Fundamentals

Current (amps , A or mA=0.001A) is the amount of electricity flowing

I = Current
Voltage (volts, V) is the force which causes electrons to flow
V E voltage
Electrical resistance (ohms) impedes the flow of electricity
R = Resistance
conductor
insulator
, , , 1/4.

.

: 3
(1) I = V/R (=/)

High voltage increases current
( , )
Dry skin = 400,000 ohms resistance
Wet skin = 15,000 ohms
Damaged skin = 1000 ohms

(2) V=IR , ( )= x
(, )

() , () (,
)
, ,
,
, , , ()

, ,
: 110V, (1HP=746), 770 (=110v 7A), ,
=0.4(2m, 0.5mm, ), = 7x0.4=2.8 , 2.8V,
=110-2.8=107.2 ., ,
, , .

--------------------------

Power (, ) (Watt, W, , ) (=746 3/4 )

P = (1) x
= (2) x (I2R) (=)
= (3) /(V2/R) (=/)
: 880 = 220 4 = 110 8 ((1))
0.4 (2m, 0.5mm, ), = 440.4 (220V) = 880.4 (110V)
(2)
: 220V 110 V 1/4
: : , ? , =

?
2

, , , , .
=* ,
: , ,
(), ,
, .
:
(1) =, . =*=0*=0
(2) , , . =*=
*(=0)=0
(3) , =. , .
()=*= 1/2 * 2 = 1/2,
, , .
1/4 ()
, 15, = (800/110)=7.3A (),
15, 30, 3.64A. =*
=3.64*3.64*15=200 (200, 400)
, 1/4. ,
, , , .
, 1/4 ,
, , , ,
. , , .

()= (, )

x=
= 1000Watt-Hour (-kilowatt-hour) ,
Example:
(a) 1.2V (1.5) , 2000mA-hr (2000 -)

: 1.2V*2000mA=1.2V*2A=2.4W
=2.4W-Hr=0.0024 -=0.0024
(b) 8.4V (9) , 750mA-hr (750 -)

: 8.4V*750mA=8.4V*0.75A=6.4W
=6.3W*1Hr=0.0063 -=0.0063
, , ,
, , .
: (), 1500 .
, , 75, 20.
20. 1500, 1500, ,
1/41/3. 1/4, 375, 375*24*30=270,000, 750,000 /
270000 =2.77 /. , ,
.
()(3751/4), (
), .

Example
1101500W
1500=V*I =110*I I =1500/110= 13.6A

(, ,
, =VI.
1500W110, =13.6A; 220=6.8A.

: 110V, 1.5A = 110x1.5=165

: 19V, 3.42A, = 65 (, )
(, , ,
, , ,
, )

2013 8 19 3:42
-----------------------:
/ (, : = ()(9.8)(),
=1/2 ()(/)
1000-==10003600=3,600,000 =3.6
: 1 = 4.2 . , 45(), 9+
. (). =10=42

: 13.8 (, 13.83040),
10 , , ,
? ?
, , (85 ~90),
, 40%, (60%,
), ()> 52%. ,
. .
, ,
25% (, 50%, ),
75%, , , 1/3.
5

:
, ,
. 1/2. 800
0.8, , 0.4.
, , .
, .

v= Ix R

R = R1+R2+R3

 ()

: , , =/ (3),

, .

Advantages of Alternating Current

Power companies use ac generators, also called alternators, to produce
electrical power more economically than was previously possible with dc
generators. The main reason for this is that the power lost during the
transmission of ac from the generating station to the user is very much less
than with dc. Using ac, the power companies are able to "transform" the
produced electrical energy into a high-voltage, but low-current, equivalent
power. The device used to conveniently raise or lower the voltage is called a
transformer.

110, , (
, , .

10

220V, , , 110V220V .

Cables and cords have three wires:

Two conductors
Grounded conductor" or "neutral" wire (white)
Equipment will be at "ground potential" (zero volts)
Always connected (no switches)
Hot wire (black)
Full line potential (120 volts)
Switches are installed on this wire so equipment is hot only
when operating
"Reversed polarity" causes equipment to be energized with full line
voltage even when it is not operating
Ground wire (green or uninsulated) ,
11

12

13


1
2
3

Electrical Shock
USA
Electrocution is the fifth leading cause of death on the job
Over 600 people are electrocuted at work each year
Firms with less than 11 employees had 32% of deaths
Half of electrocution involve high-voltage power lines
One third involved electrical work
Ground Fault Circuit Interrupters (GFCI) could have prevented 73% of remaining deaths
Electrocution is the third leading cause of workrelated deaths among 16- and 17-year-olds, after
motor vehicle deaths and workplace homicide. Electrocution is the cause of 12% of all
workplace deaths among young workers.1

: ()
14

15

< 600 : ()
An electrical shock is received when electrical current passes through the body. Current will pass
through the body in a variety of situations. Whenever two wires are at different voltages, current will pass
between them if they are connected.

16

You will receive an electrical shock if a part of your body completes an electrical circuit by
touching a live wire and an electrical ground (), or
touching a live wire and another wire at a different voltage.

3/1

17

Electricity isnt live until current flows

Electrical current wont flow until there is a complete loop, out from and back to the power
source.

18

Heart paralysis

respiratory
paralysis

ventricular fibrillation
60100

19

Electrical injuries consist of four main types: electrocution (fatal), electric shock, burns, and falls caused
as a result of contact with electrical energy.
Voltages over 600 volts can rupture human skin, greatly reducing the resistance of the human body,
allowing more current to flow and causing greater damage to internal organs.

The danger from electrical shock depends on

the amount of the shocking current through the body,
the duration of the shocking current through the body, and
the path of the shocking current through the body.

20

For example, 1/10 of an ampere (amp) (=100mA) of electricity going through the body
for just 2 seconds is enough to cause death.
The amount of internal current a person can withstand and still be able to control the
muscles of the arm and hand can be less than 10 milliamperes (milliamps or mA).
Currents above 10 mA can paralyze or freeze muscles. When this freezing
happens, a person is no longer able to release a tool, wire, or other object. In fact, the
electrified object may be held even more tightly, resulting in longer exposure to the
shocking current. For this reason, handheld tools that give a shock can be very
dangerous. If you cant let go of the tool, current continues through your body for a
longer time, which can lead to respiratory paralysis (the muscles that control
breathing cannot move). You stop breathing for a period of time.
21

People have stopped breathing when shocked with currents from voltages as low as 49
volts. Usually, it takes about 30 mA of current to cause respiratory paralysis.
Currents greater than 75 mA cause ventricular fibrillation (very rapid, ineffective
heartbeat). This condition will cause death within a few minutes unless a special
device called a defibrillator is used to save the victim.
Heart paralysis occurs at 4 amps, which means the heart does not pump at all.
Tissue is burned with currents greater than 5 amps.

