1. 1. 1. 1. 1. In tr o d u cti o n In tr o d u cti o n In tr o d u cti o n In tr o d u cti o n In tr o d u cti o n 1 2 7 1 2 7 1 2 7 1 2 7 1 2 7
El ectroni csAtomi c structureStructure of elementsThe electronEnergy of an electron Val ence el ectronsFree el ectronsVol tage sourceConstant vol tage sourceConstant current sourceConversion of voltage source into current sourceMaxi mum power transfer theoremThevenins theoremProcedure for finding thevenin equivalent circuitNorton's theoremProcedure for finding norton equivalent circuit Chassis and ground. C O N T E N T S C O N T E N T S C O N T E N T S C O N T E N T S C O N T E N T S 2. 2. 2. 2. 2. El ectr o n Em i ssi o n El ectr o n Em i ssi o n El ectr o n Em i ssi o n El ectr o n Em i ssi o n El ectr o n Em i ssi o n 2837 2837 2837 2837 2837 Electron emissionTypes of electron emissionTher- mionic emissionThermionic emitterCommonly used thermionic emittersCathode construction Field emissionSecondary emissionPhoto electric emission. 3 . 3 . 3 . 3 . 3 . Ga s- Fi l l ed T Ga s- Fi l l ed T Ga s- Fi l l ed T Ga s- Fi l l ed T Ga s- Fi l l ed Tu b es u b es u b es u b es u b es 3 8 4 7 3 8 4 7 3 8 4 7 3 8 4 7 3 8 4 7 Gas-filled tubesConduction in a gasCold-cath- ode gas diodeCharacteristics of cold-cathode diodeApplications of glow tubesHot-cathode gas diodeThyratronApplications of Thyratron. (viii) 4 . 4 . 4 . 4 . 4 . Ato m i c Str u ctu r e Ato m i c Str u ctu r e Ato m i c Str u ctu r e Ato m i c Str u ctu r e Ato m i c Str u ctu r e 4 8 5 4 4 8 5 4 4 8 5 4 4 8 5 4 4 8 5 4 Bohrs atomic modelEnergy levelsEnergy bands lmportant energy bands in solids Classification of solids and energy bands Silicon. 5 . 5 . 5 . 5 . 5 . Sem i co n d u cto r Ph ysi cs Sem i co n d u cto r Ph ysi cs Sem i co n d u cto r Ph ysi cs Sem i co n d u cto r Ph ysi cs Sem i co n d u cto r Ph ysi cs 5 5 75 5 5 75 5 5 75 5 5 75 5 5 75 SemiconductorBonds in semiconductorsCrystals Commonly used semiconductors Energy band description of semiconductorsEffect of tempe- rature on semiconductorsHole currentIntrinsic semi conductorExtri nsi c semi conductorn-type semiconductorp-type semiconductorCharge on n- type and p-type semiconductors Majority and minority carrierspn-junctionProperties of pn-junctionApplying D.C. voltage acrosspn junctionVolt-ampere characteristics of pn-junction Important termsLimitations in the operating conditions of pn-junction. 6 . 6 . 6 . 6 . 6 . Sem i co n d u cto r Di o d e Sem i co n d u cto r Di o d e Sem i co n d u cto r Di o d e Sem i co n d u cto r Di o d e Sem i co n d u cto r Di o d e 76 12 4 76 12 4 76 12 4 76 12 4 76 12 4 Semiconductor diodeCrystal diode as a rectifier Resistance of crystal DiodeEquivalent circuit of crystal diodeCrystal diode equivalent circuits lmportant termsCrystal diode rectifiersHalf-wave rectifierOutput frequency of Half-wave rectifier Efficiency of half-wave rectifierFull-wave rectifier Centre-tap full-wave rectifierFull-wave bridge rectifierOutput frequency of full-wave rectifierEfficiency of full-wave rectifierFaults in centre-tap full-wave rectifierNature of rectifier output Ripple factorComparison of rectifiersFilter circuitsTypes of filter circuits Voltage multipliersHalf-wave voltage doublerVoltage stabilisationZener diodeEquivalent circuit of zener diodeZener diode as voltage stabiliser Solving zener diode circuitsCrystal diodes versus vacuum-diodes. 