1.67
2.20
2.22
2.89
2.99
3.33
10.20
17.01
19.29
118.79
122.91
800.00
Well
Trajectory
Modeled
PS-10"
Modeled
PS-22"
Modeled
PS-34"
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The authors of this chapter are H.Acuna (Lagoven), J. Gil, D. Riegstra (Shell Venezuela), M.Taha,
C.Barrientos, M.Menier, S.Low and J.Singer
with contributions from T.Takimoto (Teikoku), J.Garca (Maraven), M.Bhimull (Premier Consolidated
Oilfield), V.Carneiro (Lagoven), L.Gaetano (Corpoven), C.Contreras, H.Gamero, E.Rodrguez and
A.Snchez
and the permission of Teikoku Oil de Venezuela, Corpoven, Maraven, Lagoven, Premier
Consolidated and Shell Venezuela to publish data from their wells.
REFERENCES
Reading, H.G., and Collinson, J.D., 1996, Clastic coasts, in Reading, H.G. (ed.),
Sedimentary Environments: Processes, Facies and Stratigraphy, Blackwell
Science Ltd, pp. 154-231.
Reust, D. K., 1995, Vibrator force control: how simple can it get, The Leading
Edge, Ponca City, Oklahoma, November, pp 1129-1133.
Smith, D.G., 1987, Meandering river point bar lithofacies models: Modern and
ancient examples compared, in Ethridge et al., Recent developments in fluvial sedimentology, SEPM Special Publication 39, pp. 83-91.
Van Beek, J.L., and Koster, E.A., 1972, Fluvial and estuarine sediments
exposed along the Oude Maastrichtian., Sedimentology 19: pp. 237-256.
Visher, G.S., 1990. Exploration stratigraphy, Pennwell Publishing Co., Tulsa,
Okalhoma, p. 433.
Woodroffe, C.D., Chappell, J., Thom, B.G., and Wallensky, E., 1989,
Depositional model of a macrotidal estuary and flood plain, South Alligator
River, Northern Australia, Sedimentology 36: pp. 737-756.
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U N I T S A N D A B B R E V I AT I O N S
API
C (crude)
condensates
degrees Centigrade
c.u.
capture units
degrees Fahrenheit
Ca
calcium
micron
CBL
percent
CCL
porosity
CDR*
2-D
two-dimensional
CEC
3-D
three-dimensional
CFS
in-line spinner
A10H
CHRT*
A16H
CIRP
A22H
A28H
cm3
cubic centimeter
A34H
CMFF
AAA
CMR*
ADN*
CMRP
CMR Porosity
AIT*
CMT
Al
aluminum
CNL
ARC5*
COR
carbon-oxygen ratio
cp
centipoise
ASI
CQG
ASR
CSAT*
ATR
Attenuation Resistivity
CSI
AVO
CSS
billion
day
bitumen
DataFRAC*
B, S, & W
DEFT
bbl
barrel
DSA
BCF
DSI*
BCR
DST
BFV
DTCO
compressional slowness
BHA
bottomhole apparatus
ECGR
BHFP
EFI
BHT
bottomhole temperature
ELAN
BLR
EOP
BOL
ESIC
BOPD
FBS
fullbore spinner
BPM
Fe
iron
BS
FFI
free fluid
BTN RA
button resistivity
FIV
BWPD
FLT*
carbon
FMI*
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UNITS AND ABBREVIATIONS
ft
foot, feet
meter
FT-IR
thousand
FVF
Ma
gram
MCFL
G/O
gas-oil contact
MD
measured depth
gal
gallon
md
millidarcy
GBR
gas-bitumen ratio
MDT*
Gd
gadolinium
METT*
GOR
gas-oil ratio
Mg
magnesium
GR
gamma ray
ML
Microlog
GRazi
Azimuthal GR
MM
million
GST*
GeoSteering Tool
MMH
mixed-metal hydroxide
H (crude)
heavy
msec
millisecond
HALS*
MSFL
HCl
hydrochloric acid
MWD
HF
hydrofluoric acid
NaCl
sodium chloride
HGNS
NBS
near-bit sub
HI
hydrogen index
NCS
HIMAT
NGS
HORD
NMR
hr
hour
NODAL*
HSD
NOL
HSE
NOS
NPHI
neutron porosity
in.
inch
NPHIMAT
Inc.
INFORM
NPV
IOBM
NRS
IPR
oxygen
IS
Inelastic Scattering
O/W
oil/water [contact]
potassium
OBIP
KCl
potassium chloride
OBM
oil-based mud
kHz
kiloHertz
OFA*
lb
pound
ohm-m
ohm-meter
LDT*
LithoDensity Tool
OOIP
LLS
Laterolog Shallow
p.u.
porosity units
LQC
P10H
LRT
P16H
LS
P22H
LTIV
P28H
LWD
P34H
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APPENDIX
P3D
Pseudo 3-Dimensional
Rmf
P3D_LAT
ROBB
PAL*
ROBL
Pb
ROBR
PCAL
Phase Caliper
ROBU
PEB
Rps
RST*
PEF
Rt
true resistivity
PEG
Rw
PEL
Rwa
PER
Rxo
sulfur
PEU
s.u.
