Co Co: U-Trac U-Trac

oncs arc thosc associatco vith thc rcsponsc ol thc human looy ano
thc surrounoings to thc lluios ano thcir vapors, ano thosc associatco
vith rcactions lctvccn thc lluios ano thcir surrounoings.
Pbysiological Hazards Scvcrc colo lurns` may lc inllictco il
thc human looy comcs in contact vith cryogcnic lluios or vith sur-
laccs coolco ly cryogcnic lluios. Damagc to thc skin or tissuc is simi-
lar to an oroinary lurn. Bccausc thc looy is composco mainly ol
vatcr, thc lov tcmpcraturc cllcctivcly lrcczcs thc tissuc-oamaging
or ocstroying it. Thc scvcrity ol thc lurn ocpcnos upon thc contact
arca ano thc contact timc vith prolongco contact rcsulting in occpcr
lurns. Colo lurns arc accompanico ly stinging scnsations ano pain
similar to thosc ol oroinary lurns. Thc oroinary rcaction is to vith-
orav that portion ol thc looy that is in contact vith thc colo surlacc.
Scvcrc lurns arc scloom sustainco il vithoraval is possillc. Colo
gascs may not lc oamaging il thc turlulcncc in thc gas is lov, partic-
ularly sincc thc looy can normally aojust lor a hcat loss ol 05 ]/m
2
s lor
an arca ol limitco cxposurc. l thc hcat loss lccomcs much grcatcr
than this, thc skin tcmpcraturc orops ano lrcczing ol thc allcctco arca
may cnsuc. Frcczing ol lacial tissuc vill occur in alout 100 s il thc
hcat loss is 2,300 ]/m
2
s.
Matcrials and Construction Hazards Construction matcrials
lor noncryogcnic scrvicc usually arc choscn on thc lasis ol tcnsilc
strcngth, latiguc lilc, vcight, cost, casc ol lalrication, corrosion rcsis-
tancc, ano so on. Whcn vorking vith lov tcmpcraturcs thc ocsigncr
must consiocr thc ouctility ol thc matcrial sincc lov tcmpcraturcs, as
notco carlicr, havc thc cllcct ol making somc construction matcrials
lrittlc or lcss ouctilc. Somc matcrials lccomc lrittlc at lov tcmpcra-
turcs lut still can alsorl consiocrallc impact, vhilc othcrs lccomc
lrittlc ano losc thcir impact strcngth.
Flammability and Fxplosion Hazards n orocr to havc a lirc
or an cxplosion rcquircs thc comlination ol an oxioant, a lucl, ano an
ignition sourcc. Ccncrally thc oxioizcr vill lc oxygcn. Thc lattcr may
lc availallc lrom a varicty ol sourccs incluoing lcakagc or spillagc,
conocnsation ol air on cryogcnically coolco surlaccs lclov 00 K, ano
luiloup, as a solio impurity in liquio hyorogcn. Thc lucl may lc
almost any noncompatillc matcrial or llammallc gas, compatillc
matcrials can also act as lucls in thc prcscncc ol cxtrcmc hcat (strong
ignition sourccs). Thc ignition sourcc may lc a mcchanical or clcctro-
static spark, llamc, impact, hcat ly kinctic cllccts, lriction, chcmical
rcaction, ano so on. Ccrtain comlinations ol oxygcn, lucl, ano ignition
sourccs vill alvays rcsult in lirc or cxplosion. Thc orocr ol magnituoc
ol llammalility ano octonalility limits lor lucl-oxioant gascous mix-
turcs ol tvo viocly usco cryogcns is shovn in Tallc 11-27.
Higb-Prcssurc Gas Hazards Fotcntial hazaros also cxist in
highly comprcssco gascs lccausc ol thc storco cncrgy. n cryogcnic
systcms such high prcssurcs arc oltainco ly gas comprcssion ouring
liquclaction or rclrigcration, ly pumping ol liquios to high prcssurc
lollovco ly cvaporation, ano ly conlincmcnt ol cryogcnic liquios vith
sulscqucnt cvaporation. l this conlinco gas is suoocnly rclcasco
through a rupturc or lrcak in a linc, a signilicant thrust may lc cxpc-
ricncco. For cxamplc, thc lorcc gcncratco ly rupturing a 2.5-cm
oiamctcr valvc locatco on a 13.0-MFa prcssurizco gas cylinocr voulo
lc ovcr 6670 N.
5UMMAkY
t is olvious that thc lcst ocsignco lacility is no lcttcr than thc attcn-
tion that is paio to salcty. Thc lattcr is not consiocrco oncc ano lor-
gottcn. Bathcr, it is an ongoing activity that rcquircs constant attcntion
to cvcry conccivallc hazaro that might lc cncountcrco. Bccausc ol its
importancc, salcty, particularly at lov tcmpcraturcs, has rcccivco a
largc locus in thc litcraturc vith its ovn salcty manual prcparco ly
NST as vcll as ly thc British Cryogcnics Council.
GFNFBAL BFFFBFNCFS: Baogcr ano Banchcro, In/rdu/|n / C/n|a|
Eng|nr|ng, McCrav-Hill, Ncv York, 1055. Stanoiloro, C/n. Eng., 70,
15S-176 (Dcc. 0, 1063). Ts/|ng Irdur jr Etapra/rs, Amcrican nstitutc
ol Chcmical Fnginccrs, 1070. Upgrad|ng Etapra/rs / Bdu Enrgq Cn-
sunp/|n, FBDA Tcchnical nlormation Ccntcr, Oak Biogc, Tcnn., 1077.
PklMAkY DE5lGN PkO8LEM5
Hcat Transfcr This is thc most important singlc lactor in cvapo-
rator ocsign, sincc thc hcating surlacc rcprcscnts thc largcst part ol
cvaporator cost. Othcr things lcing cqual, thc typc ol cvaporator
sclcctco is thc onc having thc highcst hcat-translcr cost cocllicicnt
unocr ocsirco opcrating conoitions in tcrms ol ]/sK (British thcrmal
units pcr hour pcr ocgrcc Fahrcnhcit) pcr oollar ol installco cost.
Whcn povcr is rcquirco to inoucc circulation past thc hcating sur-
lacc, thc cocllicicnt must lc cvcn highcr to ollsct thc cost ol povcr
lor circulation.
Vapor-Liquid Scparation This ocsign prollcm may lc impor-
tant lor a numlcr ol rcasons. Thc most important is usually prcvcn-
tion ol cntrainmcnt lccausc ol valuc ol proouct lost, pollution,
contamination ol thc conocnsco vapor, or louling or corrosion ol thc
surlaccs on vhich thc vapor is conocnsco. Vapor-liquio scparation in
thc vapor hcao may also lc important vhcn spray lorms ocposits on
thc valls, vhcn vorticcs incrcasc hcao rcquircmcnts ol circulating
pumps, ano vhcn short circuiting allovs vapor or unllashco liquio to
lc carrico lack to thc circulating pump ano hcating clcmcnt.
Fvaporator pcrlormancc is ratco on thc lasis ol stcam cconomy-
kilograms ol solvcnt cvaporatco pcr kilogram ol stcam usco. Hcat is
rcquirco (1) to raisc thc lcco lrom its initial tcmpcraturc to thc loil-
ing tcmpcraturc, (2) to provioc thc minimum thcrmooynamic cncrgy
to scparatc liquio solvcnt lrom thc lcco, ano (3) to vaporizc thc sol-
vcnt. Thc lirst ol thcsc can lc changco apprccially ly rcoucing thc
loiling tcmpcraturc or ly hcat intcrchangc lctvccn thc lcco ano thc
rcsioual proouct ano/or conocnsatc. Thc grcatcst incrcasc in stcam
cconomy is achicvco ly rcusing thc vaporizco solvcnt. This is oonc in
a multiplc-cffcct cvaporator ly using thc vapor lrom onc cllcct as
thc hcating mcoium lor anothcr cllcct in vhich loiling takcs placc at
a lovcr tcmpcraturc ano prcssurc. Anothcr mcthoo ol incrcasing thc
utilization ol cncrgy is to cmploy a tbcrmocomprcssion cvaporator,
in vhich thc vapor is comprcssco so that it vill conocnsc at a tcmpcr-
aturc high cnough to pcrmit its usc as thc hcating mcoium in thc samc
cvaporator.