7. 7. 7. 7. 7. Sp eci a l - Pu r p o se Di o d es Sp eci a l - Pu r p o se Di o d es Sp eci a l - Pu r p o se Di o d es Sp eci a l - Pu r p o se Di o d es Sp eci a l - Pu r p o se Di o d es 125 140 125 140 125 140 125 140 125 140 Zener diodeLight-emitting diode (LED)LED voltage and currentAdvantages of LEDMulticolour LEDsApplica- tions of LEDsPhoto-diodePhoto-diode operation Characteristics of photo-diodeApplications of Photo- diodesOptoisolatorTunnel diodeTunnel diode oscilla- torVaractor diodeApplication of varactor diode Shockley diode. (ix) 8 . 8 . 8 . 8 . 8 . T TT TTr a n si sto r s r a n si sto r s r a n si sto r s r a n si sto r s r a n si sto r s 14 1 19 1 14 1 19 1 14 1 19 1 14 1 19 1 14 1 19 1 TransistorNaming the transistor terminalsSome facts about the transistorTransistor actionTransistor symbol sTransi stor as an ampl i fi erTransi stor connecti onsCommon base connecti on Characteristics of common base connection Common emitter connectionMeasurement of l eakage currentCharacteri sti cs of common emi tter connecti onCommon col l ector connectionComparison of transistor connections Commonly used transistor connectionTransistor as an amplifier in CE arrangementTransistor load line analysisOperating pointPractical way of drawing CE circuitOutput from transistor amplifierPerformance of transistor amplifierCut off and saturation pointsPower rating of transistor Determi nati on of transi stor confi gurati onSemi conductor devi ces numberi ng systemTransi stor l ead i denti fi cati onTransi stor testi ng Applications of common base amplifiersTransistors versus vacuum tubes. 9. 9. 9. 9. 9. T TT TTr a n si sto r Bi a si n g r a n si sto r Bi a si n g r a n si sto r Bi a si n g r a n si sto r Bi a si n g r a n si sto r Bi a si n g 192239 192239 192239 192239 192239 Faithful amplificationTransistor biasinglnherent variations of transistor parametersStabilisationEs- sentials of a transistor biasing circuitStability fac- torMethods of transistor biasingBase resistor methodEmitter bias circuitCircuit analysis of emit- ter biasBiasing with collector feedback resistor- Voltage divider bias methodStability factor for po- tential divider biasDesign of transistor biasing cir- cuitsMid-point biasingWhich value of to be usedMiscellaneous bias circuits Silicon versus germaniumInstantaneous current and voltage waveformsSummary of transistor bias circuits. 10 . 10 . 10 . 10 . 10 . Si n g l e Sta g e T Si n g l e Sta g e T Si n g l e Sta g e T Si n g l e Sta g e T Si n g l e Sta g e Tr a n si sto r Am p l i fi er s r a n si sto r Am p l i fi er s r a n si sto r Am p l i fi er s r a n si sto r Am p l i fi er s r a n si sto r Am p l i fi er s 2 4 0 2 79 2 4 0 2 79 2 4 0 2 79 2 4 0 2 79 2 4 0 2 79 Single stage transistor amplifierHow transistor amplifies? Graphical demonstration of transistor amplifierPractical circuit of transistor amplifierPhase reversalInput/output phase relationshipsD.C. and A.C. equivalent circuits Load line analysisVoltage gainA.C. emitter resistance Formula for A.C. emitter resistanceVoltage gain of CE amplifierVoltage gain of unloaded CE amplifierVoltage gain of CE amplifier without C E Input impedance of CE amplifierVoltage gain stabilitySwamped AmplifierClassification of amplifiersAmplifier equivalent circuitEquivalent circuit with signal source Gain and transistor configurations. (x) 11. 