For example, a current of 100 mA applied for 3 seconds is as dangerous as a current

of 900 mA applied for a fraction of a second (0.03 seconds).
People with less muscle tissue are typically affected at lower current levels.
High voltages can cause violent muscular contractions. You may lose your balance and
fall.
At 600 volts, the current through the body may be as great as 4 amps, causing
damage to internal organs such as the heart. High voltages also produce burns.
In addition, internal blood vessels may clot. Nerves in the area of the contact point
may be damaged.
Muscle contractions may cause bone fractures from either the contractions
themselves or from falls.
A person may suffer internal bleeding and destruction of tissues, nerves, and muscles.
Sometimes the hidden injuries caused by electrical shock result in a delayed death.
If the shock is short in duration, it may only be painful. A longer shock (lasting a few
seconds) could be fatal if the level of current is high enough to cause the heart to go
into ventricular fibrillation. This is not much current when you realize that a small
power drill uses 30 times as much current as what will kill.
At relatively high currents, death is certain if the shock is long enough. However, if the
shock is short and the heart has not been damaged, a normal heartbeat may resume
22

if contact with the electrical current is eliminated. (This type of recovery is rare.)
Greater voltages produce greater currents. So, there is greater danger from higher
voltages.
Resistance hinders current. The lower the resistance (or impedance in AC circuits),
the greater the current will be.
Dry skin may have a resistance of 100,000 ohms or more.
Wet skin may have a resistance of only 1,000 ohms. Wet working conditions or
broken skin will drastically reduce resistance. The low resistance of wet skin allows
current to pass into the body more easily and give a greater shock.
When more force is applied to the contact point or when the contact area is larger,
the resistance is lower, causing stronger shocks.
The path of the electrical current through the body affects the severity of the shock.
Currents through the heart or nervous system are most dangerous. If you contact a
live wire with your head, your nervous system will be damaged.
Contacting a live electrical part with one handwhile you are grounded at the other
side of your body will cause electrical current to pass across your chest, possibly
injuring your heart and lungs.
Dry skin (resistance around 10,000), Current = 220V 10,000 = 0.022A
Wet skin (resistance around 500), Current = 220V 500 = 0.44A
There have been cases where an arm or leg is severely burned by high-voltage
electrical current to the point of coming off, and the victim is not electrocuted.
In these cases, the current passes through only a part of the limb before it goes out of
the body and into another conductor. Therefore, the current does not go through the
chest area and may not cause death, even though the victim is severely disfigured. If
the current does go through the chest, the person will almost surely be electrocuted. A
large number of serious electrical injuries involve current passing from the hands to
the feet. Such a path involves both the heart and lungs. This type of shock is often
fatal.

1 milliamp Just a faint tingle.

5 milliamps Slight shock felt. Disturbing, but not painful. Most people can let go. However,
strong involuntary movements can cause injuries.
625 milliamps (women) Painful shock. Muscular control is lost. This is the range where
freezing
23

930 milliamps (men) currents start. It may not be possible to let go.
50150 milliamps Extremely painful shock, respiratory arrest (breathing stops), severe muscle
contractions. Flexor muscles may cause holding on; extensor muscles may cause intense
pushing away. Death is possible.
1,0004,300 milliamps (1A-4.3A) Ventricular fibrillation (heart pumping action not rhythmic)
occurs. Muscles (14.3 amps) contract; nerve damage occurs. Death is likely.
10,000 milliamps (10A) Cardiac arrest and severe burns occur. Death is probable. (10 amps)
15,000 milliamps (15A) Lowest overcurrent at which a typical fuse or circuit breaker opens a
circuit! (15 amps)

1
Emergency Response
When someone suffers serious electrical shock, he or she may be knocked
unconscious. If the victim is still in contact with the electrical current, immediately
turn off the electrical power source.
If you cannot disconnect the power source, try to separate the victim from the power
source with a nonconductive object, such as a wood-handled broom.
IMPORTANT!
Do not touch a victim that is still in contact with a power source; you could
electrocute yourself.
Have someone call for emergency medical assistance immediately. Administer first aid,
as appropriate.

ARCING
3000


Electrical burns happen when electric current flows through tissues and organs.
Arc burns result from high temperatures (up to 35,000 F) when an arc flash event occurs.
Thermal burns typically happen when skin touches a hot surface
An Arc-Flash is an unexpected sudden release of heat and light energy produced by electricity traveling through air,
usually caused by accidental contact between live conductors. Temperatures at the arc terminals can reach or exceed

24

35,000 degrees Fahrenheit (F), or four times the temperature of the suns surface.

Arc-blasts occur when powerful, high-amperage currents arc through the air.
Arc flash can be caused by many things including:
Dust
Dropping tools
Accidental touching
Condensation
Material failure
Corrosion
Faulty Installation
Three factors determine the severity of an arc flash injury:
Proximity of the worker to the hazard
Temperature
Time for circuit to break

This situation is often caused by equipment failure due to abuse or fatigue.

Worn or broken conductor insulation
Exposed live parts
Loose wire connections
Improperly maintained switches and circuit breakers
Water or liquid near electrical equipment
High voltage cables
Static electricity
Damaged tools and equipment
Arcing is the luminous electrical discharge that occurs when high voltages exist
across a gap between conductors and current travels through the air.

There are three primary hazards associated with an arc-blast.

(1) Arcing gives off thermal radiation (heat) and intense light, which can cause burns.
Several factors affect the degree of injury, including skin color, area of skin exposed,
and type of clothing worn. Proper clothing, work distances, and over-current protection
can reduce the risk of such a burn.
(2) A high-voltage arc can produce a considerable pressure wave blast. A person 2
feet away from a 25,000-amp arc feels a force of about 480 pounds on the front of
25

the body. In addition, such an explosion can cause serious ear damage and memory
loss due to concussion. Sometimes the pressure wave throws the victim away from the
arc-blast. While this may reduce further exposure to the thermal energy, serious
physical injury may result. The pressure wave can propel large objects over great
distances. In some cases, the pressure wave has enough force to snap off the heads of
steel bolts and knock over walls.
(3) A high-voltage arc can also cause many of the copper and aluminum components
in electrical equipment to melt. These droplets of molten metal can be blasted great
distances by the pressure wave. Although these droplets harden rapidly, they can still
be hot enough to cause serious burns or cause ordinary clothing to catch fire, even if
you are 10 feet or more away.
Over 2000 workers are sent to burn centers each year with severe Arc-Flash burns.
Estimates show that 10 Arc-Flash incidents occur every day in the US.

Approach / Protection Boundaries

The National Fire Protection Association (NFPA) has developed specific
approach boundaries designed to protect employees while working on or near
energized equipment. These boundaries are:
Flash Protection Boundary (outer boundary)
Limited Approach
Restricted Approach
Prohibited Approach (inner boundary)
Flash Protection Boundary (outer boundary): The flash boundary is the farthest established
boundary from the energy source. If an arc flash occurred, this boundary is where an employee
would be exposed to a curable second degree burn (1.2 calories/cm 2)
Limited Approach: An approach limit at a distance from an exposed live part where a shock
hazard exists.
Restricted Approach: An approach limit at a distance from an exposed live part which there is an
increased risk of shock.
Prohibited Approach (inner boundary): A distance from an exposed part which is considered the
same as making contact with the live part. This distance is not common between equipment.
Some equipment will have a greater flash protection boundary while other equipment will have a
lesser boundary.