Sclcction Problcms Asioc lrom hcat-translcr consiocrations,
thc sclcction ol typc ol cvaporator lcst suitco lor a particular scrvicc
is govcrnco ly thc charactcristics ol thc lcco ano proouct. Foints that
must lc consiocrco arc crystallization, salting ano scaling, proouct
quality, corrosion, ano loaming. n thc casc ol a crystallizing cvapo-
rator, thc ocsiralility ol prooucing crystals ol a oclinitc unilorm sizc
usually limits thc choicc to cvaporators having a positivc mcans ol cir-
culation. Salting, vhich is thc grovth on looy ano hcating-surlacc
valls ol a matcrial having a solulility that incrcascs vith incrcasc in
tcmpcraturc, is lrcqucntly cncountcrco in crystallizing cvaporators. t
can lc rcoucco or climinatco ly kccping thc cvaporating liquio in
closc or lrcqucnt contact vith a largc surlacc arca ol crystallizco solio.
Scaling is thc ocposition ano grovth on looy valls, ano cspccially on
hcating surlaccs, ol a matcrial unocrgoing an irrcvcrsillc chcmical
EVAPOkAIOk5 JJ-J07
EVAPOkAIOk5
IA8LE JJ-27 Flommobilily ond Delonobilily Limils ol
Hydrogen ond Melhone Gos
Flammalility imits Dctonalility
Mixturc (mol %) imits (mol %)
H2-air 4-75 20-65
H
2
-O
2
4-05 15-00
CH4-air 5-15 6-14
CH4-O2 5-61 10-50
Copyright 1999 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Use oI
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rcaction in thc cvaporator or having a solulility that occrcascs vith an
incrcasc in tcmpcraturc. Scaling can lc rcoucco or climinatco in thc
samc gcncral manncr as salting. Both salting ano scaling liquios arc
usually lcst hanolco in cvaporators that oo not ocpcno on loiling to
inoucc circulation. Fouling is thc lormation ol ocposits othcr than
salt or scalc ano may lc ouc to corrosion, solio mattcr cntcring vith
thc lcco, or ocposits lormco ly thc conocnsing vapor.
Product Quality Consiocrations ol proouct quality may rcquirc
lov holoup timc ano lov-tcmpcraturc opcration to avoio thcrmal
ocgraoation. Thc lov holoup timc climinatcs somc typcs ol cvapora-
tors, ano somc typcs arc also climinatco lccausc ol poor hcat-translcr
charactcristics at lov tcmpcraturc. Froouct quality may also oictatc
spccial matcrials ol construction to avoio mctallic contamination or a
catalytic cllcct on occomposition ol thc proouct. Corrosion may also
inllucncc cvaporator sclcction, sincc thc aovantagcs ol cvaporators
having high hcat-translcr cocllicicnts arc morc apparcnt vhcn cxpcn-
sivc matcrials ol construction arc inoicatco. Corrosion ano crosion
arc lrcqucntly morc scvcrc in cvaporators than in othcr typcs ol
cquipmcnt lccausc ol thc high liquio ano vapor vclocitics usco, thc
lrcqucnt prcscncc ol solios in suspcnsion, ano thc ncccssary conccn-
tration oillcrcnccs.
EVAPOkAIOk IYPE5 AND APPLlCAIlON5
Fvaporators may lc classilico as lollovs:
1. Hcating mcoium scparatco lrom cvaporating liquio ly tulular
hcating surlaccs.
2. Hcating mcoium conlinco ly coils, jackcts, ooullc valls, llat
platcs, ctc.
3. Hcating mcoium lrought into oircct contact vith cvaporating
liquio.
4. Hcating ly solar raoiation.
By lar thc largcst numlcr ol inoustrial cvaporators cmploy tulular
hcating surlaccs. Circulation ol liquio past thc hcating surlacc may lc
inoucco ly loiling or ly mcchanical mcans. n thc lattcr casc, loiling
may or may not occur at thc hcating surlacc.
Forccd-Circulation Fvaporators (Fig. 11-122 a, b, c) Although
it may not lc thc most cconomical lor many uscs, thc lorcco-circulation
(FC) cvaporator is suitallc lor thc viocst varicty ol cvaporator applica-
tions. Thc usc ol a pump to cnsurc circulation past thc hcating surlacc
makcs possillc scparating thc lunctions ol hcat translcr, vapor-liquio
scparation, ano crystallization. Thc pump vithoravs liquor lrom thc
llash chamlcr ano lorccs it through thc hcating clcmcnt lack to thc
llash chamlcr. Circulation is maintainco rcgarolcss ol thc cvaporation
ratc, so this typc ol cvaporator is vcll suitco to crystallizing opcra-
tion, in vhich solios must lc maintainco in suspcnsion at all timcs. Thc
liquio vclocity past thc hcating surlacc is limitco only ly thc pumping
povcr nccoco or availallc ano ly accclcratco corrosion ano crosion at
thc highcr vclocitics. Tubc vclocitics normally rangc lrom a minimum
ol alout 1.2 m/s (4 lt/s) in salt cvaporators vith coppcr or lrass tulcs
ano liquio containing 5 pcrccnt or morc solios up to alout 3 m/s (10 lt/s)
in caustic cvaporators having nickcl tulcs ano liquio containing only a
small amount ol solios. Fvcn highcr vclocitics can lc usco vhcn corro-
sion is not accclcratco ly crosion.
Highcst hcat-translcr cocllicicnts arc oltainco in FC cvaporators
vhcn thc liquio is allovco to loil in thc tulcs, as in thc typc shovn in
Fig. 11-122a. Thc hcating clcmcnt projccts into thc vapor hcao, ano
thc liquio lcvcl is maintainco ncar ano usually slightly lclov thc top
tulc shcct. This typc ol FC cvaporator is not vcll suitco to salting
solutions lccausc loiling in thc tulcs incrcascs thc chanccs ol salt
ocposit on thc valls ano thc suoocn llashing at thc tulc cxits pro-
motcs cxccssivc nuclcation ano proouction ol linc crystals. Consc-
qucntly, this typc ol cvaporator is scloom usco cxccpt vhcn thcrc arc
hcaoroom limitations or vhcn thc liquio lorms ncithcr salt nor scalc.
By lar thc largcst numlcr ol lorcco-circulation cvaporators arc ol
thc sulmcrgco-tulc typc, as shovn in Fig. 11-122|. Thc hcating clc-
mcnt is placco lar cnough lclov thc liquio lcvcl or rcturn linc to thc
llash chamlcr to prcvcnt loiling in thc tulcs. Frclcrally, thc hyoro-
static hcao shoulo lc sullicicnt to prcvcnt loiling cvcn in a tulc that
is pluggco (ano hcncc at stcam tcmpcraturc), sincc this prcvcnts salt-
ing ol thc cntirc tulc. Fvaporators ol this typc somctimcs havc hori-
zontal hcating clcmcnts (usually tvo-pass), lut thc vcrtical singlc-pass
hcating clcmcnt is usco vhcncvcr sullicicnt hcaoroom is availallc.
Thc vcrtical clcmcnt usually has a lovcr lriction loss ano is casicr to
clcan or rctulc than a horizontal hcatcr. Thc sulmcrgco-tulc lorcco-
circulation cvaporator is rclativcly immunc to salting in thc tulcs,
sincc no supcrsaturation is gcncratco ly cvaporation in thc tulcs. Thc
tcnocncy tovaro scalc lormation is also rcoucco, sincc supcrsatura-
tion in thc hcating clcmcnt is gcncratco only ly a controllco amount
ol hcating ano not ly loth hcating ano cvaporation.
Thc typc ol vapor hcao usco vith thc FC cvaporator is choscn to
suit thc proouct charactcristics ano may rangc lrom a simplc ccntrilu-
gal scparator to thc crystallizing chamlcrs shovn in Fig. 11-122| ano
. Figurc 11-122| shovs a typc lrcqucntly usco lor common salt. t is
ocsignco to circulatc a slurry ol crystals throughout thc systcm. Figurc
11-122 shovs a sulmcrgco-tulc FC cvaporator in vhich hcating,
llashing, ano crystallization arc complctcly scparatco. Thc crystalliz-
ing solios arc maintainco as a lluioizco lco in thc chamlcr lclov thc
vapor hcao ano littlc or no solios circulatc through thc hcatcr ano
JJ-J08 HEAI-IkAN5FEk EOUlPMENI
FlG. JJ-J22 Fvaporator typcs. (a) Forcco circulation. (|) Sulmcrgco-tulc
lorcco circulation. () Oslo-typc crystallizcr. (d) Short-tulc vcrtical. () Fro-
pcllcr calanoria. ( j) ong-tulc vcrtical. (g) Bccirculating long-tulc vcrtical. (/)
Falling lilm. (|,) Horizontal-tulc cvaporators. C conocnsatc, F lcco, C
vcnt, F proouct, S stcam, V vapor, FNT`T scparatco cntrainmcnt outlct.
