I N C O R P O R AT I N G

F I S H FA R M I N G T E C H N O L O G Y

July | August 2014

EXPERT TOPIC - SALMON

International Aquafeed is published six times a year by Perendale Publishers Ltd of the United Kingdom.
All data is published in good faith, based on information received, and while every care is taken to prevent inaccuracies,
the publishers accept no liability for any errors or omissions or for the consequences of action taken on the basis of
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or by any means without prior permission of the copyright owner. Printed by Perendale Publishers Ltd. ISSN: 1464-0058

The International magazine for the aquaculture feed industry

EXPERT TPIC

EXPERT TOPIC

SALMON
Welcome to Expert Topic. Each issue will take an in-depth look
at a particular species and how its feed is managed.

32 | INTERNATIONAL AQUAFEED | July-August 2014

EXPERT TPIC

2
5
1

USA

Farmed on land
salmon

and-based aquaculture is a growing alternative that eliminates the risk of spreading waste, diseases or parasites in
open waters. Closed containment systems do, however,
share a key area of concern with their water-based counterparts,
and thats how many fish it takes to grow the larger ones that
humans eat. System owners also have to filter out fish waste or
develop markets for products like fish fertilizer.
Building an intricate indoor system of tanks and tubes costs
far more than growing Atlantic salmon in nets or cages in open
waters. The technology, which helps conserve water resources on
land, has been evolving for more than a decade, but few businesses
have been able to make it financially viable says the report.
As a research facility, the Freshwater Institute isnt aiming to sell
salmon year-round. Its fish wont hit the market again for another
eight to 10 months, and previous salmon harvests have been
donated to places such as the anti-hunger nonprofit D.C. Central
Kitchen. In the meantime, institute director Joseph Hankins has
opened the facilitys doors to aquaculture businesses and investors looking to adapt and scale up the recirculating aquaculture, or
closed containment, technology.
The Freshwater Institutes first batch of land reared Salmon
was delivered to markets in Maryland and Virginia in late March
and will be available through mid-May at area Wegmans seafood
counters and on more than a dozen restaurant menus. That means
Washington consumers can get the first taste of the only Atlantic
salmon in the United States grown with this technology.
July-August 2014 | INTERNATIONAL AQUAFEED | 33

2
EXPERT TPIC

A history of
aquaculture
and salmon
in Chile

n the early 1990s, according to FAO,

the total harvest from aqua cultivation
centres in Chile did not exceed 80,000
tonnes.

However, by 2004 they had reached

688,000 tonnes.
A massive increase in production which
has, despite some difficulties continued.
Likewise in exported volumes, from 30,000
to 430,000 tonnes in that same period. In
dollar terms this has meant from US$100
million in 1990 to US$1600 million in 2004
and as at 2013 this figure has moved to close
toUS$4000 million.
Salmonid species have been dominant,
both in harvest volume and export values.
Other important species include bivalve
molluscs (oysters, scallops and mussels) and
cultivation of the Gracilaria algae. Turbot
cultivation has registered a gradual growth
from one tonne (1991) to 249 tonnes (2004).
Many exotic aquatic species were introduced into Chile back as far as the 1850s but
it was not until the early 1900s -1920s that
Salmon were imported.
According to report by E.A. Tulian, the
Argentinian Government employed the services
of John W. Titcomb (Bureau of Fisheries in USA)
for a number of months, especially to bring a
number of salmon/trout species from USA.
Titcomb also chose the site for the first
hatchery at Lago Nahuel Huapi, situated in the
Andes Mountains, within three to five kms of
the Chilean boundary.
According to the report as of March I,
1905, the fish in the ponds at the Nahuel
Huapi hatchery were counted and there were
found to be 8500 brook trout, 3800 lake
trout, and 1800 landlocked salmon.
They measured from six to eight inches in
length. A large number were accidentally lost
during the latter part of the year, but in May,
1906 they had a considerable number of each

