RF Propagation Properties

Absorption

Reflection
SCCS424 Wireless and Mobile
Scattering
Computing
Refraction
-- Mahidol University, ICT Program --
Diffraction
Lecture 2
Loss or Attenuation
Antennas and Radio Propagation
Free Space Path Loss

Multipath
http://www.ict.sc.mahidol.ac.th/course/sccs424/
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Absorption Reflection

RF signal passing through the obstruction will be
Reflection - occurs when signal encounters a
absorbed and attenuated

Different materials of obstruction have different
surface that __________ relative to the
degree of RF absorption wavelength of the signal

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 Scattering

Scattering – occurs when incoming signal hits
an object whose size in the order of the
wavelength of the signal or ________
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Diffraction

____________of RF signal around an object (whereas refraction is
the bending of RF signal as it pass through the medium)

Diffraction depends on shape, size and material of object as well as
the characteristics of RF signal (such as polarization, phase,
amplitude)
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Refraction

Refraction – Bending of RF signal as it passes through a medium
with a different __________, therefore causing of the direction of
wave to change

Three most common causes of refraction: water vapor, changes
in air ______________, changes in air pressure
Attenuation or Loss

Strength of signal falls off with distance over
transmission medium

Attenuation factors for unguided media:
 Received signal must have sufficient strength so
that circuitry in the receiver can interpret the
signal
 Signal must maintain a level sufficiently higher
than noise to be received without error
 Attenuation is greater at higher frequencies,
causing distortion
Material – Attenuation Comparison (at 2.4
GHz)
Free Space Loss

Brisk, Concrete blocks, -15 dB
free-space loss is the loss in signal strength

Metal obstacle, _______dB of an electromagnetic wave that would result

Metal rock, -6 dB from a line-of-sight path through free space,
with no obstacles nearby to cause reflection

Drywall, -3 dB or diffraction.

Glass window, _____ dB

Wood door, -3 dB

Cubical wall, -2 dB
Cubicle wall
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Free Space Loss Free Space Loss

Free space loss, ________ isotropic antenna
Free space loss equation can be recast:
Pt (4πd ) (4πfd )
2 2
= = Pt  4πd 
Pr λ2 c2 LdB = 10 log
Pr
= 20 log
 λ 


= −20 log(λ ) + 20 log(d ) + 21.98 dB

Pt = signal power at transmitting antenna

Pr = signal power at receiving antenna

λ = carrier wavelength
 4πfd 

d = propagation distance between antennas
= 20 log  = 20 log( f ) + 20 log(d ) − 147.56 dB
 c 

c = speed of light (3 x 108 m/s)

where d and λ are in the same units (e.g., meters)

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Free Space Loss Free Space Loss

Free space loss accounting for gain of other
Free space loss accounting for gain of other
antennas antennas can be recast a
Pt (4π ) (d ) (λd ) = (cd )
2 2 2 2
= = LdB = 20 log(λ ) + 20 log(d ) − 10 log( At Ar )
Pr Gr Gt λ2 Ar At f 2 Ar At
= −20 log( f ) + 20 log(d ) − 10 log( At Ar ) + 169.54dB

Gt = gain of transmitting antenna

Gr = gain of receiving antenna

At = effective area of transmitting antenna

Ar = effective area of receiving antenna

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Power Notation (trick from Aj. Siwaruk) Example