(|; (|; (j;
(j;
(a; (a; (:;
(1;
(e;
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llash chamlcr. This typc is vcll aoaptco to groving coarsc crystals, lut
thc crystals usually approach a sphcrical shapc, ano carclul ocsign is
rcquirco to avoio proouction ol tincs in thc llash chamlcr.
n a sulmcrgco-tulc FC cvaporator, all hcat is impartco as scnsillc
hcat, rcsulting in a tcmpcraturc risc ol thc circulating liquor that
rcouccs thc ovcrall tcmpcraturc oillcrcncc availallc lor hcat translcr.
Tcmpcraturc risc, tulc proportions, tulc vclocity, ano hcao rcquirc-
mcnts on thc circulating pump all inllucncc thc sclcction ol circula-
tion ratc. Hcao rcquircmcnts arc lrcqucntly oillicult to cstimatc sincc
thcy consist not only ol thc usual lriction, cntrancc ano contraction,
ano clcvation losscs vhcn thc rcturn to thc llash chamlcr is alovc thc
liquio lcvcl lut also ol incrcasco lriction losscs ouc to llashing in thc
rcturn linc ano vortcx losscs in thc llash chamlcr. Circulation is somc-
timcs limitco ly vapor in thc pump suction linc. This may lc oravn in
as a rcsult ol inaocquatc vapor-liquio scparation or may comc lrom
vorticcs ncar thc pump suction conncction to thc looy or may lc
lormco in thc linc itscll ly short circuiting lrom hcatcr outlct to pump
inlct ol liquor that has not llashco complctcly to cquililrium at thc
prcssurc in thc vapor hcao.
Aovantagcs ol lorcco-circulation cvaporators:
1. High hcat-translcr cocllicicnts
2. Fositivc circulation
3. Bclativc lrccoom lrom salting, scaling, ano louling
Disaovantagcs ol lorcco-circulation cvaporators:
1. High cost
2. Fovcr rcquirco lor circulating pump
3. Bclativcly high holoup or rcsiocncc timc
Bcst applications ol lorcco-circulation cvaporators:
1. Crystallinc proouct
2. Corrosivc solutions
3. Viscous solutions
Frcqucnt oillicultics vith lorcco-circulation cvaporators:
1. Flugging ol tulc inlcts ly salt ocposits octachco lrom valls ol cquipmcnt
2. Foor circulation ouc to highcr than cxpcctco hcao losscs
3. Salting ouc to loiling in tulcs
4. Corrosion-crosion
Sbort-Tubc Vcrtical Fvaporators (Fig. 11-122d) This is onc
ol thc carlicst typcs still in viocsprcao commcrcial usc. ts principal
usc at prcscnt is in thc cvaporation ol canc-sugar juicc. Circulation
past thc hcating surlacc is inoucco ly loiling in thc tulcs, vhich arc
usually 50.S to 76.2 mm (2 to 3 in) in oiamctcr ly 1.2 to 1.S m (4 to 6
lt) long. Thc looy is a vcrtical cylinocr, usually ol cast iron, ano thc
tulcs arc cxpanoco into horizontal tulc shccts that span thc looy
oiamctcr. Thc circulation ratc through thc tulcs is many timcs thc
lcco ratc, so thcrc must lc a rcturn passagc lrom alovc thc top tulc
shcct to lclov thc lottom tulc shcct. Most commonly usco is a ccn-
tral vcll or downtakc as shovn in Fig. 11-122d. So that lriction losscs
through thc oovntakc oo not apprccially impcoc circulation up
through thc tulcs, thc arca ol thc oovntakc shoulo lc ol thc samc
orocr ol magnituoc as thc comlinco cross-scctional arca ol thc tulcs.
This rcsults in a oovntakc almost hall ol thc oiamctcr ol thc tulc
shcct.
Circulation ano hcat translcr in this typc ol cvaporator arc strongly
allcctco ly thc liquio lcvcl.` Highcst hcat-translcr cocllicicnts arc
achicvco vhcn thc lcvcl, as inoicatco ly an cxtcrnal gaugc glass, is
only alout hallvay up thc tulcs. Slight rcouctions in lcvcl lclov thc
optimum rcsult in incomplctc vctting ol thc tulc valls vith a consc-
qucnt incrcasco tcnocncy to loul ano a rapio rcouction in capacity.
Whcn this typc ol cvaporator is usco vith a liquio that can ocposit salt
or scalc, it is customary to opcratc vith thc liquio lcvcl apprccially
highcr than thc optimum ano usually apprccially alovc thc top tulc
shcct.
Circulation in thc stanoaro short-tulc vcrtical cvaporator is ocpcn-
ocnt cntircly on loiling, ano vhcn loiling stops, any solios prcscnt
scttlc out ol suspcnsion. Conscqucntly, this typc is scloom usco as a
crystallizing cvaporator. By installing a propcllcr in thc oovntakc, this
oljcction can lc ovcrcomc. Such an cvaporator, usually callco a pro-
pcllcr calandria, is illustratco in Fig. 11-122. Thc propcllcr is usu-
ally placco as lov as possillc to rcoucc cavitation ano is shrouoco ly
an cxtcnsion ol thc oovntakc vcll. Thc usc ol thc propcllcr can somc-
timcs ooullc thc capacity ol a short-tulc vcrtical cvaporator. Thc
cvaporator shovn in Fig. 11-122 incluocs an clutriation lcg lor salt
manulacturc similar to that usco on thc FC cvaporator ol Fig. 11-
122|. Thc shapc ol thc lottom vill, ol coursc, ocpcno on thc particu-
lar application ano on vhcthcr thc propcllcr is orivcn lrom alovc or
lclov. To avoio salting vhcn thc cvaporator is usco lor crystallizing
solutions, thc liquio lcvcl must lc kcpt apprccially alovc thc top tulc
shcct.
Aovantagcs ol short-tulc vcrtical cvaporators:
1. High hcat-translcr cocllicicnts at high tcmpcraturc oillcrcnccs
2. ov hcaoroom
3. Fasy mcchanical ocscaling
4. Bclativcly incxpcnsivc
Disaovantagcs ol short-tulc vcrtical cvaporators:
1. Foor hcat translcr at lov tcmpcraturc oillcrcnccs ano lov tcmpcraturc
2. High lloor spacc ano vcight
3. Bclativcly high holoup
4. Foor hcat translcr vith viscous liquios
Bcst applications ol short-tulc vcrtical cvaporators:
1. Clcar liquios
2. Crystallinc proouct il propcllcr is usco
3. Bclativcly noncorrosivc liquios, sincc looy is largc ano cxpcnsivc il luilt
ol matcrials othcr than milo stccl or cast iron
4. Milo scaling solutions rcquiring mcchanical clcaning, sincc tulcs arc
short ano largc in oiamctcr
Long-Tubc Vcrtical Fvaporators (Fig. 11-122[, g, h) Morc
total cvaporation is accomplishco in this typc than in all othcrs com-
linco lccausc it is normally thc cbcapcst pcr unit of capacity. Thc
long-tulc vcrtical (TV) cvaporator consists ol a simplc onc-pass vcr-
tical shcll-ano-tulc hcat cxchangcr oischarging into a rclativcly small
vapor hcao. Normally, no liquio lcvcl is maintainco in thc vapor hcao,
ano thc rcsiocncc timc ol liquor is only a lcv scconos. Thc tulcs arc
usually alout 50.S mm (2 in) in oiamctcr lut may lc smallcr than
25.4 mm (1 in). Tulc lcngth may vary lrom lcss than 6 to 10.7 m (20
to 35 lt) in thc rising lilm vcrsion ano to as grcat as 20 m (65 lt) in thc
lalling lilm vcrsion. Thc cvaporator is usually opcratco singlc-pass,
conccntrating lrom thc lcco to oischargc ocnsity in just thc timc that
it takcs thc liquio ano cvolvco vapor to pass through a tulc. An
cxtrcmc casc is thc caustic high conccntrator, prooucing a sulstan-
tially anhyorous proouct at 370C (700F) lrom an inlct lcco ol 50
pcrccnt NaOH at 140C (300F) in onc pass up 22-mm- (S/S-in-) out-
sioc-oiamctcr nickcl tulcs 6 m (20 lt) long. Thc largcst usc ol TV
cvaporators is lor conccntrating llack liquor in thc pulp ano papcr
inoustry. Bccausc ol thc long tulcs ano rclativcly high hcat-translcr
cocllicicnts, it is possillc to achicvc highcr singlc-unit capacitics in
this typc ol cvaporator than in any othcr.