of these species in the ponds. The death rate

in all three from the time hatched, in March,
1904, until May, 1906 was as low as would
have been found at anyone of the more successful trout hatcheries in the United States.
By 1908 a lot of some 25,000 brook trout
eggs were shipped from the Nahuel Huapi
hatchery to Santiago, Chile on the railroad
that crosses from Buenos Aires to Valparaiso,
not far from the Argentinian boundary, at the
request of the Chilean government, to be
hatched in a small hatchery belonging to that
government located in the Andes Mountains.
Also in 1908 there was an effort to bring
in other species from UK and on that trip
they were given 20,000 Atlantic salmon eggs
that were secured from the Earl of Denbigh's
fisheries in North Wales.
The story is a little patchy but it seems
due to poor packing and timing there was
some urgency in getting them to a hatchery
and some of those eggs ended up in Chile
in possibly the highest hatchery in the world.
The hatchery is still operating today, albeit in
a minor capacity.
Most of the credit is given to The Fisheries
Development Institute (IFOP) who were
instrumental in importing the first Coho
salmon which are recorded as arriving into
Chile in 1921 and over the next 50-plus years
the Institute looked to cutting-edge technologies from abroad to cultivate various aquatic
species and invited foreign experts to share
their specialist knowledge here.

Foundation Chile

In 1976 Foundation Chile was formed, an

institution dedicated to scientific research and
technology transfer.
It was formed as a public-private partnership by 50 percent Government of Chile
and 50 percent by ITT. Its mission was to
introduce high impact innovations to increase
Chile's competitiveness in world markets.
Aquaculture systems were highlighted as
an important prospect.
In 1978 the governments contribution
grew with the establishment of the Fisheries
Department and the National Fisheries
Service, Sernapesca.
Between 1978 and 1980 a series of private
initiatives, including those by Fundacion Chile,
lead to the creation of various companies
dedicated exclusively to salmon farming.
In the early 1980s a small group of visionary entrepreneurs invested in an uncertain
and unknown business - one considered a
high-risk venture at the time and began
salmon farming in Chile.
In 1982 the first company created by
Fundacion Chile was formed: Salmon Antarctic
Ltda, seven years later this company was sold
to a Japanese company for US$22 million.
The second Fundacion Chile company, Sea
Harvest Tongoy, which manages the develop34 | INTERNATIONAL AQUAFEED | July-August 2014

ment of the culture of the Japanese oyster

was then formed and in 1992 the organisation was credited with developing the Turbot
aquaculture industry in Chile.
By 1985 36 salmon farms were operating
in Chile and total production exceeded 1200
tonnes. A year later, the salmon industry
boom began, with production topping 2100
tonnes per annum and feasibility studies
churning out impressive return on investment
figures.

Salmon in Chile today

That same year, as evidence of definite consolidation within the salmon farming
industry, the Salmon and Trout Producers
Association AG was formed, known as
Salmon Chile today.
From that time on, the associations main
objective has been to secure a seal of quality
for the production and promotion of Chilean
salmon across global markets. It established
minimum requirements at the processing
plants of its member companies in order to
obtain the best quality product.
In 1990 the industry moved into species
reproduction and the first Chilean Coho
salmon roe were cultivated.
This step represented the first scientific
advancement in Chile and heralded the real
takeoff point for rapid growth of the industry.
At the same time, major improvements in
salmon feeding were made and the subsequent increase in volume necessitated a more
professional industry.
Dry foods with a higher lipid content and
a more efficient lipid-protein balance were
introduced.
In 2003 the industry developed a Code
of Good Practice, the first of its kind in Chile.

An industry crisis followed

With good comes the bad and in July

2007 a farm site in Chiloe officially reported
the first case of Infectious Salmon Anemia
(ISA). The disease is caused by a virus of
the Orthomyxoviridae family, of the genus
Isavirus, which affects Atlantic salmon grown
in sea water.
The disease created an industry crisis
that affected its production processes and
regional development in infected areas. While

EXPERT TPIC
it doesnt affect humans, it does cause fish
mortality. It was also diagnosed in the 1980s
in Norway and later in Canada, Scotland, the
Faroe Islands and the United States.
The crisis required the rapid setting up of
a public-private partnership to tackle the issue.
Measures taken included a governmental
body issuing initial resolutions as contingency
measures and subsequent resolutions for
monitoring and control. During this time, the
association worked with member companies

These were underpinned by thematic

analyses focused on concessions, production
infrastructure and improved health conditions
including various action plans aimed at the
detection of diseases, vaccinations, the use of
drugs and restrictions on roe imports.
The association coordinated joint projects
with companies in the industry to establish
44 health measures to promote self-regulation and a public-private partnership. These
included modifying existing legislation, in particular to the General Law on Fisheries and
Aquaculture and adopting new regulations.
Over time, and through the effort and dedication of all involved, recovery is now evident
within the industry.

