Approaches to tourist attraction perceptions and experiences are shown in Table

1.3 and are closely related to tourist motivation, as discussed above. This reflects the
inseparable relationship between the site and the visitor in the tourist attraction sys-
tem. Because most tourists are outsiders and newcomers to a place, many studies of
attractions perception focus on security and the minimization of risk. To do this, they
typically take place in staged, inauthentic and highly structured environments.
Tourists also mostly interact with the advertised images, rather than a direct
and unmediated experience of a site. MacCannell (1976) referred to this as marker
involvement because the tourist is more focused on the label that is attached to the
attraction than the attraction itself. Most historic sites, such as empty battlefields,
are marker involvement attractions, as opposed to sight involvement attractions that
would not require any interpretation. Outstanding natural landscapes and culturally
unique places are examples where sight involvement often predominates over marker
involvement.
The perceptual or cognitive approaches can be applied to any of the formal attrac-
tion types in Table 1.3. In fact, many researchers freely mix formal, structural and
perceptual approaches in their attraction inventories, without thinking about the dif-
ferences. For example, one study of attractions in Greece classified them into three
formal types (Ancient Greece, Picturesque villages, and Sun and sea), two structural
types (Clustered–isolated and Accessible–inaccessible), and one perceptual type
(Unique–common). In general, the selection of one or more approach depends on
the goals of the research. A comprehensive study would want to use all three major
approaches, whereas a more narrowly focused study might only use one approach.

1.7 TOURISM LANDSCAPES

Places are a major focus of geographic study because they are the focal point of
relationships among local residents, outside visitors, economic processes, the physi-
cal environment and culture. The visual landscapes of places are readily accessible for
anyone to experience. Landscapes have strong representational and symbolic mean-
ing, and they form a veritable stage for play and recreation. Landscapes are often used
to promote a destination, through television and print advertisements, and through
these media landscape become the first and most basic setting for the tourist expe-
rience. Landscapes are also captured by tourists through photographs that become
lasting memories. However, because they are so omnipresent, forming the basis for
everyday life, landscapes can be challenging to interpret and understand.
Landscapes are often an integral part of the image of a destination. The New York
City skyline and Hong Kong’s harbor are among the more recognized landscape icons.
Tourism marketers turn landscapes into representations of destinations. Tourists use
these representations to decide whether or not to visit a place, and then once there,
to assess and validate their experiences. At the same time, the destination manages its
landscape to meet the needs of both locals (hosts) and visitors (guests). Some elements
of the landscape are either transformed or intentionally preserved for the guest, while
others are oriented more toward local needs. As tourism and leisure become more per-
vasive elements in daily life, it is becoming more difficult to separate host and guest
landscape elements.

INTRODUCTION 41