saturation units
SAFE
PEX*
Platform Express
SBNA
PI
productivity index
Sc
compressional slowness
PNC
SCADA
PPA
scf
ppm
SCR
psi
SDI
psia
SDRC
psig
sec
second
PSR
SFFA
PVL
Si
silica, silicon
PVS
SIGMAT
sigma matrix
PVT
pressure-volume-temperature
SIP
RAB*
Resistivity-at-the-Bit Tool
SLIM1
Rad
RANGDB
SLSR
RAZI
Azimuthal resistivity
SNUPAR
RB
reservoir barrel
SOS
RBD
SP
spontaneous potential
RBit
SPAN
RBM
SPF
RBS
SRS*
RF
radio frequency
Ss
shear slowness
RFT*
SS
RHOB
ss
subsea
RRing
STB
stock-tank barrels
Rm
mud resistivity
STC
RMA
Sw
water saturation
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UNITS AND ABBREVIATIONS
SWAA
Swi
SXAR
SXPV
TCP
Th
thorium
Ti
titanium
TLC*
TLD*
TNPH
TOC
TRAT
TSO
tip screen-out
TVD
uranium
UCI*
USIT*
VDL
VERD
Vsh
shale volume
VSP
W&S
WBM
water-based mud
WCQR
WFL
WOR
water-oil ratio
WTQR
WTSR
XH (crude)
extra-heavy
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INDEX
A
AAA, 3.17
Accretion surface, 8.88.10
Activation mode, 6.11
ADN, 4.3, 4.6, 4.8
AIT, 4.12, 4.15, 5.44
Alpha processing, 4.13, 6.4, 6.5, 6.14
Alpuf Field, 1.1, 2.1, 2.2
Ambrosio Field, 1.1, 2.1, 2.2
API gravity, classification, 2.1
Apure, 2.3, 6.44
ARC5, 3.20, 3.27, 4.3, 4.6, 4.7, 8.35, 8.39
ASI, 8.26, 8.29
ASR, 3.17
AVO, 8.28, 8.34
Azimuthal resistivity, 3.20, 4.5
B
Clay
% vs. chemical elements, 6.19
acid, 7.1, 7.32, 7.347.37
determination algorithm, 6,19, 6.22, 6.23
authigenic, 7.32, 8.2
volume prediction, 5.41
ClientLink, 7.87.38
CMR (see also NMR)
bound fluid, 4.29, 5.38, 5.42
carbonates, 5.36
gas response, 5.125.17
heavy oils, 5.14, 5.295.34, 5.48
Job Planning, 4.27
OBM, 5.44
CMT, 6.41
Compaction, 2.10, 2.46
Compressional slowness, 6.16
Condensate
gas cap, 2.30, 2.33
retrograde, 5.18, 5.19
COR, 6.2, 6.46.10, 6.146.17, 6.33, 6.35
Corrosion, 6.39
CQG quartz gauge, 5.30
Cretaceous DM-115 reservoir, 2.22
Cretaceous, 1.71.10, Chapter 2, 5.8, 7.25, 8.25
Cross-lamination sets, 8.88.10
Crossed Dipole, 4.33
CSAT, 8.21
CSS, 8.29
Cumarebo Field, 1.1, 2.1, 2.3
D
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INDEX
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INDEX
SAFE, 7.38
Sampling
North Monagas, 5.27
reservoir fluid, 5.185.28
San Joaqun Field, 1.1, 2.1, 2.4
Sand production, 7.5, 7.12
Santa Ana Field, 1.1, 2.1, 2.4
Santa Brbara Field, 1.1, 2.1, 2.4, 5.12, 7.25
Santa Rosa Field, 1.1, 2.1, 2.4
Saturation through casing, 6.26.11,
7.87.10, 7.13
Sedimentary analysis, 8.28.10
Seismic profile
multiazimuth walkaway, 8.288.34
multioffset, 8.208.33
vertical, see VSP
Sensors, permanent downhole, 6.47
Shoulder effect, 8.36
Sigma/porosity database, 6.13
Sigma, 5.41, 6.2, 6.96.13, 6.34
Silvestre Field, 1.1, 2.1, 2.3, 2.25
SIP, 6.24
SLIM1, 3.27
SNUPAR, 5.40
SOS, 7.19, 7.217.23
South Monagas, 2.5
SPAN, 7.10
Spectrolith, 5.41, 6.196.25
Spinner measurements, 6.34
SRS, 5.25
STC, 4.34, 6.15
Stimulation (see Fracture, Induced)
Stoneley (see DSI)
Stratigraphic column
Barinas-Apure, 1.28,
Lake Maracaibo, 1.23
Maracaibo Basin, 1.23
Maturn, 1.38
Stratigraphic nomenclature
Greater Oficina Area, 2.3
Miocene, 2.2
Stress direction, 3.153.17
Subsidence, 2.10
SWAA, 3.17
Swelling effect, 7.33
SXAR, 7.39
SXPV, 7.39
UCI, 6.39
UNIGAGE, 4.23- 4.26
Universal Pressure Platform, 4.214.26
Urdaneta Field, 1.1, 2.2, 8.28 (West)
USIT, 6.38, 6.39, 6.40, 7.9
V
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