Second largest producer

to promote self-regulation and fostered relationships with government bodies.

As with any crisis, the process generated
opportunities that drove the development
of a new production model for the industry.
This included a series of measures concerning
healthy intervals, coordinated treatment and
maximum densities.

The salmon aquaculture industry is currently the second largest export sector in
Chile and after Norway, Chile is the second
largest producer of salmon globally. It has generated more than 60,000 direct and indirect
jobs and operates in over 70 markets.
Markets have been forged in developing
areas like Brazil and other Latin American
countries and there is also a push into China
and Russia. Demand as of now is strong so
there is still some depth to the marketability
of the product.
According to FAO on human resources,
there is an adequate availability of research-

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July-August 2014 | INTERNATIONAL AQUAFEED | 35

ers, professionals, technicians and specialised

labour force to respond to the increasing
demand by industry and public and private
research programs.
Universities and higher education institutions are actively training human resources
oriented towards the satisfaction of the
industrys requirements in production (marine
biologists, veterinarians, fishing engineers,
aquaculture engineers), processing (industrial
and food engineers) and marketing (commercial engineers).
There is also a growing specialisation in
service areas such as environmental impact
assessment, disease diagnosis and treatment,
biotechnology, market studies and foreign
trade, among others. The Government has
a ProChile group which is very helpful in the
trade arena.

Annual plan of action

Perhaps the most important milestone

of the last few years has been the official
publishing of the National Aquacultural Policy,
which established objectives, principles and
strategies associated to the activitys sustainable development.
This important instrument of public-private
participation also established annual plans of
action (for the years 2004 and 2005), which
have been achieved satisfactorily based on the
FAO report.

3
EXPERT TPIC

Krill
improves
fillet
yield and
quality

A NEW COMMERCIAL-SCALE
PROJECT REVEALED THAT KRILL
FEED IMPROVES SALMON FILLET
QUALITY AND QUANTITY

he results from the commercialscale project are unusually clear.

Fish that received feed with krill
offered higher fillet yields than the
control group - says Sigve Nordrum, Aker
BioMarine.
The fillets' firmness was greater and the
incidence of gaping lower in fish fed with krill.
The quality improvements could be of major
importance to the processing industry and to
consumers' experience, he says.

The trial

BioMar and Aker BioMarine documented

the value of the fish feed containing krill,
developed by BioMar and called Quick.
QuickTM increases food uptake and
growth in farmed salmon. In this major
commercial-scale project, salmon were fed
BioMar QuickTM. Researchers compared this
group of salmon with the control group of
fish that received BioMar feed without krill.
The trial examined 260-farmed salmon,
bred on five sites in Norway.
The fish were analysed by one of Europe's
largest institutes for applied research within
the fields of fisheries, aquaculture and food,
Nofirma. Research examined 14 groups of
fish (between May 2013 and January 2014)
from the standpoints of yield and quality,
including body shape and organ condition, for
example heart and liver index and fat content.
Fillet quality is determined, in part, by
its colour, firmness and gaping. Another
determinant is fat deposition around the
organs. Fat deposition can affect metabolism
and effective metabolism is important for the
filet quality.
Of course, good taste, smell and storage
capabilities are equally vital.

The results

Krill-fed salmon weighed significantly

more than the control group (4.6kg and
4.3kg, respectively).
Likewise, the filet yield for the krill feed
group was significantly higher (63.7% vs
60.8%). This 2.7 peercent increase correlated with the significantly thicker fillet 4-5
percent thicker and firmer than the control
group.
In summary, the feed with krill stimulated
the development of more and firmer muscle.
This in turn led to less gaping (7 percent vs
20 percent) and higher yield. There were no
negative effects of the fish examined.
Norfimas study supports earlier experiments on krill-fed Atlantic salmon.
Independent studies at Norways
Aquaculture Protein Center showed that
dietary krill meal, compared with fish meal,
stimulated feed intake and growth in salmon
(see http://www.nofima.no/filearchive/hlbrosjyre-2012-web_2.pdf).
36 | INTERNATIONAL AQUAFEED | July-August 2014

And a commercial-scale feed trial in Chile

showed that young Atlantic salmon eat more
and grow faster and bigger with krill
added to their diet.
Farmed salmon use the nutrients in the
feed to store fat and build muscle. More
muscle improves the fillet quantity and
quality.
Researchers believe the increased feed
intake may be due, in part, to the improved
palatability of krill-based diets.