11. 11. 11. 11. M u l ti sta g e T M u l ti sta g e T M u l ti sta g e T M u l ti sta g e T M u l ti sta g e Tr a n si sto r Am p l i fi er s r a n si sto r Am p l i fi er s r a n si sto r Am p l i fi er s r a n si sto r Am p l i fi er s r a n si sto r Am p l i fi er s 280 305 280 305 280 305 280 305 280 305 Multistage transistor amplifierRole of capacitors in transistor amplifierslmportant termsProperties of db gainR.C. coupled transistor amplifierTransformer coupled amplifiersDirect-coupled amplifierCom- parison of different types of couplingDifference be- tween transistor and tube amplifiers. 12. 12. 12. 12. 12. T TT TTr a n si sto r Au d i o Po w er Am p l i fi er s r a n si sto r Au d i o Po w er Am p l i fi er s r a n si sto r Au d i o Po w er Am p l i fi er s r a n si sto r Au d i o Po w er Am p l i fi er s r a n si sto r Au d i o Po w er Am p l i fi er s 306 334 306 334 306 334 306 334 306 334 Transistor audio power amplifierSmall-signal and large-signal amplifiers Output power of amplifierDifference between voltage and power ampl i fi ersPer formance quanti ti es of power ampl i fi ersCl assi fi cati on of power ampl i fi ers Expressi on for col l ector effi ci encyMaxi mum collector efficiency for series-fed class A amplifier Maximum collector efficiency of transformer coupled class A power amplifierImportant points about class A power amplifierThermal runawayHeat sink Mathematical analysisStages of a practical power amplifierDriver stageOutput stagePush pull amplifierMaximum efficiency for class B operationComplementary-symmetry amplifier. 13. 13. 13. 13. 13. Am p l i fi er s Wi th Neg a ti ve Feed b a ck Am p l i fi er s Wi th Neg a ti ve Feed b a ck Am p l i fi er s Wi th Neg a ti ve Feed b a ck Am p l i fi er s Wi th Neg a ti ve Feed b a ck Am p l i fi er s Wi th Neg a ti ve Feed b a ck 335363 335363 335363 335363 335363 FeedbackPrinciples of negative voltage feedback in amplifiersGain of negative voltage feedback amplifierAdvantages of negati ve vol tage feedbackFeedback ci rcui tPri nci pl es of negati ve current feedbackCurrent gain with negative current feedbackEffects of negati ve current feedbackEmitter followerD.C. analysis of emitter followerVoltage gain of emi tter fol l owerI nput i mpedance of emi tter fol l owerOutput impedance of emitter follower Applications of emitter followerDarlington amplifier. 14 . 14 . 14 . 14 . 14 . Si n u so i d a l Osci l l a to r s Si n u so i d a l Osci l l a to r s Si n u so i d a l Osci l l a to r s Si n u so i d a l Osci l l a to r s Si n u so i d a l Osci l l a to r s 3 6 4 3 8 8 3 6 4 3 8 8 3 6 4 3 8 8 3 6 4 3 8 8 3 6 4 3 8 8 Sinusoidal oscillatorTypes of sinusoidal oscillations Oscillatory circuitUndamped oscillations from tank ci rcui tPosi ti ve feedback ampl i fi erOsci l l ator Essentials of transistor oscillatorExplanation of barkhausen criterionDifferent types of transistor osci l l atorsTuned col l ector osci l l atorCol pi tt' s (xi) oscillatorsHartley oscillatorPrinciples of phase shift oscillatorsPhase shift oscillatorWien bridge oscillator Limitations of LC and RC oscillators Piezoelectric crystalsWorking of quartz crystalEquivalent circuit of crystal Frequency response of crystalTransistor crystal oscillator. 15. 15. 15. 15. 