 0 dBm  1 mW, -3 dBm  0.5 mW, 3 dBm  2 mW
Source generates 600 Mhz signal with power of 5 mW.
 10 dBm  10 mW, -10 dBm  0.1 mW Then, signal is amplified by a 28-dB amplifier, and then
 20 dBm  100 mW, 30 dBm  1000 mW transmitted via a dipole antenna with 3 dB gain.
 21 dBm = 30-3-3-3 dBm  1000/2/2/2 ≈ 125 mW
What is the signal power at (100/π) meters away from
 22 dBm = 10 +3+3+3+3 dBm  10*2*2*2*2 ≈ 160 mW the transmitter using a receiver with 3-dB gain dipole
 23 dBm = 20 + 3 dBm  100 * 2 ≈ 200 mW antenna?
 24 dBm = 30-3-3 dBm  1000/2/2 ≈ 250 mW
 25 dBm = 10 +3+3+3+3+3 dBm 10*2^5 ≈ 320 mW
 26 dBm = 20+3+3 dBm  100*2*2 ≈ 400 mW
 27 dBm = 30-3 dBm  1000/2 ≈ 500 mW
 28 dBm = 10+3+3+3+3+3+3 dBm  10*(2^6) ≈ 640 mW
 29 dBm = 20 +3+3+3 dBm  100*(2^3) ≈ 800 mW
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 600 MHz Antenna +3 dB
Example
Power output Antenna +3 dB
5 mW
Source generates 600 Mhz signal with power of 5 mW.
Then, signal is amplified by a 28-dB amplifier, and then
Gain +28 dB transmitted via a dipole antenna with 3 dB gain.
AP Amplifier
What is the signal power at (100/π) meters away from the
transmitter using a receiver with 3-dB gain dipole
antenna?
π
100/π  Path loss at 100/π m = 20 log(4πfd/c) dB
= 20 log(4π100/π *600e6/ 3e8) = 58 dB
 5 mW = 10/2 mW  10-3 dBm = 7 dBm
 Rx Power at 100/π m = 7 + 28 +3 – 58 +3 = -17 dBm
= -20 +3 dBm  0.01* 2 = 0.02 mW

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Exercise! Multipath Propagations

Source generates 300 Mhz signal with power of 4 mW.
Multipath is a propagation that results in _________
Then, signal is amplified by a 30-dB amplifier, and then paths of a signal arriving at a receiving antenna at
transmitted via a dipole antenna with 5 dB gain.
the same time or within nanoseconds of each other

What is the signal power at (250/π) meters away from
the transmitter using a receiver with 3-dB gain dipole
Mutipath may come from reflection, scattering,
antenna? refraction, diffraction
 Path loss at 250/π m = 20 log(4πfd/c) dB
= 20 log(4π300/π *250e6/ 3e8) = 40 dB

4mW = 2*2 mW  3+3 dBm = 6 dBm

 Rx Power at 250/π m = 6 + 30 +5 – 40 +3 = 4 dBm
= 10-3-3 dBm  (10/2)/2 = 2.5 mW
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Multipath Propagation The Effects of Multipath Propagation

Multiple copies of a signal may arrive at different
phases
 If phases add destructively, the signal level relative to
noise declines, making detection more difficult

Intersymbol interference (ISI)
 One or more delayed copies of a pulse may arrive at the
same time as the primary pulse for a subsequent bit

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Propagation Modes Ground Wave Propagation

Follows contour of the earth

Can Propagate considerable distances

Frequencies up to 2 MHz
Low-frequency Very High-frequency
Example
signals Higher-frequency signals
 AM radio
signals 24 25
Sky Wave Propagation Line-of-Sight Propagation

Transmitting and receiving antennas must be within line of sight

 Satellite communication – signal ______________not reflected
by ionosphere

Signal reflected from ionized layer of atmosphere back down to  Ground communication – antennas within effective line of site due
earth
to refraction

Signal can travel a number of hops, back and forth between
ionosphere and earth’s surface
Refraction – bending of microwaves by the atmosphere

Reflection effect caused by refraction  Velocity of electromagnetic wave is a function of the density of

Examples the medium
 Amateur radio  When wave changes medium, speed changes
 CB radio 26
 Wave bends at the boundary between mediums
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d
Line-of-Sight Equations Line-of-Sight Equations
h
Earth surface

Optical line of sight

Maximum distance between two antennas
d = 3.57 h for LOS propagation:

Effective, or radio, line of sight (

3.57 Κh1 + Κh2 )
d = 3.57 Κh

h1 = height of antenna one
h2 = height of antenna two

d = distance between antenna and horizon (km)

h = antenna height (m)