Long-term collaboration for

sustainability

Aker BioMarine and BioMar are also

collaborating with other companies and
international environmental organisations to (1) assure krills essential role in
marine ecosystems and (2) minimise the
risk of krill fishery impacting ecosystem
health.
Krill are small crustaceans, like shrimp,
that maintain the vital dynamics in the food
chain between microscopic plants and larger
animals, such as seals and whales.
Krill are the most abundant animal species
on the planet.
Though hard to measure, because of their
large home range, the biomass is estimated
between 120-600 million tonnes. Because
of their position in the food chain, changes
that affect krill have repercussions that flow
through the rest of the ecosystem.
Research is underway to examine the
human and environmental changes on krill,
that is warmer and more acidic oceans.
In June 2014 the British Antarctic Survey
and WWF co-hosted a workshop on krill
conservation in the Scotia Sea and Antarctic
Peninsula region. The workshop involved
participants from the scientific, conservation
and fishery sectors.
It concluded that the current catch levels
are unlikely problematic, but uncertainties
about fishery impact increase with catch
levels.
Thus, in the management of krill fishery,
a research and development strategy is critical. Broadening dialogues and availability of
information is equally critical.
Aker BioMarine is taking pro-active
initiatives to do just that as it continues to
pioneer further development, Nordrum
said.
Salmon fillet gap

EXPERT TPIC

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4HEAT-STABLE PROTEASE
EXPERT TPIC

IN SALMONID FEEDS

Experiences from Canada and Chile

by M.A. Kabir Chowdhury, PhD, Jefo Nutrition Inc., Saint-Hyacinthe, Quebec, Canada
Dr Pedro Cardenas Villarroal, Alinat Chile, Chile

olatility of supply, price and quality

of commonly-used ingredients and
lack of proper characterisation of
their components are forcing aquaculture feed manufacturers to use high safety
margins for nutrients while formulating a feed.

derived from pancreas or secretory cells of

the intestinal epithelium in slightly alkaline
environment achieved by pancreatic secretion
of bicarbonates and bile acids from the gall
bladder (see Figure 1).
The absorption of nutrients occurs in the
intestine by optimising the intestinal surface
area within the constraints of the coelomic
cavity. Presence of exogenous protease can
influence the rate of reactions in the intestine
enhancing nutrient utilisation efficiency of the
animals.
Effects of protease in aquaculture feed can
be manifested in more digestible proteins in
feed, improved digestibility of nutrients in an
ingredient, better mucosal health, growth and
feed conversion of the farmed aquatic animals.
Trials with shrimp, crab, salmonids, carps,
tilapia, pangasius, seabream and other species have shown significant improvement in
growth, feed conversion or nutrient utilisation
efficiency. In studies with salmonids species, addition of protease in feed not only
improved the protein quality of the feed but
also stimulated gut health, growth, and feed
conversion helping the bottom line of feed
manufacturers and producers.

Improving protein quality

In several in-vitro and in-vivo studies with

the Jefo protease, a marked improvement in
protein digestibility of ingredient and feed was
observed.
In a study conducted at the University
of Saskatchewan of Canada, addition of the
protease to a co-extruded canola-pea based
Techniques such as cooking, conditioning,
diets resulted in significant improvement in
soaking and finally, using enzymes for various
apparent digestibility of crude protein, energy,
components are increasingly used to improve
lipid and dry matter (P<0.05) in rainbow trout
the quality of ingredients in feed or to reduce
(see Figure 2A) (Drew et al. 2005).
the variations in their quality.
The improvement was less pronounced in
Besides phytase (for phosphorus) and
the co-extruded flax-pea based diets.
some carbohydrases, dietary proteolytic
Availability of more digestible nutrients
enzymes are gaining attention in recent years,
also resulted in improved feed conversion and
mainly because of the need for better utilisagrowth of rainbow trout fed diets containing
tion of proteins from existing sources.
with the protease (see Figures 2B and 2C).
Protease breaks down large, indigestible
In another in-vivo study conducted at
and insoluble proteins to highly digestible
the Universidad Catolica de Temuco with
smaller peptides and some free amino acids.
three species of salmonids (coho salmon,
These small chain peptides may also contain
Atlantic salmon and rainbow trout), both
some bioactive properties influencing ingesprotein and carbohydrate digestibility were
tion, digestion, absorption, and assimilation of
improved significantly in fish fed the treatnutrients in animals.
ment diets containing the protease than
These intrinsic properties of protease
those fed the control diets (Chowdhury
enzymes are encouraging for nutritionists
2012).
and feed formulators as they allow them
In an in-vitro digestibility
to include more low-digestible
study
at the Universidad de
protein ingredients without
Figure 1: Addition of an exogenous protease in feed during
Concepcion
of Chile, protein
compromising the quality of
manufacturing and how it affects the protein quality of feed and
fate of nutrients in the intestine of animals
digestibility of commercially
the feed.
extruded (extrusion temp.
120oC) salmonids feeds with
The influence of
and without protease was
exogenous protease
determined using the HClIn the intestine of animals,
Pepsin method. The method
polypeptides are digested to
involved grinding of the feed
smaller peptides and amino
samples followed by HClacids by several enzymes
38 | INTERNATIONAL AQUAFEED | July-August 2014