26

Electrical Fire

Electricity is one of the most common causes of fires and thermal burns in
homes and workplaces.
Defective or misused electrical equipment is a major cause of electrical fires.
Explosion
If high currents run through contaminated materials, they expand rapidly causing
an explosion

660W 110 6A( )
19A (12A) (15A)

In case of an electrical fire, shut off the power.

Use a fire extinguisher approved for electrical fires to fight the fire.
Never use water to put out an electrical fire. Water can result in a fatal shock.
If there is a small electrical fire, be sure to use only a Class C or multipurpose (ABC)
27

fire extinguisher, or you might make the problem worse. All fire extinguishers are
marked with letter(s) that tell you the kinds of fires they can put out. Some
extinguishers contain symbols, too.

A = paper, wood, etc.

B= flammable liquids
C = electrical fire

The requirement for effective grounding is one of the most frequently cited
violations of OSHA's electrical standards. Effective grounding has no
function unless and until there is electrical leakage from a current-carrying
conductor to its enclosure. When such a ground fault occurs, the equipment
grounding conductor goes into action to provide the following:
! It prevents voltages between the electrical enclosure and other enclosures
or surroundings.
! It provides a path for large amounts of fault or overload current to flow
back to the service entrance, thus blowing the fuse or tripping the circuit
breaker.
28

Hazard Recognition: How Do You Recognize Hazards?

q Inadequate wiring is dangerous.

q Exposed electrical parts are dangerous.
q Overhead power-lines are dangerous.
q Wires with bad insulation can give you a shock.
q Electrical systems and tools that are not grounded or double-insulated are
dangerous.
q Overloaded circuits are dangerous.
q Damaged power tools and equipment are electrical hazards.
q Using the wrong PPE is dangerous.
q Using the wrong tool is dangerous.
q Some on-site chemicals are harmful.
q Defective ladders and scaffolding are dangerous.
q Ladders that conduct electricity are dangerous.
q Electrical hazards can be made worse if the worker, location, or equipment is
wet.

An electrician was removing a metal fish tape from a hole at the base of a metal light pole. (A fish tape is
used to pull wire through a conduit run.) The fish tape became energized, electrocuting him. As a result
of its inspection, OSHA issued a citation for three serious violations of the agencys construction
standards. If the following OSHA requirements had been followed, this death could have been
prevented.
De-energize all circuits before beginning work.
Always lock out and tag out de-energized equipment.
Companies must train workers to recognize and avoid unsafe conditions associated with their work.
29

Inadequate wiring hazards

An electrical hazard exists when the wire is too small a gauge for the current it will carry.

Exposed electrical parts hazards

Electrical hazards exist when wires or other electrical parts are exposed. Wires and parts can
be exposed if a cover is removed from a wiring or breaker box. The overhead wires coming
into a home may be exposed.

Overhead powerline hazards

Most people do not realize that overhead powerlines are usually not insulated.
These incidents often involve:

1
2
3

* machinery, eg cranes, lorry-loader cranes, combine harvesters, and tipping trailers;

* equipment, eg scaffold tubes and ladders;
* work activities, eg loading, unloading, lifting, spraying, and stacking.

If a machine, scaffold tube, ladder, or even a jet of water touches or gets too close to an
overhead wire, then electricity will be conducted to earth. This can cause a fire or explosion and
electric shock and burn injuries to anyone touching the machine or equipment.
More than half of all electrocutions are caused by direct worker contact with energized powerlines.
In the past, 80% of all lineman deaths were caused by contacting a live wire with a bare hand.
Due to such incidents, all linemen now wear special rubber gloves that protect them up to
34,500 volts.
Today, most electrocutions involving overhead powerlines are caused by failure to maintain
proper work distances.

30

Shocks and electrocutions occur where physical barriers are not in place to prevent contact with
the wires.
When dump trucks, cranes, work platforms, or other conductive materials (such as pipes
and ladders) contact overhead wires, the equipment operator or other workers can be killed. If
you do not maintain required clearance distances from powerlines, you can be shocked and
killed.

, , ,

31

A 24-year-old Hispanic, Spanish-speaking painter was electrocuted when the metal ladder he was repositioning
contacted a 24,000-volt overhead power line 21 feet above the ground. The victim and his coworkers were painting
several two-story townhouses. While the worker was repositioning his 28foot metal extension ladder (which was
extended to 26 feet), the ladder contacted the overhead power line located approximately 16 feet from the painting
operation. Several seconds later, the foreman heard a buzzing sound and saw the victim gripping his ladder before
falling to the ground. The victim was pronounced dead in the hospital emergency room.

Defective insulation hazards

Insulation that is defective or inadequate is an electrical hazard. Usually, a plastic or rubber
covering insulates wires. Insulation prevents conductors from coming in contact with each other.
Insulation also prevents conductors from coming in contact with people. Extension cords may
have damaged insulation.
Electric hand tools that are old, damaged, or misused may have damaged insulation inside. If
you touch damaged power tools or other equipment, you will receive a shock. You are more
likely to receive a shock if the tool is not grounded or double-insulated.
(Double-insulated tools have two insulation barriers and no exposed metal)

Improper grounding hazards

When an electrical system is not grounded properly, a hazard exists. The most common OSHA
electrical violation is improper grounding of equipment and circuitry. The metal parts of an
electrical wiring system that we touch (switch plates, ceiling light fixtures, conduit, etc.) should
be grounded and at 0 volts.
32

Overload hazards
Overloads in an electrical system are hazardous because they can produce heat or arcing.
Wires and other components in an electrical system or circuit have a maximum amount of
current they can carry safely. If too many devices are plugged into a circuit, the electrical
current will heat the wires to a very high temperature. If any one tool uses too much current, the
wires will heat up.
The temperature of the wires can be high enough to cause a fire. If their insulation melts,
arcing may occur. Arcing can cause a fire in the area where the overload exists, even inside a
wall.
In order to prevent too much current in a circuit, a circuit breaker or fuse is placed in the
circuit. If there is too much current in the circuit, the breaker trips and opens like a switch. If
the breakers or fuses are too big for the wires they are supposed to protect, an overload in
the circuit will not be detected and the current will not be shut off. Overloading leads to
overheating of circuit components

Wet conditions hazards

Working in wet conditions is hazardous because you may become an easy path for electrical
current. If you touch a live wire or other electrical componentand you are well-grounded
because you are standing in even a small puddle of wateryou will receive a shock.
Wet clothing, high humidity, and perspiration increase your chances of being
electrocuted.