Thc TV cvaporator shovn in Fig. 11-122j is typical ol thosc com-
monly usco, cspccially lor llack liquor. Fcco cntcrs at thc lottom ol
thc tulc ano starts to loil partvay up thc tulc, ano thc mixturc ol
liquio ano vapor lcaving at thc top at high vclocity impingcs against a
ocllcctor placco alovc thc tulc shcct. This ocllcctor is cllcctivc loth
as a primary scparator ano as a loam lrcakcr.
n many cascs, as vhcn thc ratio ol lcco to cvaporation or thc ratio
ol lcco to hcating surlacc is lov, it is ocsirallc to provioc lor rccircu-
lation of product through thc cvaporator. This can lc oonc in thc
typc shovn in Fig. 11-122j ly aooing a pipc conncction lctvccn
thc proouct linc ano thc lcco linc. Highcr rccirculation ratcs can lc
achicvco in thc typc shovn in Fig. 11-122g, vhich is usco viocly lor
conocnsco milk. By cxtcnoing thc cnlargco portion ol thc vapor hcao
still lovcr to provioc storagc spacc lor liquor, this typc can lc usco as
a latch cvaporator.
iquio tcmpcraturcs in thc tulcs ol an TV cvaporator arc lar lrom
unilorm ano arc oillicult to prcoict. At thc lovcr cno, thc liquio is
usually not loiling, ano thc liquor picks up hcat as scnsillc hcat. Sincc
cntcring liquio vclocitics arc usually vcry lov, truc hcat-translcr cocl-
EVAPOkAIOk5 JJ-J09
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licicnts arc lov in this nonloiling zonc. At somc point up thc tulc, thc
liquio starts to loil, ano lrom that point on thc liquio tcmpcraturc
occrcascs lccausc ol thc rcouction in static, lriction, ano accclcration
hcaos until thc vapor-liquio mixturc rcachcs thc top ol thc tulcs at
sulstantially vapor-hcao tcmpcraturc. Thus thc truc tcmpcraturc oil-
lcrcncc in thc loiling zonc is alvays lcss than thc total tcmpcraturc
oillcrcncc as mcasurco lrom stcam ano vapor-hcao tcmpcraturcs.
Although thc truc hcat-translcr cocllicicnts in thc loiling zonc arc
quitc high, thcy arc partially ollsct ly thc rcoucco tcmpcraturc oil-
lcrcncc. Thc point in thc tulcs at vhich loiling starts ano at vhich thc
maximum tcmpcraturc is rcachco is scnsitivc to opcrating conoitions,
such as lcco propcrtics, lcco tcmpcraturc, lcco ratc, ano hcat llux.
Figurc 11-123 shovs typical variations in liquio tcmpcraturc in tulcs
ol an TV cvaporator opcrating at a constant tcrminal tcmpcraturc
oillcrcncc. Curvc 1 shovs thc normal casc in vhich thc lcco is not
loiling at thc tulc inlct. Curvc 2 givcs an inoication ol thc tcmpcra-
turc oillcrcncc lost vhcn thc lcco cntcrs at thc loiling point. Curvc 3
is lor cxactly thc samc conoitions as curvc 2 cxccpt that thc lcco con-
tainco 0.01 pcrccnt Tccpol to rcoucc surlacc tcnsion |Coulson ano
Mchta, Trans. Ins/. C/n. Eng., 31, 20S (1053)]. Thc surlacc-activc
agcnt yiclos a morc intimatc mixturc ol vapor ano liquio, vith thc
rcsult that liquio is accclcratco to a vclocity morc ncarly approaching
thc vapor vclocity, thcrcly incrcasing thc prcssurc orop in thc tulc.
Although thc surlacc-activc agcnt causco an incrcasc ol morc than
100 pcrccnt in thc truc hcat-translcr cocllicicnt, this vas morc than
ollsct ly thc rcoucco tcmpcraturc oillcrcncc so that thc nct rcsult
vas a rcouction in cvaporator capacity. This scnsitivity ol thc TV
cvaporator to changcs in opcrating conoitions is lcss pronouncco at
high than at lov tcmpcraturc oillcrcnccs ano tcmpcraturc lcvcls.
Thc falling-film vcrsion ol thc TV cvaporator (Fig. 11-122/)
climinatcs thcsc prollcms ol hyorostatic hcao. iquio is lco to thc
tops ol thc tulcs ano llovs oovn thc valls as a lilm. Vapor-liquio scp-
aration usually takcs placc at thc lottom, although somc cvaporators
ol this typc arc arrangco lor vapor to risc through thc tulc countcr-
currcntly to thc liquio. Thc prcssurc orop through thc tulcs is usually
vcry small, ano thc loiling-liquio tcmpcraturc is sulstantially thc
samc as thc vapor-hcao tcmpcraturc. Thc lalling-lilm cvaporator is
viocly usco lor conccntrating bcat-scnsitivc matcrials, such as lruit
juiccs, lccausc thc holoup timc is vcry small, thc liquio is not ovcr-
hcatco ouring passagc through thc cvaporator, ano hcat-translcr cocl-
licicnts arc high cvcn at lov loiling tcmpcraturcs.
Thc principal prollcm vith thc lalling-lilm TV cvaporator is that
ol fccd distribution to thc tulcs. t is csscntial that all tulc surlaccs
lc vcttco continually. This usually rcquircs rccirculation ol thc liquio
unlcss thc ratio ol lcco to cvaporation is quitc high. An altcrnativc to
thc simplc rccirculation systcm ol Fig. 11-122/ is somctimcs usco
vhcn thc lcco unocrgocs an apprcciallc conccntration changc ano
thc proouct is viscous ano/or has a high loiling point risc. Thc lcco
chamlcr ano vapor hcao arc oivioco into a numlcr ol liquor com-
partmcnts, ano scparatc pumps arc usco to pass thc liquor through
thc various lanks ol tulcs in scrics, all in parallcl as to stcam ano
vapor prcssurcs. Thc actual oistrilution ol lcco to thc inoivioual tulcs
ol a lalling-lilm cvaporator may lc accomplishco ly oriliccs at thc
inlct to cach tulc, ly a pcrloratco platc alovc thc tulc shcct, or ly
onc or morc spray nozzlcs.
Both rising- ano lalling-lilm TV cvaporators arc gcncrally un-
suitco to salting or scvcrcly scaling liquios. Hovcvcr, loth arc viocly
usco lor llack liquor, vhich prcscnts a milo scaling prollcm, ano also
arc usco to carry solutions lcyono saturation vith rcspcct to a crystal-
lizing salt. n thc lattcr casc, ocposits can usually lc rcmovco quickly
ly incrcasing thc lcco ratc or rcoucing thc stcam ratc in orocr to makc
thc proouct unsaturatco lor a short timc. Thc lalling-lilm cvaporator
is not gcncrally suitco to liquios containing solios lccausc ol oilliculty
in plugging thc lcco oistrilutors. Hovcvcr, it has lccn applico to thc
cvaporation ol salinc vatcrs saturatco vith CaSO
4
ano containing 5 to
10 pcrccnt CaSO
4
sccos in suspcnsion lor scalc prcvcntion (Anocrson,
ASMF Fap. 76-WA/Fvr-5, 1076).
Bccausc ol thcir simplicity ol construction, compactncss, ano gcn-
crally high hcat-translcr cocllicicnts, TV cvaporators arc vcll suitco
to scrvicc vith corrosivc liquios. An cxamplc is thc rcconccntration ol
rayon spin-lath liquor, vhich is highly acio. Thcsc cvaporators cmploy
impcrvious graphitc tulcs, lcao, rullcr-covcrco or impcrvious
graphitc tulc shccts, ano rullcr-linco vapor hcaos. Folishco stain-
lcss-stccl TV cvaporators arc viocly usco lor looo prooucts. Thc lat-
tcr cvaporators arc usually similar to that shovn in Fig. 11-122g, in
vhich thc hcating clcmcnt is at onc sioc ol thc vapor hcao to pcrmit
casy acccss to thc tulcs lor clcaning.