EXPERT TPIC
Pepsin digestion for 16 hours and
then, separation of solids.
The protein digestibility of a
feed was then determined using
the following equation:
Protein Digestibility (%) = 100
x (Initial CP Final CP)/Initial CP
The protein digestibility was
analysed in three different hydrolysing conditions (temperature
and pH). In all three cases, sig-

ing the protease compared to

those fed the control diets (see
Table 1).
Similarly, height (m), density
and structure of intestinal villi also
showed a marked improvement
in fish fed the protease diets (see
Figure 4).
Increased availability of nutrients coupled with increased
intestinal nutrient absorption

Figure 2: (A) ADC of crude protein in co-extruded flax:pea and

canola:pea diets with and without Jefo protease in rainbow
trout; (B) Feed conversion and (C) specific growth rate of
rainbow trout fed co-extruded flax:pea and canola:pea with and
without Jefo protease

nificantly more digestible protein

was reported in feeds containing
the protease than in those without (see Figure 3).

Growth performance
and intestinal health

Several growth and digestibility trials conducted in Canada

and Chile showed significant
improvement in performance of
the test animals fed diets contain-

capacity resulted in the better

growth and feed conversion in
treatment animals.

Challenges for using

a protease enzyme

Issues with heat-stability

have been a major hindrance
for the use of enzymes in aquafeed.
Very few enzymes in the market today are truly heat-stable.
July-August 2014 | INTERNATIONAL AQUAFEED | 39

EXPERT TPIC
In addition, it is difficult for feed manufacturers to compare efficacy of various
enzymes to improve the protein quality of
their feed using traditional or prescribed
enzymatic activity assays. Traditional or
prescribed enzymatic assays rely on specific substrate, which may not be suitable
for a feed.
Feedmills must be able to rapidly and
accurately test complete feeds for the
presence of a protease as part of their QA/
QC process. The in-vitro protein digestibility assays provide a solution to this
problem enabling feed manufacturers to
test the effects of an enzyme not by measuring activity but in real term, the quality
of proteins.
This innovative solution should be standardised and utilised as a tool to compare
effects of different enzymes on a particular
feed.
Preference to multi-enzyme containing
protease-complex has also been a rising
phenomenon.
All enzymes are proteins and adding a protease in the cocktail creates a
situation where other enzymes become
the nearest substrate for the protease.
While it is acceptable to use all the
carbohydrases together, using protease
in a cocktail usually reduces the efficacy
of other enzymes.
Several published and unpublished trials
with carps, shrimp and salmonids showed
lower beneficial effects of multi-enzyme compared to a single protease or a proteasecomplex.
If intended, it is recommended to use
protease either separately or in a protected
form in a multi-enzyme cocktail to prevent
hydrolysis of other enzymes.

Figure 3: Protein
digestibility (%) of
extruded salmonids
feeds with and without
protease as determined
by HCl-Pepsin method
at three different
hydrolyzing conditions

Figure 4.
Structure of
intestinal villi
in rainbow
trout fed diets
with and
without Jefo
protease

Conclusion

Apart from their availability and

poor nutrient characterisation, imbalanced amino acid profiles, poor digestibility of nutrients, presence of various
anti-nutritional factors has been limiting
the use of some novel ingredients in
aquaculture feed.
Using a protease enzyme would therefore
be a useful solution to address these unknown
factors.
It can be assumed that in the near
future, similar to phytase, protease enzymes
would become an essential component of
feed as a cost-effective solution to improve
the quality of salmonids feeds.

