It is a grand and beautiful sight to see man emerge somehow from nothing by his own efforts;

dissipate, by the light of his reason, the shadows in which nature had enveloped him; rise above
himself; soar by means of his mind into the heavenly regions; traverse, like the sun, the vast expanse of
the universe with giant steps; and, what is even grander and more difficult, return to himself in order to
study man and know his nature, his duties, and his end. Jean-Jacques Rousseau, Discourse on the
Sciences and the Arts
We ended last class with the challenge of Socrates the challenge to begin thinking philosophically. The
first step from our great teacher is to accept our ignorance, to step out of childhood into adulthood. I
am sure to most of you this process seems to be one of a movement into darkness, into some deep
cavern of nothingness where there is nothing to orient us. Immanuel Kant has a different vision, a
different metaphor. He begins his work saying that Socrates teaching is at the same time a loss and a
gain and what we, those so few who take the journey are able to gain, is Enlightenment. Think of this
as a light, as something which has turned on which has not ever been there before, a great light of
reason to be able to look at both the world and ourselves for the first time.

Kants What is Enlightenment
I. Defining Enlightenment
(a) Enlightenment is mans emergence from his self-imposed immaturity. Immaturity is the
inability to use ones own understanding without guidance from another. This immaturity is self-
imposed
o Immaturity translates Unmundigkeit which literally means mouthless or not being
able to speak for oneself. In the legal sense we are Unmundigkeit when we cannot
enter contracts (b/c we are a minor or insane). These people are spoken for by a
Vormunder or guardian. An unmundig person is not responsible for themselves and is
assigned by custom or court a person to manage their affairs.
o So, without Enlightenment, we are mouthless b/c we dont have the courage to use our
understanding without guidance from another so, we must say Sapre Aude! (Dare to
use our understanding!)
o Examples of why we stay immature our guardians:
(1) Book give us our understanding (theory/cognition)
(2) Spiritual director gives us our conscience (practice/morality)
(3) Doctors give us our diet (organismic nature)
(b) Enlightenment modifies relations of will, authority, use of reason
o Notice how the idea of danger pops its head up here. There is real fear by when we try
to modify the will, our idea of authority, and the use of reason for a person or society
people scare those who are in authority positions.
o As Milton says, But now, with a most inhuman cruelty, they who have put out the
peoples eyes, reproach them of their blindness
o Kant says that the danger is not really that great, but he is downplaying that which
Socrates showed us last time he doesnt talk about the collective we except that we
need the whole to gain Enlightenment
o Kant says that people will make mistakes because it is difficult if not impossible for a
single person to get themselves out of this state of ignorance since they are fond of it.
They like the rules and formulas which they have been given and will not throw off
these shackles. This is a basic lesson you must learn, everyone is afraid at first to think
for themselves.
(c) Ambiguity (collective process and individual task/obligation)
o Kant then says that the project of Enlightenment might be better put to a society why
is this? Discuss Rousseaus idea of amour propre. This can be defined as self-love, but
it is the self-love as seen through anothers eye. This is why we need society, since much
of our desire to action if because we have an all seeing eye of the society always
watching us, always telling us what to do, and we need this at first when we are
immature (think about Santa, God, and all the other things we tell children are watching
them)
o Kant thinks that if people are free they will become Enlightened, but Kant also thinks
that this must be a slow more conservative process and not a revolution why?
Revolution can overthrow a power, but it cannot reform thinking since the new power
will just have their own un-enlightened prejudices.
II. Defining Escape
(a) Realms of obedience and reason must be distinguished
o Public (free) vs. Private (submissive) uses of reason
(a) 'Private' = use of reason in society we must obey (think about the rules for
how we are to drive on the road, if we are a soldier we must fight, as a citizen I
must pay taxes, as a priest I must do my offices duty, etc.); here we use our
reasoning to decide how to achieve the ends which have been laid out by
others
Private here means deprived of freedom and accountable to a
particular authority
(b) 'Public' = the use or reason by a scholar to the literate world (freedom of the
pen; note that this was not had at the time!)
Why do we need this? We need this because we need an area in our
lives which is unrestricted by rules, where we are safe to think any
thought, where we are not bound by any ends of another person
Kant says in another work of his which we are not reading that human
beings, should not be led by instinct, nor be provided for and
instructed by ready-made knowledge; instead, he should produce
everything for himself. This means that man is an animal and he needs
a master and that master must be himself.
Notice that Kant says that we cannot and should never bind ourselves with oath
to an unalterable symbol in order to guard people he is talking about theology
here and trying to make progress in history; This argument works for all beliefs
political, religious, etc. So, what do we say here, can we enact a belief that we
think people should be bound to at all times and in all places?
III. Assessing our present situation
If it is now asked, Do we presently live in an enlightened age? the answer must be, No, but
we do live in an age of enlightenment.
o Problem: Religious issues. We need leaders who are not just tolerant of other
religious positions, but take it as their duty to prescribe nothing to people. This alone
will allow people the freedom to think and to be enlightened.
o So, why does Kant dislike this idea of tolerance?
Kant focuses on religion for two reasons
o (1) Rulers have no interest in assuming a guardians role in science and the arts
o (2) This form of immaturity is the most pernicious and disgraceful of all
Kant says that we must have:
o An Enlightened ruler with an army behind him to do this
o Civil freedom which will lead to spiritual freedom
o A government which treats people not as machines, but in accord with their dignity