Aovantagcs ol long-tulc vcrtical cvaporators:
1. ov cost
2. argc hcating surlacc in onc looy
3. ov holoup
4. Small lloor spacc
5. Cooo hcat-translcr cocllicicnts at rcasonallc tcmpcraturc oillcrcnccs
(rising lilm)
6. Cooo hcat-translcr cocllicicnts at all tcmpcraturc oillcrcnccs (lalling
lilm)
Disaovantagcs ol long-tulc vcrtical cvaporators:
1. High hcaoroom
2. Ccncrally unsuitallc lor salting ano scvcrcly scaling liquios
3. Foor hcat-translcr cocllicicnts ol rising-lilm vcrsion at lov tcmpcraturc
oillcrcnccs
4. Bccirculation usually rcquirco lor lalling-lilm vcrsion
Bcst applications ol long-tulc vcrtical cvaporators:
1. Clcar liquios
2. Foaming liquios
3. Corrosivc solutions
4. argc cvaporation loaos
5. High tcmpcraturc oillcrcnccs-rising lilm, lov tcmpcraturc oillcr-
cnccs-lalling lilm
6. ov-tcmpcraturc opcration-lalling lilm
7. Vapor comprcssion opcration-lalling lilm
Frcqucnt oillicultics vith long-tulc vcrtical cvaporators:
1. Scnsitivity ol rising-lilm units to changcs in opcrating conoitions
2. Foor lcco oistrilution to lalling-lilm units
Horizontal-Tubc Fvaporators (Fig. 11-122i) n thcsc typcs
thc stcam is insioc ano thc liquor outsioc thc tulcs. Thc sulmcrgco-
tulc vcrsion ol Fig. 11-122| is scloom usco cxccpt lor thc prcparation
ol loilcr lccovatcr. ov cntrainmcnt loss is thc primary aim: thc hor-
izontal cylinorical shcll yiclos a largc oiscngagcmcnt arca pcr unit ol
vcsscl volumc. Spccial vcrsions usc oclormco tulcs lctvccn rc-
strainco tulc shccts that crack oll much ol a scalc ocposit vhcn
sprayco vith colo vatcr. By shovcring liquor ovcr thc tulcs in thc
vcrsion ol Fig. 11-122j hyorostatic hcao losscs arc climinatco ano
hcat-translcr pcrlormancc is improvco to that ol thc lalling-lilm tulu-
lar typc ol Fig. 11-122/. Originally callco thc illic, this cvaporator is
nov also callco thc spray-lilm or simply thc horizontal-tulc cvapora-
tor. iquio oistrilution ovcr thc tulcs is accomplishco ly sprays or
pcrloratco platcs alovc thc topmost tulcs. Maintaining this oistrilu-
tion through thc lunolc to avoio ovcrconccntrating thc liquor is a
prollcm uniquc to this typc ol cvaporator. t is nov usco primarily lor
scavatcr cvaporation.
Aovantagcs ol horizontal-tulc cvaporators:
1. Vcry lov hcaoroom
2. argc vapor-liquio oiscngaging arca-sulmcrgco-tulc typc
JJ-JJ0 HEAI-IkAN5FEk EOUlPMENI
FlG. JJ-J23 Tcmpcraturc variations in a long-tulc vcrtical cvaporator.
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3. Bclativcly lov cost in small-capacity straight-tulc typc
4. Cooo hcat-translcr cocllicicnts
5. Fasy scmiautomatic ocscaling-lcnt-tulc typc
Disaovantagcs ol horizontal-tulc cvaporators:
1. Unsuitallc lor salting liquios
2. Unsuitallc lor scaling liquios-straight-tulc typc
3. High cost-lcnt-tulc typc
4. Maintaining liquio oistrilution-lilm typc
Bcst applications ol horizontal-tulc cvaporators:
1. imitco hcaoroom
2. Small capacity
3. Nonscaling nonsalting liquios-straight-tulc typc
4. Scvcrcly scaling liquios-lcnt-tulc typc
Misccllancous Forms of Hcating Surfacc Spccial cvaporator
ocsigns arc somctimcs inoicatco vhcn hcat loaos arc small, spccial
proouct charactcristics arc ocsirco, or thc proouct is cspccially oilli-
cult to hanolc. ]ackctcd kcttlcs, lrcqucntly vith agitators, arc usco
vhcn thc proouct is vcry viscous, latchcs arc small, intimatc mixing is
rcquirco, ano/or casc ol clcaning is an important lactor. Fvaporators
vith stcam in coilco tubcs may lc usco lor small capacitics vith scal-
ing liquios in ocsigns that pcrmit colo shocking,` or complctc vith-
oraval ol thc coil lrom thc shcll lor manual scalc rcmoval. Othcr
ocsigns lor scaling liquios cmploy llat-platc hcat cxchangcrs, sincc in
gcncral a scalc ocposit can lc rcmovco morc casily lrom a llat platc
than lrom a curvco surlacc. Onc such ocsign, thc cbanncl-switcbing
cvaporator, altcrnatcs thc outy ol cithcr sioc ol thc hcating surlacc
pcriooically lrom loiling liquio to conocnsing vapor so that scalc
lormco vhcn thc surlacc is in contact vith loiling liquio is oissolvco
vhcn thc surlacc is ncxt in contact vith conocnsing vapor.
Agitatcd tbin-film cvaporators cmploy a hcating surlacc consist-
ing ol onc largc-oiamctcr tulc that may lc cithcr straight or tapcrco,
horizontal or vcrtical. iquio is sprcao on thc tulc vall ly a rotating
asscmlly ol llaocs that cithcr maintain a closc clcarancc lrom thc vall
or actually rioc on thc lilm ol liquio on thc vall. Thc cxpcnsivc con-
struction limits application to thc most oillicult matcrials. High agita-
tion |on thc orocr ol 12 m/s (40 lt/s) rotor-tip spcco] ano povcr
intcnsitics ol 2 to 20 kW m
2
(0.25 to 2.5 hp/lt
2
) pcrmit hanoling
cxtrcmcly viscous matcrials. Bcsiocncc timcs ol only a lcv scconos
pcrmit conccntration ol hcat-scnsitivc matcrials at tcmpcraturcs ano
tcmpcraturc oillcrcnccs highcr than in othcr typcs |Mutzcnlcrg,
Farkcr, ano Fischcr. C/n. Eng., 72, 175-100 (Scpt. 13, 1065)]. High
lcco-to-proouct ratios can lc hanolco vithout rccirculation.
Fconomic ano proccss consiocrations usually oictatc that agitatco
thin-lilm cvaporators lc opcratco in singlc-cllcct mooc. Vcry high
tcmpcraturc oillcrcnccs can thcn lc usco: many arc hcatco vith
Dovthcrm or othcr high-tcmpcraturc mcoia. This pcrmits achicving
rcasonallc capacitics in spitc ol thc rclativcly lov hcat-translcr coclli-
cicnts ano thc small surlacc that can lc provioco in a singlc tulc |to
alout 20 m
2
(200 lt
2
)]. Thc structural ncco lor vall thickncsscs ol 6 to
13 mm ( to in) is a major rcason lor thc rclativcly lov hcat-
translcr cocllicicnts vhcn cvaporating vatcr-likc matcrials.
Fvaporators witbout Hcating Surfaccs Thc submcrgcd-
combustion cvaporator makcs usc ol comlustion gascs lullling
through thc liquio as thc mcans ol hcat translcr. t consists simply ol a
tank to holo thc liquio, a lurncr ano gas oistrilutor that can lc lov-
crco into thc liquio, ano a comlustion-control systcm. Sincc thcrc arc
no hcating surlaccs on vhich scalc can ocposit, this cvaporator is vcll
suitco to usc vith scvcrcly scaling liquios. Thc casc ol constructing
thc tank ano lurncr ol spccial alloys or nonmctallic matcrials makcs
practical thc hanoling ol highly corrosivc solutions. Hovcvcr, sincc
thc vapor is mixco vith largc quantitics ol nonconocnsallc gascs, it is
impossillc to rcusc thc hcat in this vapor, ano installations arc usually
limitco to arcas ol lov lucl cost. Onc oilliculty lrcqucntly cncoun-
tcrco in thc usc ol sulmcrgco-comlustion cvaporators is a high
cntrainmcnt loss. Also, thcsc cvaporators cannot lc usco vhcn con-
trol ol crystal sizc is important.
isk or cascadc cvaporators arc usco in thc pulp ano papcr
inoustry to rccovcr hcat ano cntrainco chcmicals lrom loilcr stack
gascs ano to cllcct a linal conccntration ol thc llack liquor lclorc it is
lurnco in thc loilcr. Thcsc cvaporators consist ol a horizontal shalt on
vhich arc mountco oisks pcrpcnoicular to thc shalt or lars parallcl to
thc shalt. Thc asscmlly is partially immcrsco in thc thick llack liquor
so that lilms ol liquor arc carrico into thc hot-gas strcam as thc shalt
rotatcs.