Table 1. Growth performance and intestinal villi height of rainbow trout fed diets containing
graded level (0, 175, 250 ppm) of Jefo protease
Initial
body
weight
(g)

Treatments

References:
Chowdhury, M.A.K. 2012. Aquafeed: Advances in
Processing & Formulation, Autumn Issue.
Drew et al. 2005. Animal Feed Science and
Technology, 119:117-128

Final
body
weight
(g)

Specific
growth
rate
(SGR, %)

Thermalunit Growth
Coefficient
(TGC)

FCR

Villi size
(m)

Control

390

850a

0.92a

2.52a

1.43b

630a

Control + 175 ppm protease

402

971b

1.05b

2.94b

1.35a

663b

Control + 250 ppm protease

399

987b

1.07b

3.03b

1.33a

737b

Notes: Different letters in a column denote significant differences (P<0.05) among the treatments
40 | INTERNATIONAL AQUAFEED | July-August 2014

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ENSURING HATCHERY SUCCESS

July-August 2014 | INTERNATIONAL AQUAFEED | 41

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Shellfish
Diet
Shellfish Diet

5
EXPERT TPIC

KING
N
O
M
L
SA

ew Zealand (NZ) has no native

Salmonid species and in these
days of high biosecurity it
always makes you wonder how
imported species have become established.
In the case of salmon in New Zealand
it seems that colonists back in the 19th
Century were keen to have access to
pleasures that were associated with the very
wealthy the right to hunt and to fish for
salmon and trout.
At that time NZ rivers were devoid of
sporting fish hence species were imported.
One of the main organisations behind
this work was the Auckland Acclimatisation
Society (AAS), which is still in existence today.
AAS was New Zealands first such society
and was established around 1861.
Many others soon followed, including in
Whanganui and Nelson in 1863, and Otago
and Canterbury in 1864. Their rules were very
similar to the British Acclimatisation Society
and focused on introducing all manner of new
species as long as they were innoxious. By
1866, the British society had merged with the
Ornithological Society.
New Zealand became the standard setting for a network of regional acclimatisation societies that lasted almost 130 years
although their role later changed. Their
activities received government sanction, but
not financial support.
In 1867, the first of a series of Animal
Protection Acts in NZ protected many introduced animals and formally recognised the
acclimatisation societies. The importation of
trout was enabled by the Salmon and Trout
Act, passed in the same year.

Exchange agreements

Species exchange agreements were made

between New Zealand societies and those

The successful transposing of

Chinook salmon to New Zealand

overseas. At first many societies had gardens

for propagating new plant species, but these
were soon shed in favour of focusing on
animals, as a result, hatcheries were built for
breeding trout and aviaries for raising game
birds, for release into the wild.
Farmer and rabbit inspector, Lake Ayson, is
regarded as being the main person responsible for introducing Chinook salmon into New
Zealand.
He had apparently seen the successful
introduction of Brown Trout in the late 1800s
(strangely introduced from Tasmania) and
had some first-hand knowledge through being
appointed curator of the Masterton trout
hatchery. In 1898 he became the Fisheries
Commissioner for the country and as a priority decided to identify fish species that would
be suitable for New Zealand. Whilst in the
USA on a research trip he was offered half a
million Chinook ova free-of-charge and from
there history was created.

King Salmon

Chinook or quinnat salmon (Oncorhynchus

tshawytscha) are native to the north-west
coast of North America and north-east Asia
but are known in New Zealand by the term
King Salmon. New Zealand appears the only
place in the world where Chinook salmon
have become established successfully outside
their natural range.
Other species such as Atlantic and
Sockeye were also imported and from the
records there was a strong feeling that
the Government had backed the wrong
species but history now shows that is not
the case.
Chinook are the largest species of the
Salmonidae family in New Zealand, commonly reaching 1015 kilograms. Most
adults are three years old when they
spawn. When they enter river mouths on
42 | INTERNATIONAL AQUAFEED | July-August 2014

their spawning runs, they are very silvery in

colour but this gets duller the longer they
stay in fresh water.
The fish are found mainly on the South
Islands east coast, from the Waiau River in
North Canterbury to the Clutha River in
South Otago. There are also small runs in the
Paringa, Taramakau and Hokitika Rivers on the
West Coast and the renowned fisheries are
the Waitaki, Rangitt, Rakaia and Waimakariri
rivers.
The taking of water for irrigation has seen
these rivers suffer from river mouth closure
in summer. Reports have it that in the 2000s
they were no longer regarded as good salmon
fisheries.
Small landlocked Chinook salmon can also
be caught in some South Island lakes such as
Lake Wakatipu. Dams on the Clutha River
prevent them migrating to sea, so they never
grow to any great size (they are typically less
than one kilogram). Occasionally stray salmon
are found in North Island Rivers.