15. T TT TTr a n si sto r T r a n si sto r T r a n si sto r T r a n si sto r T r a n si sto r Tu n ed Am p l i fi er s u n ed Am p l i fi er s u n ed Am p l i fi er s u n ed Am p l i fi er s u n ed Am p l i fi er s 3 8 9 4 10 3 8 9 4 10 3 8 9 4 10 3 8 9 4 10 3 8 9 4 10 Tuned ampl i fi ersDi sti ncti on between tuned amplifiers and other amplifiersAnalysis of paralled tuned circuitCharacteristics of parallel resonant circuitAdvantages of tuned amplifiersWhy not tuned amplifiers for low frequency amplification? Frequency response of tuned amplifierRelation between Q and bandwi dthSi ngl e tuned ampl i fi erAnal ysi s of tuned ampl i fi erA.C. equivalent circuit of tuned amplifierDouble tuned amplifierBandwidth of double-tuned amplifierPractical application of double tuned amplifierTuned class C amplifierClass C operationD.C. and A.C. loadsMaximum A.C. output power. 16. 16. 16. 16. 16. M o d u l a ti o n An d Dem o d u l a ti o n M o d u l a ti o n An d Dem o d u l a ti o n M o d u l a ti o n An d Dem o d u l a ti o n M o d u l a ti o n An d Dem o d u l a ti o n M o d u l a ti o n An d Dem o d u l a ti o n 4 11 4 4 1 4 11 4 4 1 4 11 4 4 1 4 11 4 4 1 4 11 4 4 1 Radio broadcasting, transmission and receptionModulationTypes of modulationAmplitude modulationModulation factorAnalysis of ampli- tude modulated waveSideband frequencies in AM waveTransistor AM modulatorPower in AM wave- Limitations of amplitude modulationFrequency modulationTheory of frequency modulationCom- parison of FM and AM DemodulationEssentials in demodulationA.M. diode detectorA.M. radio re- ceiversTypes of A.M. radio receiversStages of superhetrodyne radio receiverAdvantages of superhetrodyne circuitFM receiverDifference be- tween FM and AM receivers. 17. 17. 17. 17. 17. Reg u l a ted D.C. Po w er Su p p l y Reg u l a ted D.C. Po w er Su p p l y Reg u l a ted D.C. Po w er Su p p l y Reg u l a ted D.C. Po w er Su p p l y Reg u l a ted D.C. Po w er Su p p l y 4 4 2 4 6 7 4 4 2 4 6 7 4 4 2 4 6 7 4 4 2 4 6 7 4 4 2 4 6 7 Ordinary D.C. power supplylmportant terms Regulated power supplyTypes of voltage regu- latorsZener diode voltage regulatorCondition for proper operation of zener regulatorTransis- tor series voltage regulatorSeries feedback voltage regulatorShort-circuit protectionTran- sistor shunt voltage regulatorShunt feedback voltage regulatorGlow-tube voltage regulatorSeries triode voltage regu- (xii) latorSeries double triode voltage regulatorIC voltage regulatorsFixed positive voltage regulatorsFixed negative voltage regulatorsAdjustable voltage regulatorsDual-tracking voltage regulators. 18 . So l i d - Sta te Sw i tch i n g Ci r cu i ts 18 . So l i d - Sta te Sw i tch i n g Ci r cu i ts 18 . So l i d - Sta te Sw i tch i n g Ci r cu i ts 18 . So l i d - Sta te Sw i tch i n g Ci r cu i ts 18 . So l i d - Sta te Sw i tch i n g Ci r cu i ts 4 6 8 5 0 5 4 6 8 5 0 5 4 6 8 5 0 5 4 6 8 5 0 5 4 6 8 5 0 5 Switching circuitSwitchMechanical switchElectromechanical switch or relayElectronic switchesAdvantages of electronic switchesImportant termsSwitching transistorsSwitching action of a tran- sistorMultivibratorsTypes of multivibratorsTransistor astabl e mul ti vi bratorTransi stor monostabl e multivibratorTransistor bistable multivibratorDifferen- tiating circuitIntegrating circuitImportant applica- tions of diodesClipping circuitsApplications of clip- persClamping circuitsBasic idea of a clamperPosi- tive clamperNegative clamper. 