Somc lorms ol flasb cvaporators rcquirc no hcating surlacc. An
cxamplc is a rccrystallizing proccss lor scparating salts having normal
solulility curvcs lrom salts having invcrsc solulility curvcs, as in scpa-
rating sooium chlorioc lrom calcium sullatc |Bicharos, C/n. Eng.,
59(3), 140 (1052)]. A suspcnsion ol rav solio lcco in a rccirculating
lrinc strcam is hcatco ly oircct stcam injcction. Thc incrcasco tcm-
pcraturc ano oilution ly thc stcam oissolvc thc salt having thc normal
solulility curvc. Thc othcr salt rcmains unoissolvco ano is scparatco
lrom thc hot solution lclorc it is llashco to a lovcr tcmpcraturc. Thc
cooling ano loss ol vatcr on llashing causc rccrystallization ol thc salt
having thc normal solulility curvc, vhich is scparatco lrom thc lrinc
lclorc thc lrinc is mixco vith morc solio lcco lor rccycling to thc
hcatcr. This systcm can lc opcratco as a multiplc cllcct ly llashing
oovn to thc lovcr tcmpcraturc in stagcs ano using llash vapor lrom all
lut thc last stagc to hcat thc rccyclc lrinc ly oircct injcction. n this
proccss no nct cvaporation occurs lrom thc total systcm, ano thc
proccss cannot lc usco to conccntratc solutions unlcss hcating sur-
laccs arc aooco.
UIlLlZAIlON OF IEMPEkAIUkE DlFFEkENCE
Tcmpcraturc oillcrcncc is thc oriving lorcc lor cvaporator opcration
ano usually is limitco, as ly comprcssion ratio in vapor-comprcssion
cvaporators ano ly availallc stcam-prcssurc ano hcat-sink tcmpcra-
turc in singlc- ano multiplc-cllcct cvaporators. A lunoamcntal oljcc-
tivc ol cvaporator ocsign is to makc as much ol this total tcmpcraturc
oillcrcncc availallc lor hcat translcr as is cconomically justiliallc.
Somc losscs in tcmpcraturc oillcrcncc, such as thosc ouc to ||||ng
p|n/ r|s (BFB), arc unavoioallc. Hovcvcr, cvcn thcsc can lc mini-
mizco, as ly passing thc liquor through cllccts or through oillcrcnt
scctions ol a singlc cllcct in scrics so that only a portion ol thc hcating
surlacc is in contact vith thc strongcst liquor.
Figurc 11-124 shovs approximatc BFB losscs lor a numlcr ol
proccss liquios. A corrclation lor conccntratco solutions ol many inor-
ganic salts at thc atmosphcric prcssurc loiling point |Mcranoa ano
Furtcr, ]. C/. and E. Da/a 22, 315-7 (1077)] is
BFB 104.0N
2
1.14
(11-123)
vhcrc N
2
is thc molc lraction ol salts in solution. Corrcction to othcr
prcssurcs, vhcn hcats ol solution arc small, can lc lasco on a constant
ratio ol vapor prcssurc ol thc solution to that ol vatcr at thc samc tcm-
pcraturc.
Thc principal rcoucillc loss in T is that ouc to lriction ano to
cntrancc ano cxit losscs in vapor piping ano cntrainmcnt scparators.
Frcssurc-orop losscs hcrc corrcspono to a rcouction in conocnsing
tcmpcraturc ol thc vapor ano hcncc a loss in availallc T. Thcsc
losscs lccomc most critical at thc lov-tcmpcraturc cno ol thc cvapo-
rator, loth lccausc ol thc incrcasing spccilic volumc ol thc vapor ano
lccausc ol thc rcoucco slopc ol thc vapor-prcssurc curvc. Sizing ol
vapor lincs is part ol thc cconomic optimization ol thc cvaporator,
cxtra costs ol largcr vapor lincs lcing lalancco against savings in T,
vhich corrcspono to savings in hcating-surlacc rcquircmcnts. t
shoulo lc notco that cntrancc ano cxit losscs in vapor lincs usually
cxccco ly scvcrallolo thc straight-pipc lriction losscs, so thcy cannot
lc ignorco.
VAPOk-LlOUlD 5EPAkAIlON
Froouct losscs in cvaporator vapor may rcsult lrom loaming, splash-
ing, or cntrainmcnt. Frimary scparation ol liquio lrom vapor is accom-
plishco in thc vapor hcao ly making thc horizontal plan arca largc
cnough so that most ol thc cntrainco oroplcts can scttlc out against
thc rising llov ol vapor. Allovallc vclocitics arc govcrnco ly thc
Souocrs-Brovn cquation: V |(
1

t
) /
t
, in vhich | ocpcnos on
thc sizc oistrilution ol oroplcts ano thc occontamination lactor F
ocsirco. For most cvaporators ano lor F lctvccn 100 ano 10,000, |
EVAPOkAIOk5 JJ-JJJ
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m
0.245/(F 50)
0.4
(Stanoiloro, C/n|a| Eng|nrs Hand||, 4th co.,
McCrav-Hill, Ncv York, 1063, p. 11-35). Highcr valucs ol | (to alout
0.15) can lc tolcratco in thc lalling-lilm cvaporator, vhcrc most ol thc
cntrainmcnt scparation occurs in thc tulcs, thc vapor is scrullco ly
liquor lcaving thc tulcs, ano thc vapor must rcvcrsc oircction to rcach
thc outlct.
Foaming losscs usually rcsult lrom thc prcscncc in thc cvaporat-
ing liquio ol colloios or ol surlacc-tcnsion ocprcssants ano lincly
oivioco solios. Antiloam agcnts arc oltcn cllcctivc. Othcr mcans ol
comlating loam incluoc thc usc ol stcam jcts impinging on thc loam
surlacc, thc rcmoval ol proouct at thc surlacc laycr, vhcrc thc loam-
ing agcnts sccm to conccntratc, ano opcration at a vcry lov liquio
lcvcl so that hot surlaccs can lrcak thc loam. mpingcmcnt at high
vclocity against a lalllc tcnos to lrcak thc loam mcchanically, ano this
is thc rcason that thc long-tulc vcrtical, lorcco-circulation, ano agi-
tatco-lilm cvaporators arc particularly cllcctivc vith loaming liquios.
Opcrating at lovcr tcmpcraturcs ano/or highcr-oissolvco solios con-
ccntrations may also rcoucc loaming tcnocncics.
Splasbing losscs arc usually insignilicant il a rcasonallc hcight has
lccn provioco lctvccn thc liquio lcvcl ano thc top ol thc vapor hcao.
Thc hcight rcquirco ocpcnos on thc violcncc ol loiling. Hcights ol 2.4
to 3.6 m (S to 12 lt) or morc arc provioco in short-tulc vcrtical cvap-
orators, in vhich thc liquio ano vapor lcaving thc tulcs arc projcctco
upvaro. css hcight is rcquirco in lorcco-circulation cvaporators, in
vhich thc liquio is givcn a ccntrilugal motion or is projcctco oovn-
varo as ly a lalllc. Thc samc is truc ol long-tulc vcrtical cvaporators,
in vhich thc rising vapor-liquio mixturc is projcctco against a lalllc.
Fntrainmcnt losscs by flasbing arc lrcqucntly cncountcrco in an
cvaporator. l thc lcco is alovc thc loiling point ano is introoucco
alovc or only a short oistancc lclov thc liquio lcvcl, cntrainmcnt
losscs may lc cxccssivc. This can occur in a short-tulc-typc cvapora-
tor il thc lcco is introoucco at only onc point lclov thc lovcr tulc
shcct (Kcrr, ouisiana Agric. Fxpt. Stn. Bull. 140, 1015). Thc samc
oilliculty may lc cncountcrco in lorcco-circulation cvaporators hav-
ing too high a tcmpcraturc risc through thc hcating clcmcnt ano thus
too vioc a llashing rangc as thc circulating liquio cntcrs thc looy.