33

GROUNDING
A ground is a conductive connection
between electrical circuit or equipment and earth or ground plane
creates a low resistance to the earth.
In most household wiring, the black wires are at 110 volts relative to ground
The white wires are at zero volts because they are connected to ground
There are two kinds of grounding:
(1) electrical circuit or system grounding, and
(2) electrical equipment grounding. (, )
Electrical system grounding is accomplished when one conductor of the circuit is intentionally
connected to earth. This is done to protect the circuit should lightning strike or other high voltage
contact occur. Grounding a system also stabilizes the voltage in the system so "expected
voltage levels" are not exceeded under normal conditions.
The second kind of ground is equipment grounding. This is accomplished when all metal
frames of equipment and enclosures containing electrical equipment or conductors are
grounded by means of a permanent and continuous connection or bond.
The equipment grounding conductor provides a path for dangerous fault current to return to
the system ground at the supply source of the circuit should an insulation failure take place.
If installed properly, the equipment grounding conductor is the current path that enables
protective devices, such as circuit breakers and fuses, to operate when a fault occurs. The
figure below illustrates both types of grounding.

CIRCUIT AND SYSTEM GROUNDING

34

Three fundamental purposes

1. To limit excessive voltage from lightning, line surges, and crossovers with higher voltage
lines.
2. To keep conductor enclosures and noncurrent-carrying metal enclosures and equipment at
zero potential to ground.
3. To facilitate the opening of overcurrent protection devices in case of insulation failures
because of faults, short circuits, etc

EQUIPMENT GROUNDING
Equipment grounding systems, which consist of interconnected networks of equipment
grounding conductors, are used to perform the following functions:
1. Limit the hazard to personnel (shock voltage) from the non-current-carrying metal parts of
equipment raceways and other conductor enclosures in case of ground faults, and
2. Safely conduct ground-fault current at sufficient magnitude for fast operation of the circuit
overcurrent protection devices.

Ground
1. "shall be permanent and continuous."
2. "shall have capacity (, ) to conduct safely any fault current likely to
be imposed on it." (Fault currents may be many times normal currents, and such high currents
35

may melt or burn metal at points of poor conductivity. These high temperatures may be a hazard
in themselves, and they may destroy the continuity of the ground-fault path.)
3. "shall have sufficiently low impedance to limit the voltage to ground and to facilitate the
operation of the circuit protective devices in the circuit." (If the ground-fault path has a high
impedance, there will be hazardous voltages whenever fault currents attempt to flow. Also, if the
impedance is high, the fault current will be limited to some value so low that the fuse or circuit
breaker will not operate promptly, if at all.)

GFCI
GROUND FAULT CIrCUIT INTERRUPTERS
How Ground-Fault Circuit-Interrupters Work
A ground-fault circuit-interrupter is not an overcurrent device like a fuse or circuit breaker.
GFCI's are designed to sense an imbalance in current flow over the normal path.
GFCIs are devices that sense when currenteven a small amountpasses to ground through
any path other than the proper conductor. When this condition exists, the GFCI quickly opens
the circuit,
The GFCI contains a special sensor that monitors the strength of the magnetic field around
each wire in the circuit when current is flowing. The magnetic field around a wire is directly
proportional to the amount of current flow, thus the circuitry can accurately translate the
magnetic information into current flow.
A GFCI will not protect the user from line-to-line or line-to-neutral contact hazards.

There are 2 classes of ground-fault circuit interrupters.

Class A ground-fault circuit interrupter trips when the current to ground has a value in the range
of 4 through 6 milliamperes and is used for personnel protection. Suitable for use in branch
circuits.
Class B ground-fault circuit interrupter (commonly used as ground fault protection for
equipment) trips when the current to ground exceeds 20 milliamperes. Not suitable for
employee protection.

HOW A GFCI WORKS

36

37

Ground-fault protection for personnel shall be provided for temporary wiring installations
utilized to supply temporary power to equipment used by personnel during construction,
remodeling, maintenance, repair or demolition activities.
Use a GFCI when operating hand-held portable tools with an extension cord.
Use GFCIs when equipment is used near water or wet areas.
Test GFCIs frequently.

38

TYPE of GFCI
Circuit-Breaker

Type
The circuit-breaker type includes the functions of a standard circuit breaker with the additional
functions of a GFCI. It is installed in a panelboard and can protect an entire branch circuit with
multiple outlets. It is a direct replacement for a standard circuit breaker of the same rating.
Receptacle

Type
The receptacle style GFCI incorporates within one device one or more receptacle outlets,
protected by the GFCI. Such devices are becoming very popular because of their low cost. Most
are of the duplex receptacle configuration and can provide GFCI protection for additional nonGFCI type receptacles connected "down stream" from the GFCI unit.
Permanently

Mounted Type
The permanently mounted types are mounted in an enclosure and designed to be permanently
wired to the supply. Frequently they are used around large commercial swimming pools or
similar wet locations.
Portable

Type
Several styles of portable GFCI's are available. The portable types are designed to be easily
transported from one location to another. They usually contain one or more integral receptacle
outlets protected by the GFCI module. Some models are designed to plug into existing nonGFCI protected outlets, or in some cases, are connected with a cord and plug arrangement.
Cord

Connected Type
39

The power supply cord type GFCI consists of an attachment plug which incorporates the GFCI
module. It provides protection for the cord and any equipment attached to the cord. The
attachment plug has a non-standard appearance and is equipped with test and reset buttons.
1
1
1
1

150

-
-
-
-
-
-
- 1.8
-
-
-
-
-
-
-

40

Evaluating Hazards
There are a number of other conditions that indicate a hazard.
q Tripped circuit breakers and blown fuses show that too much current is flowing in a circuit.
This condition could be due to several factors, such as malfunctioning equipment or a short
between conductors.
q An electrical tool, appliance, wire, or connection that feels warm may indicate too much
current in the circuit or equipment.
q An extension cord that feels warm may indicate too much current for the wire size of the
cord..
q A burning odor may indicate overheated insulation.
q Worn, frayed, or damaged insulation around any wire or other conductor is an electrical
hazard because the conductors could be exposed. Contact with an exposed wire could cause a
shock. Damaged insulation could cause a short, leading to arcing or a fire. Inspect all
insulation for scrapes and breaks.
q A GFCI that trips indicates there is current leakage from the circuit. First, you must decide
the probable cause of the leakage by recognizing any contributing hazards.