19 . 19 . 19 . 19 . 19 . Fi el d Ef Fi el d Ef Fi el d Ef Fi el d Ef Fi el d Ef fect T fect T fect T fect T fect Tr a n si sto r s r a n si sto r s r a n si sto r s r a n si sto r s r a n si sto r s 5 0 6 5 5 3 5 0 6 5 5 3 5 0 6 5 5 3 5 0 6 5 5 3 5 0 6 5 5 3 Types of field effect transistorsJunction field effect transistor (JFET)Prin- ciple and working of JFETSchematic symbol of JFETImportance of JFET Difference between JFET and bipolar transistorJFET as an amplifierOutput characteristics of JFETSa- lient features of of JFETImportant termsExpression for drain currentAdvantages of JFETParameters of JFETRelation among JFET parametersVariation of transconductance (g m or g fs ) of JFETJFET bias- ingJFET biasing by bias batterySelf-bias for JFET JFET with voltage-divider biasJFET connections Practical JFET amplifierD.C. and A.C. equivalent circuits of JFETD.C. load line analysisVoltage gain of JFET amplifier (with source resistance R S )JFET applicationsMetal oxide semiconductor FET (MOSFET)Types of MOSFET Symbols for D-MOSFETCircuit operation of D-MOSFETD-MOSFET transfer characteristicTransconductance and input impedance of D-MOSFETD- MOSFET biasingCommon source D-MOSFET amplifierD-MOSFETs versus JFETsE-MOSFETE-MOSFET biasing circuitsD-MOSFETs versus E-MOSFETs. 2 0 . 2 0 . 2 0 . 2 0 . 2 0 . Si l i co n Co n tr o l l ed Recti fi er s Si l i co n Co n tr o l l ed Recti fi er s Si l i co n Co n tr o l l ed Recti fi er s Si l i co n Co n tr o l l ed Recti fi er s Si l i co n Co n tr o l l ed Recti fi er s 554576 554576 554576 554576 554576 Silicon Controlled rectifier (SCR)Working of SCR Equivalent circuit of SCR-V-I characteristics of SCRSCR in normal operationSCR as a switchSCR switching SCR half-wave rectifierSCR full-wave rectifierSingle- phase SCR inverter circuitApplications of SCR-Light- activated SCR. (xiii) 2 1. 2 1. 2 1. 2 1. 2 1. Po w er El ectr o n i cs Po w er El ectr o n i cs Po w er El ectr o n i cs Po w er El ectr o n i cs Po w er El ectr o n i cs 5 77 6 0 0 5 77 6 0 0 5 77 6 0 0 5 77 6 0 0 5 77 6 0 0 Power electronicsThe triacTriac constructionSCR equivalent circuit of triacTriac operationTriac phase control ci rcui tAppl i cati ons of tri acThe Di ac Appl i cati ons of di acUni j uncti on transi stor (UJT) Equi val ent ci rcui t of a UJTCharacteri sti cs of UJT Advantages of UJTApplications of UJT. 2 2 . 2 2 . 2 2 . 2 2 . 2 2 . El ectr o n i c In str u m en ts El ectr o n i c In str u m en ts El ectr o n i c In str u m en ts El ectr o n i c In str u m en ts El ectr o n i c In str u m en ts 6 0 1 6 2 6 6 0 1 6 2 6 6 0 1 6 2 6 6 0 1 6 2 6 6 0 1 6 2 6 Electronic instrumentsMultimeterApplications of multimeterSensitivity of multimeterMerits and demerits of multimeterMeter protectionElectronic vol tmetersVacuum tube vol tmeter (VTVM) Applications of VTVMMerits and demerits of VTVM Transistor voltmeter circuitBridge rectifier voltmeter Cathode ray osci l l oscopeCathode ray tube Deflection sensitivity of CRTApplying signal across vertical platesDisplay of signal waveform on CRO Signal pattern on screenVarious controls of CRO Applications of CRO. 2 3 . 2 3 . 2 3 . 2 3 . 