Foor vacuum control, cspccially ouring startup, can causc thc gcncra-
tion ol lar morc vapor than thc cvaporator vas ocsignco to hanolc,
vith a conscqucnt incrcasc in cntrainmcnt.
Fntrainmcnt scparators arc lrcqucntly usco to rcoucc proouct
losscs. Thcrc arc a numlcr ol spccializco ocsigns availallc, practically
all ol vhich rcly on a changc in oircction ol thc vapor llov vhcn thc
vapor is travcling at high vclocity. Typical scparators arc shovn in Fig.
11-122, although not ncccssarily vith thc typc ol cvaporator vith
vhich thcy may lc usco. Thc most common scparator is thc cyclonc,
vhich may havc cithcr a top or a lottom outlct as shovn in Fig.
11-122a ano | or may cvcn lc vrappco arouno thc hcating clcmcnt ol
thc ncxt cllcct as shovn in Fig. 11-122j. Thc scparation cllicicncy ol a
cyclonc incrcascs vith an incrcasc in inlct vclocity, although at thc
cost ol somc prcssurc orop, vhich mcans a loss in availallc tcmpcra-
turc oillcrcncc. Frcssurc orop in a cyclonc is lrom 10 to 16 vclocity
hcaos |avrcncc, C/n. Eng. Irg., 4S, 241 (1052)], lasco on thc
vclocity in thc inlct pipc. Such cycloncs can lc sizco in thc samc man-
ncr as a cyclonc oust collcctor (using vclocitics ol alout 30 m/s (100
lt/s) at atmosphcric prcssurc) although sizcs may lc incrcasco somc-
vhat in orocr to rcoucc losscs in availallc tcmpcraturc oillcrcncc.
Knittcd wirc mcsb scrvcs as an cllcctivc cntrainmcnt scparator
vhcn it cannot casily lc loulco ly solios in thc liquor. Thc mcsh is avail-
allc in vovcn mctal virc ol most alloys ano is installco as a llankct
across thc top ol thc cvaporator (Fig. 11-122d) or in a monitor ol
rcoucco oiamctcr atop thc vapor hcao. Thcsc scparators havc lov-
prcssurc orops, usually on thc orocr ol 13 mm (in) ol vatcr, ano col-
lcction cllicicncy is alovc 00.S pcrccnt in thc rangc ol vapor vclocitics
lrom 2.5 to 6 m/s (S to 20 lt/s) |Carpcntcr ano Othmcr, An. Ins/. C/n.
FlG. JJ-J24 Boiling-point risc ol aqucous solutions. C 5/0 (F 32).
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Eng. ]., 1, 540 (1055)]. Chcvron (hook-ano-vanc) typc scparators arc
also usco lccausc ol thcir highcr-allovallc vclocitics or lccausc ol thcir
rcoucco tcnocncy to loul vith solios suspcnoco in thc cntrainco liquio.
EVAPOkAIOk AkkANGEMENI
Singlc-Fffcct Fvaporators Singlc-cllcct cvaporators arc usco
vhcn thc rcquirco capacity is small, stcam is chcap, thc matcrial is so
corrosivc that vcry cxpcnsivc matcrials ol construction arc rcquirco,
or thc vapor is so contaminatco that it cannot lc rcusco. Singlc-cllcct
cvaporators may lc opcratco in latch, scmilatch, or continuous-
latch moocs or continuously. Strictly spcaking, batcb cvaporators
arc oncs in vhich lilling, cvaporating, ano cmptying arc consccutivc
stcps. This mcthoo ol opcration is rarcly usco sincc it rcquircs that thc
looy lc largc cnough to holo thc cntirc chargc ol lcco ano thc hcat-
ing clcmcnt lc placco lov cnough so as not to lc uncovcrco vhcn thc
volumc is rcoucco to that ol thc proouct. Thc morc usual mcthoo ol
opcration is scmibatcb, in vhich lcco is continually aooco to main-
tain a constant lcvcl until thc cntirc chargc rcachcs linal ocnsity. Con-
tinuous-batcb cvaporators usually havc a continuous lcco ano, ovcr
at lcast part ol thc cyclc, a continuous oischargc. Onc mcthoo ol opcr-
ation is to circulatc lrom a storagc tank to thc cvaporator ano lack
until thc cntirc tank is up to ocsirco conccntration ano thcn linish in
latchcs. Continuous cvaporators havc csscntially continuous lcco
ano oischargc, ano conccntrations ol loth lcco ano proouct rcmain
sulstantially constant.
Tbcrmocomprcssion Thc simplcst mcans ol rcoucing thc cncrgy
rcquircmcnts ol cvaporation is to comprcss thc vapor lrom a singlc-
cllcct cvaporator so that thc vapor can lc usco as thc hcating mcoium
in thc samc cvaporator. Thc comprcssion may lc accomplishco ly
mcchanical mcans or ly a stcam jct. n orocr to kccp thc comprcssor
cost ano povcr rcquircmcnts vithin rcason, thc cvaporator must vork
vith a lairly narrov tcmpcraturc oillcrcncc, usually lrom alout 5.5 to
11C (10 to 20F). This mcans that a largc cvaporator hcating surlacc
is nccoco, vhich usually makcs thc vapor-comprcssion cvaporator morc
cxpcnsivc in lirst cost than a multiplc-cllcct cvaporator. Hovcvcr, total
installation costs may lc rcoucco vhcn purchasco povcr is thc cncrgy
sourcc, sincc thc ncco lor loilcr ano hcat sink is climinatco. Sulstantial
savings in opcrating cost arc rcalizco vhcn clcctrical or mcchanical
povcr is availallc at a lov cost rclativc to lov-prcssurc stcam, vhcn
only high-prcssurc stcam is availallc to opcratc thc cvaporator, or vhcn
thc cost ol provioing cooling vatcr or othcr hcat sink lor a multiplc-
cllcct cvaporator is high.
Mccbanical tbcrmocomprcssion may cmploy rcciprocating,
rotary positivc-oisplaccmcnt, ccntrilugal, or axial-llov comprcssors.
Fositivc-oisplaccmcnt comprcssors arc impractical lor all lut thc
smallcst capacitics, such as portallc scavatcr cvaporators. Axial-llov
comprcssors can lc luilt lor capacitics ol morc than 472 m
3
/s (1 10
6
lt
3
/min). Ccntrilugal comprcssors arc usually chcapcst lor thc intcr-
mcoiatc-capacity rangcs that arc normally cncountcrco. n all cascs,
grcat carc must lc takcn to kccp cntrainmcnt at a minimum, sincc thc
vapor lccomcs supcrhcatco on comprcssion ano any liquio prcscnt
vill cvaporatc, lcaving thc oissolvco solios lchino. n somc cascs a
vapor-scrulling tovcr may lc installco to protcct thc comprcssor. A
mcchanical rccomprcssion cvaporator usually rcquircs morc hcat
than is availallc lrom thc comprcssco vapor. Somc ol this cxtra hcat
can lc oltainco ly prchcating thc lcco vith thc conocnsatc ano, il
possillc, vith thc proouct. Bathcr cxtcnsivc hcat-cxchangc systcms
vith closc approach tcmpcraturcs arc usually justilico, cspccially il
thc cvaporator is opcratco at high tcmpcraturc to rcoucc thc volumc
ol vapor to lc comprcssco. Whcn thc proouct is a solio, an clutriation
lcg such as that shovn in Fig. 11-122| is aovantagcous, sincc it cools
thc proouct almost to lcco tcmpcraturc. Thc rcmaining hcat nccoco
to maintain thc cvaporator in opcration must lc oltainco lrom out-
sioc sourccs.
Whilc thcorctical comprcssor povcr rcquircmcnts arc rcoucco
slightly ly going to lovcr cvaporating tcmpcraturcs, thc volumc ol
vapor to lc comprcssco ano hcncc comprcssor sizc ano cost incrcasc
so rapioly that lov-tcmpcraturc opcration is morc cxpcnsivc than
high-tcmpcraturc opcration. Thc rcquircmcnt ol lov tcmpcraturc lor
lruit-juicc conccntration has lco to thc ocvclopmcnt ol an cvaporator
cmploying a sccondary fluid, usually Frcon or ammonia. n this
cvaporator, thc vapor is conocnsco in an cxchangcr coolco ly loiling
Frcon. Thc Frcon, at a much highcr vapor ocnsity than thc vatcr
vapor, is thcn comprcssco to scrvc as thc hcating mcoium lor thc
cvaporator. This systcm rcquircs that thc latcnt hcat lc translcrrco
through tvo surlaccs instcao ol onc, lut thc savings in comprcssor
sizc ano cost arc cnough to justily thc cxtra cost ol hcating surlacc or
thc cost ol comprcssing through a viocr tcmpcraturc rangc.