Controlling Hazards: Safe Work Environment

41

Make your environment safer by doing the following:

q Treat all conductorseven de-energized onesas if they are energized until they are
locked out and tagged.
q Lock out and tag out circuits and machines.
q Prevent overloaded wiring by using the right size and type of wire.
q Prevent exposure to live electrical parts by isolating them.
q Prevent exposure to live wires and parts by using insulation.
q Prevent shocking currents from electrical systems and tools by grounding them.
q Prevent shocking currents by using GFCIs.
q Prevent too much current in circuits by using overcurrent protection devices.
Lock out and tag out circuits and equipment
Control inadequate wiring hazards

42

Control hazards of fixed wiring

The wiring methods and size of conductors used in a system depend on several factors:
q Intended use of the circuit system
q Building materials
q Size and distribution of electrical load
q Location of equipment (such as underground burial)
q Environmental conditions (such as dampness)
q Presence of corrosives
q Temperature extremes
Control hazards of flexible wiring
Use flexible wiring properly
DO NOT use flexible wiring in situations where frequent inspection would be difficult, where
damage would be likely, or where longterm electrical supply is needed. Flexible cords cannot be
used as a substitute for the fixed wiring of a structure. Flexible cords must not be . . .
q run through holes in walls, ceilings, or floors;
q run through doorways, windows, or similar openings (unless physically protected);
q attached to building surfaces (except with a tension take-up device within 6 feet of the supply
end);
q hidden in walls, ceilings, or floors; or
q hidden in conduit or other raceways.
The length of the extension cord also needs to be considered when selecting the wire size.
Voltage drops over the length of a cord. If a cord is too long, the voltage drop can be enough to
damage equipment. Many electric motors only operate safely in a narrow range of voltages and
will not work properly at voltages different than the voltage listed on the nameplate.
The grounding path for extension cords must be kept intact to keep you safe. A typical extension
cord grounding system has four components:
q a third wire in the cord, called a ground wire;
43

q a three-prong plug with a grounding prong on one end of the cord;

q a three-wire, grounding-type receptacle at the other end of the cord; and
q a properly grounded outlet.

Extension cords (US Army)

Use extension cords only when necessary and only on a temporary basis. The following usage guidelines apply:
a. Use only polarized extension cords with polarized appliances (see fig 21).
b. Make sure cords do not dangle from the counter or table tops where they can be pulled down or tripped over.
c. Replace cracked or worn extension cords with appropriately rated and sized cords that have NRTL listing, safety closures,
and other safety features (see fig 21).
d. Insert plugs fully so that no part of the prongs is exposed when the extension cord is in use.
e. When disconnecting cords, pull the plug rather than the cord itself. Pulling on the cord damages the conductors and the
terminations in the plug.
f. Check the plug and the body of the extension cord while the cord is in use. Replace the cord if it is hot. This is an indication
that the cord is overloaded and should be replaced with a cord having larger conductors.
g. Never use a coiled or looped extension cord. Never cover any part of an extension cord with newspapers, clothing, rugs, or
any objects because it can overheat and cause a fire. Protect the cord when it is being used in an area where it is likely to be
damaged by heavy furniture or foot traffic.
h. Do not use staples or nails to attach extension cords to a baseboard or to another surface. This could damage the cord and
present a shock or fire hazard.
i. Ensure appliances are used with cords that are rated at or above the current and voltage need by the appliance.
j. Use only three-wire extension cords for appliances and power tools with three-prong plugs. Never remove the third (round or
U-shaped) grounding prong, which is a safety feature designed to reduce the risk of shock and electrocution. Never use
adaptors designed to defeat the grounding connection. Flexible cord used with grounding type equipment will contain an
equipment grounding conductor.
k. Check new cords to make sure they are listed by a NRTL.
l. When using outdoor tools and appliances, use only extension cords labeled for outdoor use and protected by a GFCI device.
m. Never repair electrical cords.
n. Stringing of extension cords (daisy chain or splitting) or going from one cord to several (tree branching) is prohibited unless
44

approved by local safety authority.

o. Use power strips only for low amperage equipment such as computer monitor, fan, computer, printer, and so forth and they
will not be daisy chained. Do not plug extension cords into plug strips.
p. Only authorized and qualified electricians may repair cords. Repaired cords are no longer covered by NRTLs (such as UL,
FM, TUV). Therefore, a risk assessment must be considered prior to reusing repaired cords. All repairs will meet the
requirements of NFPA 70 (NEC), Sections 110.14(B) and 400.9.
q. Do not run extension cords through windows, holes in walls, in between doors, or under carpets or rugs.
r. Do not use extension cords with electrical appliances when the manufacturers instructions warn against their use.
s. Do not use extension cords in areas where flammable liquids are stored or used unless they are properly rated in accordance
with NFPA 70 (NEC).
t. Hands must not be wet when plugging and unplugging flexible cords and connected equipment.
u. Handle portable equipment and flexible cords in a manner which will not place the handler and/or user at risk or cause
damage.
v. Do not use extension cords to raise and lower equipment.
w. Cord- and plug-connected tools and equipment have the same issues as extension cords; therefore, these requirements also
apply to their use.
x. Portable cord- and plug-connected equipment and flexible cord sets (extension cords) will be visually inspected for external
defects (such as loose parts, deformed and missing pins, or damage to outer jacket or insulation) before use on any shift, and
for evidence of possible internal damage (such as pinched or crushed outer jacket). Cord- and plugconnected equipment and
flexible cord sets (extension cords) which remain connected once they are put in place and are not exposed to damage need not
be visually inspected until they are relocated. If there is a defect or evidence of damage that might expose an employee to
injury, the defective or damaged item will be removed from service, and no employee may use it until repairs and tests
necessary to render the equipment safe have been made by a qualified electrician.
y. When using extension cords and cord- and plug-connected equipment in wet or damp locations, indoor or outdoor, a GFCI
will be used for protection against shock or electrocution.
z. Job-made extension cords are prohibited. Only purchased, approved extensions cords are acceptable.

Control hazards of exposed live electrical parts: isolate energized components

Isolation of energized electrical parts makes them inaccessible unless tools and special effort
are used.
Isolation can be accomplished by placing the energized parts at least 8 feet high and out of
reach, or by guarding. Guarding is a type of isolation that uses various structureslike cabinets,
boxes, screens, barriers, covers, and partitionsto close-off live electrical parts.
Take the following precautions to prevent injuries from contact with live parts:
q Immediately report exposed live parts to a supervisor or teacher.
q Provide guards or barriers if live parts cannot be enclosed completely.
q Use covers, screens, or partitions for guarding that require tools to remove them.
q Replace covers that have been removed from panels, motors, or fuse boxes.
45

q Even when live parts are elevated to the required height (8 feet), care should be taken when
using objects (like metal rods or pipes) that can contact these parts.
q Close unused conduit openings in boxes so that foreign objects (pencils, metal chips,
conductive debris, etc.) cannot get inside and damage the circuit.
3/15
Control hazards of exposure to live electrical wires: use proper insulation
If conductors are allowed to make contact, a short circuit is created. In a short circuit, current
passes through the shorting material without passing through a load in the circuit, and the wire
becomes overheated.
Insulation keeps wires and other conductors from touching, which prevents electrical short
circuits.
Insulation prevents live wires from touching people and animals, thus protecting them from
electrical shock.
Insulation is used on almost all wires, except some ground wires and some high-voltage
transmission lines.
Special insulation is used on wires and cables that are used in harsh environments. Wires
and cables that are buried in soil must have an outer covering of insulation that is flameretardant and resistant to moisture, fungus, and corrosion.
Conductors and cables must be marked by the manufacturer to show the following:
q maximum voltage capacity,
q AWG size,
q insulation-type letter, and
q the manufacturers name or trademark.
Control hazards of shocking currents
Ground circuits and equipment
When an electrical system is not grounded properly, a hazard exists.
Grounding is connecting an electrical system to the earth with a wire. Excess or stray current
travels through this wire to a grounding device (commonly called a ground) deep in the earth.