2 3 . In teg r a ted Ci r cu i ts In teg r a ted Ci r cu i ts In teg r a ted Ci r cu i ts In teg r a ted Ci r cu i ts In teg r a ted Ci r cu i ts 6 2 7 6 4 1 6 2 7 6 4 1 6 2 7 6 4 1 6 2 7 6 4 1 6 2 7 6 4 1 Integrated circuitsAdvantages and disadvantages of integrated circuitsInside an IC packageIC classificationsMaking monolithic ICFabrication of components on monolithic ICSimple monolithic ICs IC packingsIC symbolsScale of integrationSome circuits using ICs. 2 4 . 2 4 . 2 4 . 2 4 . 2 4 . Hyb r i d Pa r a m eter s Hyb r i d Pa r a m eter s Hyb r i d Pa r a m eter s Hyb r i d Pa r a m eter s Hyb r i d Pa r a m eter s 642661 642661 642661 642661 642661 Hybri d parametersDetermi nati on of h parametersh parameter equi val ent ci rcui t Performance of a linear circuit in h parameters The h parameters of a transistorNomenclature for transi stor h parametersTransi stor ci rcui t performance in h parametersApproximate hybrid formul as for transi stor ampl i fi erExperi mental determination of transistor h parametersLimitations of h parameters. (xiv) 2 5 . 2 5 . 2 5 . 2 5 . 2 5 . Op er a ti o n a l Am p l i fi er s Op er a ti o n a l Am p l i fi er s Op er a ti o n a l Am p l i fi er s Op er a ti o n a l Am p l i fi er s Op er a ti o n a l Am p l i fi er s 6 6 2 72 8 6 6 2 72 8 6 6 2 72 8 6 6 2 72 8 6 6 2 72 8 Operational amplifierDifferential amplifier (DA)Basic circuit of differential amplifier Operation of differential amplifierCommon- mode and differential-mode signalsDouble- ended input operation of DAVoltage gains of DACommon-mode rejection ratio (CMRR) D.C. analysis of differential amplifier (DA) Overview of differential amplifierParameters of DA (or OP-amp) due to mismatch of transistorsInput bias currentA.C. analysis of differential amplifierCommon-mode voltage gainOperational amplifier (OP-amp)Schematic symbol of operational amplifierOutput voltage from OP-ampA.C. analysis of OP-ampBandwidth of an OP-amp Slew rateFrequency response of an OP-amp OP-amp with negative feedbackApplications of OP-ampInverting amplifierInput and output impedance of inverting amplifierNoninverting amplifierVoltage follower Multistage OP-amp circuitsEffect of negative feedback on OP-amp i mpedancesFaul ts i n feedback ci rcui tsSummary of OP-amp configurationsSumming amplifiersApplications of summing amplifiers OP-amp integrators and differentiatorsOP-amp integratorCritical frequency of i ntegratorsOP-amp di fferenti atorComparators Comparator circuits. 26. 26. 26. 26. 26. Di g i ta l El ectr o n i cs Di g i ta l El ectr o n i cs Di g i ta l El ectr o n i cs Di g i ta l El ectr o n i cs Di g i ta l El ectr o n i cs 729 773 729 773 729 773 729 773 729 773 Analog and digital signalsDigital circuitBinary number systemPlace valueDecimal to binary conversionBinary to decimal conversionOctal number systemHexadecimal number system Binary-coded decimal code (BCD code)Logic gatesThree basic logic gatesOR gateAND gateNOT gate or inverterCombination of basic logic gatesNAND gate as a universal gate- Excl usi ve OR gateEncoders and decodersAdvantages and disadvantages of digital electronicsBoolean algebraBoolean theorems DeMorgans theoremsOperator precedenceCombinational logic circuitsBoolean expressions for combinational logic circuitsAND and OR operations in Boolean expressionTruth table from logic circuitDeveloping l ogi c ci rcui t from i ts Bool ean expressi onSum-of-products form Simplification of Boolean expressionsBinary additionElectronic adders Flip-flops. I II IIn d ex n d ex n d ex n d ex n d ex 775 778 775 778 775 778 775 778 775 778