Ocean ranching plans

and canal farms

In the 1970s and 1980s there were also

plans for ocean ranching commercialising the fishery based on the theory that
hundreds of thousands of salmon would be
hatched from ova and released. They would
go to sea and feed at no cost and come back
as adults to be harvested. The plans went
ahead and the salmon were released, but they
did not come back.
In the 2000s commercial salmon farms
operated at South Island freshwater sites such
as Waikoropup Springs near Tkaka, and the
Tekapo canal in the Mackenzie country.
Most sea farming occurs in the
Marlborough Sounds, Stewart Island and
Akaroa Harbour, while fresh water operations in Canterbury, Otago and Tasman

FEATURE
EXPERT TPIC
establish
track raceways
record within
Ukrainian
busiutilise ponds,
and hydro
canals
for
ness
growcircles.
out operations.
They
told International
the
The salmon
are born in Aquafeed,
land-basedathatchFuture
Fish transferred
Eurasia exhibition,
that working
eries and
to sea pens
or fresh
with
international
partners
who
all spotted
water
farms to grow
out to
harvest
size. an
opportunity
in the has
industry
are looking
New Zealand
very and
focused
farming
for
investment.
practices,
strict bio-security procedures and
The aim
to native
help restore
be
absence
of isany
salmonUkraine
species tomean
the
basket
of Europe
again.
thatbread
the King
Salmon
are raised
without need
are complimenting
forThey
vaccines
or antibiotics. their local knowledge and experience with international technical
fish of
expertise
and food business knowCode
Practice
how.The New Zealand Salmon Farmers
Founding partner Finfish
Petro Berezhnyi
explains,
Associations
Aquaculture
Through
our relationship
with key states
Ukrainian
Environmental
Code of Practice
that
food
retailers for
wefish
discovered
that come
there from
is a
raw material
feeds should
shortfall
within
the Ukrainian
sustainably
managed
fisheries.market for fresh
fish. Temperature is an important factor in
We see an
the market
determining
fish opportunity
health andin growth.
King
place
to develop
aquaculture
in
Salmon
thrive inancooler
watersbusiness
and best
Ukraine
is focusedatona delivering
quality,of
growth that
is achieved
temperature
freshness,
service.
12-17C. and
Kingsuperior
Salmoncustomer
take around
12-18
Ukraine
71,000
rivers
and lakes.
months
to has
growover
in sea
water.
Depending
on
Inmarket
particular
Mr Berezhnyi
the are
opportunirequirements,
thesees
salmon
harvestties
to an
locate
suchoffish
farms in the3.5western
ed at
average
approximately
- 4.0kg.
half Farm
of thesite
country
where
the topography,
selection
is very
critical and
infrastructure
and water
quality
is ideal
remains the subject
of much
debate
and,foras
aquaculture
growth.
has been seen
recently with legal challenges in
decades
Ukraine
has had
a renowned
theFor
New
Zealand
Supreme
Court.
reputation
as a leading
agricultural
producer
Farms tend
to be placed
in areas
with
and
exporter.
strong
currents to flush the cages and improve
put the
country into
a European
theTorearing
environment
and minimise
the