Use GFCIs
The NEC requires that GFCIs be used in these high-risk situations:
q Electricity is used near water.
q The user of electrical equipment is grounded (by touching grounded material).
q Circuits are providing power to portable tools or outdoor receptacles.
q Temporary wiring or extension cords are used.
Control overload current hazards
When a current exceeds the current rating of equipment or wiring, a hazard exists.
46

To prevent this from happening, an overcurrent protection device (circuit breaker or fuse) is
used in a circuit. These devices open a circuit automatically if they detect current in excess of
the current rating of equipment or wiring. This excess current can be caused by an overload,
short circuit, or highlevel ground fault.
Overcurrent protection devices are designed to protect equipment and structures from fire.
They do not protect you from electrical shock!
But overcurrent protection devices are not allowed in areas where they could be exposed to
physical damage or in hazardous environments. Overcurrent protection devices can heat up
and occasionally arc or spark, which could cause a fire

Controlling Hazards: Safe Work Practices

Control electrical hazards through safe work practices.
* Plan your work and plan for safety.
Work with a buddyDo not work alone. Both of you should be trained in CPR. Both of you
must know what to do in an emergency.
Know how to shut off and de-energize circuitsYou must find where circuit breakers, fuses,
and switches are located. Then, the circuits that you will be working on (even low-voltage
circuits) MUST BE TURNED OFF! Test the circuits before beginning work to make sure they
are completely de-energized.
Plan to lock out and tag out circuits and equipment
Remove jewelry and metal objectsRemove jewelry and other metal objects or apparel from
your body before beginning work. These things can cause burns if worn near high currents and
can get caught as you work.
Plan to avoid falls
* Avoid wet working conditions and other dangers.
Do not work wetDo not work on circuits or use electrical equipment in damp or wet areas.
Cover wet floors with wooden planking that can be kept dry. Wear insulating rubber boots or
shoes. Your hands must be dry when plugging and unplugging power cords and extension
cords. Do not get cleaning solutions on energized equipment.
Use a GFCIAlways use a GFCI when using portable tools and extension cords.
* Avoid overhead powerlines.
Vehicle operators should also pay attention to overhead wiring.
Dump trucks, front-end loaders, and cranes can lift and make contact with overhead lines. If you
contact equipment that is touching live wires, you will be shocked and may be killed. If you are
in the vehicle, stay inside.
47

* Use proper wiring and connectors.

Avoid overloadsDo not overload circuits.
Test GFCIsTest GFCIs monthly using the test button.
Check switches and insulation
Use three-prong plugsNever use a three-prong grounding plug with the third prong brokenoff. When using tools that require a third-wire ground, use only three-wire extension cords.
Never remove the grounding prong from a plug!
Use extension cords properlyIf an extension cord must be used, choose one with sufficient
ampacity for the tool being used.
Make sure the insulation is intact.
In damp locations, make sure wires and connectors are waterproof.
Do not create a tripping hazard.
Check power cords and extensionsElectrical cords should be inspected regularly using the
following procedure:
1. Remove the cord from the electrical power source before inspecting.
2. Make sure the grounding prong is present in the plug.
3. Make sure the plug and receptacle are not damaged.
4. Wipe the cord clean with a diluted detergent and examine for cuts, breaks, abrasions, and
defects in the insulation.
5. Coil or hang the cord for storage. Do not use any other methods. Coiling or hanging is the
best way to avoid tight kinks, cuts, and scrapes that can damage insulation or conductors.
Do not pull on cords
Use correct connectorsUse electrical plugs and receptacles that are right for your current
and voltage needs. Connectors are designed for specific currents and voltages so that only
matching plugs and receptacles will fit together. This safeguard prevents a piece of equipment,
a cord, and a power source with different voltage and current requirements from being plugged
together.
Use locking connectorsUse locking-type attachment plugs, receptacles, and other
connectors to prevent them from becoming unplugged.
* Use and maintain tools properly.
Inspect tools before using them
Use the right tool correctly-- When working on a circuit, use approved tools with insulated
handles.
Protect your toolsKeep tools and cords away from heat, oil, and sharp objects.
Use double-insulated tools
Use multiple safe practicesRemember: A circuit may not be wired correctly. Wires may
contact other hot circuits. Someone else may do something to place you in danger. Take all
possible precautions.
48

* Wear correct PPE. personal protective equipment.

Wear proper clothingWear clothing that is neither floppy nor too tight. Loose clothing will
catch on corners and rough surfaces.
Contain and secure loose hair
Wear proper foot protectionWear shoes or boots that have been approved for electrical
work.
Wear a hard hat
Wear hearing protectorsWear hearing protectors in noisy areas to prevent hearing loss.
Follow directionsFollow the manufacturers directions for cleaning and maintaining PPE.
Make an effortSearch out and use any and all equipment that will protect you from shocks
and other injuries.

PPE for the Head

Employees must wear nonconductive head protection wherever there is a danger of head injury
from electric shock or burns due to contact with exposed energized parts.
Class A Helmets reduce the force of impact of falling objects and also reduce the danger of
contact with exposed low-voltage electrical conductors. Helmet shells are proof-tested at 2,200
volts of electrical charge.
Class B Helmets reduce the force of impact of falling objects and also reduce the danger of
49

contact with exposed high-voltage electrical conductors. Helmet shells are proof-tested at
20,000 volts.
Class C Helmets reduce the force of impact of falling objects, but offer no electrical protection.
Under Z89.1-1997, the following three classes are recognized:
Class G (General) Helmets -This is equivalent to the old Class A. Class G helmets are proof
tested at 2,200 volts.
Class E (Electrical) Helmets - This is equivalent to the old Class B. Class E helmets are
proof tested at 20,000 volts.
Class C (Conductive) Helmets - This class provides no electrical insulation; the class
designation did not change from the old standard.

PPE for the Eyes & Face

Employees shall wear protective equipment for the eyes or face wherever there
is danger of injury to the eyes or face from electric arcs or flashes or from flying
objects resulting from electrical explosion.
When working on energized parts, the possibility of arc flash exists and the employee must be
protected. Dangers could include heat, flying hazards and molten metal, therefore the PPE must
be durable, non-conductive, heat resistant and provide deflection qualities.