K = adjustment factor to account for refraction,
rule of thumb K = ___________
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LOS Wireless Transmission Impairments Electromagnetic Spectrum

Attenuation and attenuation distortion

Free space loss

Noise

Atmospheric absorption

Multipath

Refraction

Thermal noise

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Eight Bands
Band Range Propagation Application

VLF 3–30 KHz Ground Long-range radio navigation

Radio beacons and
LF 30–300 KHz Ground
navigational locators
MF 300 KHz–3 MHz Sky AM radio
Citizens band (CB),
HF 3–30 MHz Sky
ship/aircraft communication
Sky and VHF TV,
VHF 30–300 MHz
line-of-sight FM radio
UHF TV, cellular phones,
UHF 300 MHz–3 GHz Line-of-sight
paging, satellite

SHF 3–30 GHz Line-of-sight Satellite communication

EHF 30–300 GHz Line-of-sight Long-range radio navigation

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Antennas

An antenna is an electrical conductor or system of
conductors
 Transmission - Antennas convert electrical energy into RF
waves
 Reception – Antennas convert RF waves into electrical
energy

In two-way communication, the same antenna can be
used for transmission and reception

The physical dimensions of an antenna, such as its
length, are directly related to the frequency at which
the antenna can propagate waves or receive
propagated waves
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Radiation Patterns – Top-down view

Top-down view or H-plane or Azimuth chart

H-plane is perpendicular to the antenna element
Antenna
Antenna
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Radiation Patterns

Power radiated in all directions

Not same performance in all directions

Radiation Patterns
 Graphical representation of radiation properties of an antenna

Radiation patterns represented in two points of view
 Top-down view or H-plane or Azimuth chart
 Side view or E-plane or Elevation chart
 Both charts are not represent the distance or any level of power
or strength.
 The chart only represents the relationship of power between
different points on the chart
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Radiation Patterns – Side view

Side view or E-plane or Elevation chart

E-plane is parallel to the antenna element
Antenna
Antenna
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 Antenna Beamwidth Antenna Beamwidth

Beamwidth is the measurement of how broad or narrow the
focus of an antenna is and is measured both horizontally
and vertically

Beamwidth measures from the center, or strongest point, of
the antenna signal to each of the points along the horizontal
and vertical axes where the signal decreases by half power
(–3 dB)

P/2

P/2 http://www.satsig.net/pointing/antenna-beamwidth-calculator.htm
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Antenna Types Omni-directional Antenna

Omni-directional antenna radiates its energy equally

Omni-directional Antenna in all directions around its axis

Semi-directional Antenna
If an antenna radiates in all directions equally
(forming a sphere), it is called an isotropic antenna

Highly-directional Antenna which is idealized. Isotropic antenna is theoretical
reference for antenna

Isotropic Antenna

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 Omni-directional Antenna

Dipole antenna is an Omni-directional antenna that
is commonly used in wireless LAN

The dipole radiates equally in all directions around
its axis, but does not radiate along the length of the
wire itself - hence the doughnut pattern
Omni-directional Antenna

High-gain omni-directional antennas offer more
horizontal coverage area, but the vertical coverage
area is reduced

Side View

Top View
Dipole Antenna 42 43

(doughnut radiation pattern)

Omni-directional Antenna Semi-directional Antenna

Semi-directional antennas are designed to direct a signal in a
specific direction
Folded dipole
antenna
It is common to use semi-directional antennas to provide a network
bridge between two buildings in a campus environment or down
Half wave dipole
antenna
the street from each other

Examples: Patch or Panel Antenna, Yaki antenna

Rubber dipole
antenna

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Semi-directional Antenna Semi-directional Antenna

Patch, Panel antenna
Yaki antenna
Radiation
Pattern

Radiation
Pattern

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Highly-directional Antenna Antenna Gain

Antenna gain

Highly-directional antennas emit the most narrow  Power output, in a particular direction, compared to
signal beam of any antenna type and have the that produced in any direction by a perfect
greatest gain of these three groups of antenna omnidirectional antenna (isotropic antenna)
(Omini-directional, Simi-directional and Highly-  Antenna gain is specified in _________, which means
directional) decibels referenced to an isotropic radiator