THE VALUE OF PHILOSOPHY - OUTLINE
What is the value of philosophy?
o Science and pragmatists doubt if philosophy is useful; this is a result of not
understanding the ends of different disciplines
Sciences end using inventions to better the life of mankind (utility)
Philosophys end directly benefits individuals minds and indirectly society
through the effects of individuals
o What are the prejudices of practical men?
Practical men are those who only recognize material needs
Analogy: Food for the body vs. food for the mind
If we were to create a society which had its material needs met, we would still
need more to create a valuable society
Philosophy gives food for the mind and it is only those who do value these that
think philosophy is a waste of time
What are the ends of philosophy?
o Philosophys end is knowledge but what kind?
Knowledge that unifies and systematizes the sciences
Knowledge that results from critically examining our convictions, prejudices, and
beliefs
o Problem: Philosophy has not provided many definite answers to its questions as science
has
Answer 1: The definite knowledge it has attained becomes a separate discipline
Ex. Astronomy, mathematics, physics, psychology, sociology, etc.
Answer 2: Many questions cannot be answered
Does the universe have a purpose? Is it just atoms in the void?
Is consciousness permanent and giving rise to indefinite growth, or is it
just an accident on a small planet?
Are good and evil important to the universe? Only man?
Whether these questions are discoverable or not, we have not found
one yet, but they are important and we must examine all the
approaches to them (why?)
Challenge to Answer 2: We can find answers to these fundamental questions
Religious answer: We can prove basic religious claims
Reply: We must take a survey of human knowledge and find out its
methods and limitations. Russell thinks this shows that we will most
likely never find answers to these questions
Philosophys value must not be from claiming answers to these problems,
because we do not have definite knowledge here
The value of philosophy comes from its uncertainty
o Those who go through life imprisoned to their prejudices from common sense, from
society of its age or place, and from our own minds think the world definite, finite and
obvious
o Philosophy opens up the world to questioning and the everyday world becomes
interesting
o Philosophy cannot tell us true answers, but it can show many possibilities we have never
thought of; this removes from us the feelings of certainty and increases out knowledge;
it removes our dogmatism and keeps alive wonder
The value of philosophy comes from how great the objects which it contemplates are and the
freedom it gives us from our dogmatism
o Those who live by instinct shut off the world to their own private interests; the world is
only see as it can help or hinder us, it becomes a place of personal wishes
This is a life of constant strife between desire and the powerlessness of our will
o The philosophic life is calm and free due to it leaving our private world in ruins
If our life is to be great, we must exist our prison of desire
Philosophic contemplation gives us escape
o It views the world impartially, not as us versus them as everything else does
o It does not try and prove that the world is here for man, but allows its desire for
knowledge which does not alter its objects in advance
It is not means-end reasoning (i.e., instrumental reasoning)
It seeks to discover the infinity of the universe and through contemplation
achieves to share in its infinity
Philosophy merges the self and not-self
o A great soul is not found through instrumental reasoning; we cannot make the universe
into ourselves
Man is not the measure of all things, truth is not man-made
Those of believe such a doctrine fear that their word might not be law
o Philosophy enlarges the not-self and thereby the self contemplating the not-self
Everything that is private, habit, and self-interest distorts the object and impairs
knowledge
Personal and private things make the intellect a prison
Free intellect sees as God would, without a here and now, without hopes and
fears, without custom and tradition, with calmness and dispassion; this
knowledge is impersonal
Philosophy values the abstract and universal knowledge, not accidental
knowledge (we must see how our own sense-organs distort and reveal)
Results of Philosophic Contemplation
o The mind becomes free and impartial in its actions and emotions
o Its purposes and desires as part of the whole
Impartiality in contemplation is the desire for truth
Impartiality in action is the desire for justice
Impartiality in emotion is the desire for universal love
o This shows that contemplation enlarges the objects of thought, action, and emotion and
makes us citizens of the universe
If we become citizens in this universe we gain freedom and liberation from our
narrow hopes and fears
Summary: Philosophy is not to be studied for definite answers, but for the sake of the questions
themselves because these enlarge our conception of what is possible, enrich our intellectual
imagination and diminish dogmatism which closes the mind against speculation. Above all, we
do philosophy because through contemplating the universe, the mind is made great and
becomes capable of the union with the universe, its highest good.