PPE for the Body (FR Clothing)

As we learned earlier, employees working in areas where there are potential electrical hazards
must be provided with, and must use, electrical protective equipment that is appropriate for the
specific parts of the body to be protected and for the work to be performed
This would include flame resistant (FR) clothing.
During an arc flash event the temperatures can reach an excess of 35,000 degrees. At such
high
temperatures, the clothing will ignite and continue to burn on the body well after the arc flash
has dissipated.
FR clothing can take the form of pants, shirts, coveralls, jackets, parkas and full flash suits.
Obviously, fit, comfort and flexibility are important but the greatest indicator of adequate FR
clothing for a given task is based on the arc thermal performance value (ATPV).
The ATPV is incident energy on a material that results in sufficient heat transfer through the
fabric or material to cause the onset of a second degree burn.
Manufacturers of FR clothing will provide an ATPV rating on their clothing.

PPE for the Hands (Gloves)

Since employees working on energized electrical parts are using their hands, obviously that part
50

of the body (hands and arms) are most susceptible to electric shock and must be protected.
Insulating gloves provide an excellent means of protecting the workers from
accidental electrical contact.
To be effective the insulating gloves must have high insulative qualities, while also being
comfortable, durable and flexible.

Leather Glove Protectors

Leather protector gloves should always be worn over Rubber Insulating Gloves to provide
the needed mechanical protection against cuts, abrasion and punctures.
(: ; : )
The following items can cause damage:
Temperature extremes
UV damage (from sunlight)
Excessive humidity
Ozone (UV rays, arcing)
51

 Foreign materials (oils, petroleum products, hand lotion, baby powder)

Insulated Tools
When employees are working near exposed energized parts, they must use tools that are
insulated to at least the level of the voltage levels they are exposed to. These tools must be
inspected prior to each use for damage and if damage is identified they must be removed from
service.

Training Required for PPE

The employer shall provide training to each employee who is required to use PPE. The
employee must be trained to know at least the following:
When PPE is necessary;
What PPE is necessary;
How to properly don, doff, adjust, and wear PPE;
The limitations of the PPE; and,
The proper care, maintenance, useful life and disposal of the PPE.

52

Lockout Tagout

Number of Workers Killed

During the period 19821997, NIOSH investigated 1,281 fatal incidents as part of their FACE
Pro gram. Of these, 152 involved installation, maintenance, service, or repair tasks on or near
machines, equipment, processes, or systems.

Contributing Factors
Review of these 152 incidents suggests that three related factors contributed to these fatalities:
Failure to completely de-energize, isolate, block, and/or dissipate the energy source (82% of
the incidents, or 124 of 152)
Failure to lock out and tagout energy control de vices and isolation points after deenergization (11% of the incidents, or 17 of 152)
Failure to verify that the energy source was de-energized be fore be ginning work (7% of the
incidents, or 11 of 152)
In a study con ducted by the United Auto Workers (UAW), 20% of the fatalities (83 of 414) that
occurred among their members between 1973 and 1995 were attributed to inadequate
hazardous energy control procedures.

ENERGY FORMS

Kinetic (mechanical) energy in the moving parts of mechanical systems

Potential energy stored in pres sure vessels, gas tanks, hydraulic or pneumatic systems, and
springs (potential energy can be re leased as hazardous kinetic energy)
Electrical energy from generated electrical power, static sources, or electrical storage de vices
(such as batteries or capacitors)
Thermal energy (high or low temperature) resulting from mechanical work, radiation, chemical
re action, or electrical resistance
Take the fol lowing steps to pro tect your self if you
install or ser vice equip ment and sys tems:
53

Follow OSHA reg ulations.

Identify and la bel all sources of haz ardous energy.
Before be ginning work, do the fol low ing:
1. De-energize all sources of hazardous energy:

Disconnect or shut down en gines or mo tors.

De-energize elec trical cir cuits.
Block fluid (gas or liq uid) flow in hydraulic or pneu matic sys tems.
Block ma chine parts against mo tion.
2. Block or dissipate stored energy:

Discharge ca pacitors.
Re lease or block springs that are under com pression or ten sion.
Vent flu ids from pres sure ves sels,tanks, or ac cu mu la tors but never vent toxic, flam ma ble, or ex plosive
sub stances di rectly into the atmosphere.
3. Lockout and tagout all forms of hazardous energy including electrical breaker panels, control valves, etc.
4. Make sure that only one key exists for each of your assigned locks and that only you hold that key.
5. Verify by test and/or observation that all energy sources are de-energized.
6. Inspect repair work before removing your lock and activating the equipment.
7. Make sure that only you remove your assigned lock.
8. Make sure that you and your coworkers are clear of danger points before re-energizing the system.

Develop and implement a hazardous energy control program.

Identify and label all hazardous energy sources.
Deenergize, isolate, block, and/or dissipate all forms of hazardous energy before work begins.
3/24
Establish lock out/tagout programs that
require workers to secure energy control devices with their own individually assigned locks
and keys only one key for each lock the worker controls;
54

Use of master keys should be reserved for unusual circumstances when the worker is absent from the work
place. However, if master keys are necessary, keep them under supervisory control. List the proper procedures for
using them in the written program for controlling hazardous energy.

require that each lock used to secure an energy control device be clearly labeled with
durable tags to identify the worker as signed to the lock;
make sure that the worker who installs a lock is the one who removes it after all work has
been completed; and
if work is not completed when the shift changes, workers arriving on shift should apply their
locks before departing workers remove their locks.
Verify by test and/or observation that all energy sources are de-energized before work begins.
Inspect repair work before reactivating the equipment.
Make sure that all workers are clear of danger points before re-energizing the system.
Train ALL workers in the basic concepts of hazardous energy control.
Include a hazardous energy control program with any confined-space entry program.
Encourage manufacturers to design machines and systems that make it easy to control
hazardous energy.
Employers should develop and implement a written hazardous energy control program that,
at a minimum,
describes safe work procedures,
establishes lock out/tagout procedures,
trains all employees in the program, and
enforces the use of the procedures (including disciplinary action for failure to follow them).

Program outline the following safe work practices:

Identify tasks that may expose workers to hazardous energy.
Identify and de-energize all hazardous energy sources, including those in adjacent equipment.
Lockout and tagout all energy-isolating devices to prevent inadvertent or unauthorized
reactivation or startup.
Isolate, block, and/or dissipate all hazardous sources of stored or residual energy, including
those in adjacent equipment.
Before beginning to work, verify energy isolation and de-energization, including that in
adjacent equipment or energy sources.
After work is complete, verify that all personnel are clear of danger points before re-energizing
the system.
De-energize, isolate, block, and/or dissipate all forms of hazardous energy.
Energy is considered to be isolated or blocked when its flow or use can not occur
55

[NIOSH 1983].
To isolate or block energy, take the following steps:
Disconnect or shut down engines or motors that power mechanical systems.
De-energize electrical circuits by disconnecting the power source from the circuit.
Block fluid (gas, liquid, or vapor) flow in hydraulic, pneumatic, or steam systems by using
control valves or by capping or blanking the lines.
Block machine parts against motion that might result from gravity (falling).
Some forms of energy must also be dissipated after a system has been de-energized.
System components such as electrical capacitors, hydraulic accumulators, or air reservoirs may
retain sufficient energy
Energy can be dissipated by taking the following steps:
Vent fluids from pressure vessels, tanks, or accumulators until internal pressure is at
atmospheric levels. However, do not vent vessels or tanks containing toxic, flammable, or
explosive substances directly to the atmosphere.
Discharge capacitors by grounding.