Highly-directional antennas are typically concave,  Sometimes, Antenna gain is specified in dBd, which
dish-shaped devices. Some models are referred to means decibels referenced to a dipole antenna
as parabolic dishes.  Rule: x dBd  x + 2.41 dBi

The higher the antenna gain, the farther the
wave will travel, concentrating its output wave
more tightly so that more of the power is
Radiation Pattern delivered to the destination (the receiving
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 Fading
Fading

Fast Fading
(Short-term fading)

Slow Fading
(Long-term fading)

Signal
Strength

(dB)
Path Loss

Distance 51
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Types of Fading Slow Fading

Slow fading
 caused by large obstructions between transmitter and
The long-term variation in the mean level is
receiver known as slow fading (shadowing or log-normal

Fast fading  channel changes rapidly w.r.t. data rate. fading). This fading caused by shadowing.
 caused by scatterers in the vicinity of the transmitter.
Log-normal distribution:

Flat fading (frequency non-selective fading) - The pdf of the received signal level is given in decibels by
 All frequencies components fade similarly
−
(M − M )2
p (M ) =
1 2σ 2

Selective fading e ,
2π σ

__________________
 Non-LOS Channel attenuations are random variables with where M is the true received signal level m in decibels, i.e., 10log10m,
zero-mean and complex Gaussian distribution. M is the area average signal level, i.e., the mean of M,

__________________ σ is the standard deviation in decibels
 LOS  Channel attenuations are non-zero-mean and complex
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Gaussian random variables.
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 Log-normal Distribution Fast Fading

The signal from the transmitter may be reflected from
objects such as hills, buildings, or vehicles.
 When MS far from BS, the envelope distribution of received signal is
2σ Rayleigh distribution. The pdf is
r2
−
p(r ) =
r
e 2σ 2
, r >0
σ
p(M) 2

where σ is the standard deviation.

 Middle value rm of envelope signal within sample range to be
M satisfied by
M
P(r ≤ rm) = 0.5.
The pdf of the received signal level
 We have rm = 1.777

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Rayleigh Distribution Rayleigh Fading

P(r)
1.0

0.8
σ=1
0.6

0.4 σ=2

σ=3
0.2

r
0
2 4 6 8 10

The pdf of the envelope variation 57

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 Fast Fading (Continued) Rician Distribution
α= 0 (Rayleigh)

When MS far from BS, the envelope distribution
α=1
of received signal is Rician distribution. The pdf is 0.6
α=2
r 2 +α 2
−  rα 
0.5 α=3
p(r ) =
r
e 2σ 2
I 0  , r ≥ 0
σ2 σ 

Pdf p(r)
0.4

where 0.3 σ=1

σ is the standard deviation, 0.2

I0(x) is the zero-order Bessel function of the 0.1

first kind,
α is the amplitude of the direct signal 00 2 4
r
6 8 r
The pdf of the envelope variation
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Error Compensation Mechanisms Forward Error Correction

Forward error correction
Transmitter adds error-correcting code to

Adaptive equalization data block
 Code is a function of the data bits

Diversity techniques

Receiver calculates error-correcting code
from incoming data bits
 If calculated code matches incoming code, no
error occurred
Compensate = repair  If error-correcting codes don’t match, receiver
attempts to determine bits in error and correct

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 RF components

Exercise

EIRP = Equivalent Isotropically Radiated Power

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Exercise1
1. Given an access point with 100 mW of
output power connected through a 50-foot
cable with 3 dB of loss to an antenna with
10 dBi of gain, what is the EIRP at the
antenna in mW?
Exercise2
2. Given an access point with an output power
of 20 dBm connected through a cable with
a loss of 6 dB to an amplifier with a 10 dB
gain, then through a cable with 3 dB of loss
to an antenna with 6 dBi of gain, what is
the EIRP in dBm?

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