context,
Ukraine
greater
landmass than
effects of
wastehas
ona the
environment.
The
France.
percentPerformance
of Ukrainian land
is
Global Fifty-four
Aquaculture
Index
used
for developed
agriculture, by
ranking
it third
globally
(GAPI),
Dr John
Volpe
and
inthe
thisSeafood
area.
Ecology Research Group at
fact, Ukraines
agricultural
arable rated
land
theIn University
of Victoria,
Canada,
area
almost one-third
the existing
agriNewis Zealand
is the topofperformer
of all
22
culture
area farming
of the countries,
entire European
assessedland
salmon
with a
Union.
also plans to take
countryFishFarm
score of Ukraine
73.
advantage
Ukraines
prowess as
leading
While of
GAPI
only considers
thea producfood
tion producer.
of Chinook salmon in New Zealand,
Advisory Board
Member,production
Tom OCallaghan
according
to FAO
data,
says,
Ukrainians
appreciatefor
high
Chinook
salmontraditionally
actually accounted
all
quality
marinefood.
finfish production in New Zealand
in Yet,
2007.at the same time Ukraine needs to
do more
to promote
itself across
the world
Relatively
low, dispersed
production
drives
asNew
a country
with
an abundance
natural
Zealands
cumulative
countryofscore
up
resources
that compliment
foodscores
proto 90among
the highestsuperior
cumulative
duction.
As we countries.
enter into the EU Association
of all assessed
Agreement we anticipate both an overhaul
and
modernisation
Ukrainian food legislaDominance
ofofthe
tion,
coupled
with
a
greater
awareness across
domestic market
Europe
of
the
food
production
capability
of
Initially the industry was driven
by the
Ukraine.
export market but currently the domestic
We isstrongly
believe
that60-70
thesepercent
two fac-of
market
absorbing
some
tors
will also The
helpmain
strengthen
and grow
our
production.
organisations
involved
business.
in arms are NZ King Salmon (60-70 percent
of NZ production), Sanford (20-25 percent)
and Mount Cook
Alpine Salmon.
Regional
Growth
Mt
Cook
Alpine
a bold
Indeed, Ukraines Salmon
position isasdriving
one of
the
NZ$20
million Central
expansion
to fuelEurope
a 1400
10
designated
andplan
Eastern
percent
production
for relationships
the company
(CEE)
countries
andincrease
traditional
withinneighbouring
four years. This
organisation
prowith
former
Soviet was
Union,

ducing around 500

tonnes in 2011
and(CIS)
with
Commonwealth
of Independent
States
a NZ$20 facilitate
million expansion,
including
a procountries
the potential
for greater
cessing growth.
factory and a value-added plant, they
regional
believe
they willPoland,
be turning
out and
2000Belarus
tonnes
Neighbours
Russia
in 2014 onwards.
imported
over 1.4 billion in fresh fish in
New Zealand King Salmon has been
2013.
through
application
to increase
its
Regional
demandsprocesses
for fish products
with
2011 production
of 7500
of foreseesalmon a
continue
to outstrip
supplytonnes
for the
yearfuture.
to 15,000
by the
2015-16.
Only a small
able
Thistonnes
adds to
attractiveness
of
percentage of
farms have been
permisaquaculture
development
acrossgranted
Ukraine.
sion
Supreme
Court above,
rulings CEE
so the
As through
illustrated
in the table
&
chances
of thisaccount
happening
been
CIS
countries
forhave
about
8 stalled.
percent
Overall
King Salmon
remains
strong
of global
fishNZ
imports.
However,
the asigning
in the
New Zealand
Seafood
ofplayer
the EU
Association
Agreement
willindustry
bring
but its possibilities
future is being
by a strong
added
for questioned
Ukrainian food
busiconservation
movement
and people
who
nesses
to develop
business within
the worlds
would import
like tomarket
see little
if anything
in the
largest
for fish.
Mr. Berezhnyi
pristine waters
of the
Marlborough
concluded,
Our
existing
businessSounds
model
is initially focused on fulfilling the untapped
demands
of the local Ukrainian market.
References:
Nevertheless, looking into the horizon, we
Swimming Upstream by Jennifer Haworth
foresee teaming up with international parthttp://web.uvic.ca/~gapi/results/browse/
ners
to exploit wider export opportunities
newZealand.html
across
Europe. Their plan is formulated to
start
with
farming trout due to its adaptabilhttp://www.nurturedseafood.com/aquaculture-inity
on
land,
the high quality of the product
nz/industry-overview/key-facts/
and because it is a good value for money
http://aquaculture.org.nz/wp-content/
alternative
to salmon. A leaving hint from
uploads/2012/05/NZ-Aquaculture-Facts-2012.pdf
Mr. Berezhnyi at moving to farm additional
http://www.seafoodnewzealand.org.nz/our-industry/
species
such as crayfish, and cheap sorts of
key-facts/
fish like carp in the future could be an exciting
development for this fish farm.
http://www.teara.govt.nz/

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