Release or block springs that are under tension or compression.

Dissipate inertial forces by allowing the system to come to a complete stop after the machine
or equipment has been shut down and isolated from its energy sources.
Lockout/tagout programs should be based on the principle of only one key for each lock the
worker controls.** This means the following:
Workers are assigned individual locks operable by only one key for use in securing energy
control devices (breaker panels, control valves, manual over ride switches, etc.).
Each worker maintains custody of the key for each of his or her assigned locks.
Each lock is labeled with a durable tag or other means that identifies its owner.
When work is performed by more than one worker, each worker applies his or her own lock
to the energy-securing device. Scissors type hasps made of hardened steel are avail able to
facilitate the use of more than one lock to secure an energy control de vice.
All de-energized circuits and systems are clearly labeled with durable tags.
The worker who installs a lock is the one who removes it after all work has been completed
[NIOSH 1988].
If work is not complete when the shift changes, workers arriving on shift apply their locks be
fore de parting workers re move their locks.
REENERGIZING EQUIPMENT
1 TESTS AND VISUAL INSPECTIONS
2 WARNING EMPLOYEES
Employees exposed to the hazards associated with reenergizing the circuit or equipment shall
be warned to stay clear of circuits and equipment.
3 REMOVING LOCK AND TAG
56

By the authorized employee who applied the lockout or tagout device

4 SAFE ENERGIZED WORK

57

Flexible Cord.
Flexible cords and cables shall be approved and suitable for conditions of use and location. The
standard lists specific situations in which flexible cords may be used. Flexible cords and cables
shall be used only for:
a. Pendants (a lampholder or cord-connector body suspended by a length of cord properly
secured and terminated directly above the suspended device);
b. Connection of portable lamps or appliances;
c. Elevator cables;
d. Wiring of cranes and hoists (where flexibility is necessary);
e. Connection of stationary equipment to facilitate their frequent interchange (equipment which
is not normally moved from place to place, but might be on occasion);
f. Prevention of the transmission of noise or vibration. (In some cases vibration might fatigue
fixed wiring and result in a situation more hazardous than flexible cord.)
g. Appliances where the fastening means and mechanical connections are designed to permit
removal for maintenance and repair (e.g. water coolers, exhaust fans);
h. Data processing cables approved as a part of the data processing system.
Note that all of the above situations involve conditions where flexibility is necessary. Unless
specifically permitted by one of these situations, flexible cords and cables may not be used:
a. As a substitute for the fixed wiring of the structure;
b. Where run through holes in walls, ceilings, or floors;
c. Where run through doorways, windows, or similar openings;
d. Where attached to building surfaces; or
e. Where concealed behind building walls, ceilings, or floors.
There is usually not much question about use of the short length of cord which is furnished as
part of an approved appliance or tool;

58

STATIC
STATIC ELECTRICITY
Static electricity shall be controlled or eliminated in areas where materials are processed or handled that are
ignitable by static spark discharge. This category includes spark-sensitive explosives, propellants, and pyrotechnics,
as well as solvent vapors and flammable gases.
CONDUCTIVE FLOORS, SHOES, MATS, AND WRISTBANDS
Conductive floors and shoes should be used for grounding personnel conducting operations involving explosives
HUMIDIFICATION
Humidification to prevent accumulations and subsequent discharges of static electricity is usually effective if the
relative humidity is above 60%.
GROUND-FAULT CIRCUIT INTERRUPTER
Ground-fault circuit interrupter (GFCI) protection shall be provided in static-grounded areas where personnel are
using hand-held, portable, ac-powered electrical equipment operating at 120 V.

59

CRANE
Each year an average of 15 electrocutions were caused by contact between cranes or similar
boomed vehicles and energized, overhead power lines.
Nearly half of the incidents occurred in the construction industry.
A study conducted by the Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) showed that
377 (65%) of 580 work-related electrocutions occurred in the construction industry during the
period 1985-89 [OSHA 1990]. Nearly 30% (113) of these electrocutions involved cranes.

60

* Employers shall ensure that overhead power lines are de-energized or separated from the
crane and its load by implementing one or more of the following procedures:
De-energize and visibly ground electrical distribution and transmission lines
Use independent insulated barriers to prevent physical contact with the power lines
Maintain minimum clearance between energized power lines and the crane and its load
*Where it is difficult for the crane operator to maintain clearance by visual means, a person shall
be designated to observe the clearance between the energized power lines and the crane and
its load.
*The use of cage-type boom guards, insulating links, or proximity warning devices shall not alter
the need to follow required precautions.
These devices are not a substitute for de-energizing and grounding lines or maintaining safe
line clearances.
Considering any overhead wire to be energized unless and until the person owning the line or
the utility authorities verify that the line is not energized
Operate the crane at a slower-than-normal rate in the vicinity of power lines.
Exercise caution near long spans of overhead power lines, since wind can cause the power
lines to sway laterally and reduce the clearance between the crane and the power line.
Mark safe routes where cranes must repeatedly travel beneath power lines.
Exercise caution when travelling over uneven ground that could cause the crane to weave or
bob into power lines.
Keep all personnel well away from the crane whenever it is close to power lines. Prohibit
persons from touching the crane or its load until a signal person indicates that it is safe to do so.
IF CONTACT HAPPENS
The crane operator should remain inside the cab.
All other personnel should keep away from the crane, ropes, and load, since the ground around
the machine might be energized.
The crane operator should try to remove the crane from contact by moving it in the reverse
direction from that which caused the contact.
If the crane cannot be moved away from contact, the operator should remain inside cab until the
lines have been de-energized.
61

Explosion-Proof
When flammable gases or combustible dust are mixed in the proper proportion with air, a source of
energy is all that is needed to touch off an explosion.
One prime source of energy is electricity.

COMBUSTION PRINCIPLES
1. A flammable liquid, vapor, or combustible dust is present in sufficient quantity.
2. A flammable liquid, vapor, or combustible dust mixes with air or oxygen in the proportion required to
produce an explosive mixture.
3. A source of energy is applied to the explosive mixture.

INTRINSICALLY SAFE EQUIPMENT

The definition of intrinsically safe equipment and wiring is:
Equipment and wiring that are incapable of releasing sufficient electrical energy under normal or
abnormal conditions to cause ignition of a specific hazardous atmospheric mixture in its most easily
ignited concentration.

ENCLOSURES
In Class I Division 1 and 2 locations, conventional relays, contactors, and switches that have arcing
contacts shall be enclosed in explosion-proof housings,

62

1
1
1

(Fuse)


(N F B)


(Th-Ry)

63

3
CNS-4782
4

64

Working Distance

65