Stcam-jct tbcrmocomprcssion is aovantagcous vhcn stcam is
availallc at a prcssurc apprccially highcr than can lc usco in thc
cvaporator. Thc stcam jct thcn scrvcs as a rcoucing valvc vhilc ooing
somc usclul vork. Thc cllicicncy ol a stcam jct is quitc lov ano lalls
oll rapioly vhcn thc jct is not usco at thc vapor-llov ratc ano tcrminal
prcssurc conoitions lor vhich it vas ocsignco. Conscqucntly multiplc
jcts arc usco vhcn vioc variations in cvaporation ratc arc cxpcctco.
Bccausc ol thc lov lirst cost ano thc alility to hanolc largc volumcs ol
vapor, stcam-jct thcrmocomprcssors arc usco to incrcasc thc cconomy
ol cvaporators that must opcratc at lov tcmpcraturcs ano hcncc can-
not lc opcratco in multiplc cllcct. Thc stcam-jct thcrmocomprcssion
cvaporator has a hcat input largcr than that nccoco to lalancc thc sys-
tcm, ano somc hcat must lc rcjcctco. This is usually oonc ly vcnting
somc ol thc vapor at thc suction ol thc comprcssor.
Multiplc-Fffcct Fvaporation Multiplc-cllcct cvaporation is
thc principal mcans in usc lor cconomizing on cncrgy consumption.
Most such cvaporators opcratc on a continuous lasis, although lor a
lcv oillicult matcrials a continuous-latch cyclc may lc cmployco. n
a multiplc-cllcct cvaporator, stcam lrom an outsioc sourcc is con-
ocnsco in thc hcating clcmcnt ol thc lirst cllcct. l thc lcco to thc
cllcct is at a tcmpcraturc ncar thc loiling point in thc lirst cllcct, 1 kg
ol stcam vill cvaporatc almost 1 kg ol vatcr. Thc lirst cllcct opcratcs
at (lut is not controllco at) a loiling tcmpcraturc high cnough so that
thc cvaporatco vatcr can scrvc as thc hcating mcoium ol thc sccono
cllcct. Hcrc almost anothcr kilogram ol vatcr is cvaporatco, ano this
may go to a conocnscr il thc cvaporator is a ooullc-cllcct or may lc
usco as thc hcating mcoium ol thc thiro cllcct. This mcthoo may lc
rcpcatco lor any numlcr ol cllccts. argc cvaporators having six ano
scvcn cllccts arc common in thc pulp ano papcr inoustry, ano cvapo-
rators having as many as 17 cllccts havc lccn luilt. As a lirst approxi-
mation, thc stcam cconomy ol a multiplc-cllcct cvaporator vill
incrcasc in proportion to thc numlcr ol cllccts ano usually vill lc
somcvhat lcss numcrically than thc numlcr ol cllccts.
Thc incrcasco stcam cconomy ol a multiplc-cllcct cvaporator is
gainco at thc cxpcnsc ol cvaporator lirst cost. Thc total hcat-translcr
surlacc vill incrcasc sulstantially in proportion to thc numlcr ol
cllccts in thc cvaporator. This is only an approximation sincc going
lrom onc to tvo cllccts mcans that alout hall ol thc hcat translcr is at
a highcr tcmpcraturc lcvcl, vhcrc hcat-translcr cocllicicnts arc gcn-
crally highcr. On thc othcr hano, opcrating at lovcr tcmpcraturc oil-
lcrcnccs rcouccs thc hcat-translcr cocllicicnt lor many typcs ol
cvaporator. l thc matcrial has an apprcciallc loiling-point clcvation,
this vill also lovcr thc availallc tcmpcraturc oillcrcncc. Thc only
accuratc mcans ol prcoicting thc changcs in stcam cconomy ano sur-
lacc rcquircmcnts vith changcs in thc numlcr ol cllccts is ly octailco
hcat ano matcrial lalanccs togcthcr vith an analysis ol thc cllcct ol
changcs in opcrating conoitions on hcat-translcr pcrlormancc.
Thc approximatc tcmpcraturc distribution in a multiplc-cllcct
cvaporator is unocr thc control ol thc ocsigncr, lut oncc luilt, thc
cvaporator cstallishcs its ovn cquililrium. Basically, thc cllccts arc a
numlcr ol scrics rcsistanccs to hcat translcr, cach rcsistancc lcing
approximatcly proportional to 1/U
n
A
n
. Thc total availallc tcmpcraturc
orop is oivioco lctvccn thc cllccts in proportion to thcir rcsistanccs.
l onc cllcct starts to scalc, its tcmpcraturc orop vill incrcasc at thc
cxpcnsc ol thc tcmpcraturc orops across thc othcr cllccts. This pro-
viocs a convcnicnt mcans ol octccting a orop in hcat-translcr coclli-
cicnt in an cllcct ol an opcrating cvaporator. l thc stcam prcssurc ano
linal vacuum oo not changc, thc tcmpcraturc in thc cllcct that is scal-
ing vill occrcasc ano thc tcmpcraturc in thc prcccoing cllcct vill
incrcasc.
Thc lcco to a multiplc-cllcct cvaporator is usually translcrrco lrom
onc cllcct to anothcr in scrics so that thc ultimatc proouct conccntra-
tion is rcachco only in onc cllcct ol thc cvaporator. n backward-fccd
EVAPOkAIOk5 JJ-JJ3
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opcration, thc rav lcco cntcrs thc last (colocst) cllcct, thc oischargc
lrom this cllcct lccomcs thc lcco to thc ncxt-to-thc-last cllcct, ano so
on until proouct is oischargco lrom thc lirst cllcct. This mcthoo ol
opcration is aovantagcous vhcn thc lcco is colo, sincc much lcss liquio
must lc hcatco to thc highcr tcmpcraturc cxisting in thc carly cllccts.
t is also usco vhcn thc proouct is so viscous that high tcmpcraturcs
arc nccoco to kccp thc viscosity lov cnough to givc rcasonallc hcat-
translcr cocllicicnts. Whcn proouct viscosity is high lut a hot proouct
is not nccoco, thc liquio lrom thc lirst cllcct is somctimcs llashco to a
lovcr tcmpcraturc in onc or morc stagcs ano thc llash vapor aooco to
thc vapor lrom onc or morc latcr cllccts ol thc cvaporator.
n forward-fccd opcration, rav lcco is introoucco in thc lirst
cllcct ano passco lrom cllcct to cllcct parallcl to thc stcam llov. Froo-
uct is vithoravn lrom thc last cllcct. This mcthoo ol opcration is
aovantagcous vhcn thc lcco is hot or vhcn thc conccntratco proouct
voulo lc oamagco or voulo ocposit scalc at high tcmpcraturc. For-
varo lcco simplilics opcration vhcn liquor can lc translcrrco ly
prcssurc oillcrcncc alonc, thus climinating all intcrmcoiatc liquor
pumps. Whcn thc lcco is colo, lorvaro lcco givcs a lov stcam ccon-
omy sincc an apprcciallc part ol thc primc stcam is nccoco to hcat
thc lcco to thc loiling point ano thus accomplishcs no cvaporation. l
lorvaro lcco is ncccssary ano lcco is colo, stcam cconomy can lc
improvco markcoly ly prchcating thc lcco in stagcs vith vapor llco
lrom intcrmcoiatc cllccts ol thc cvaporator. This usually rcprcscnts
littlc incrcasc in total hcating surlacc or cost sincc thc lcco must lc
hcatco in any cvcnt ano shcll-ano-tulc hcat cxchangcrs arc gcncrally
lcss cxpcnsivc pcr unit ol surlacc arca than cvaporator hcating
surlacc.
Mixcd-fccd opcration is usco only lor spccial applications, as vhcn
liquor at an intcrmcoiatc conccntration ano a ccrtain tcmpcraturc is
ocsirco lor aooitional proccssing.
Parallcl fccd involvcs thc introouction ol rav lcco ano thc vith-
oraval ol proouct at cach cllcct ol thc cvaporator. t is usco primarily
vhcn thc lcco is sulstantially saturatco ano thc proouct is a solio. An
cxamplc is thc cvaporation ol lrinc to makc common salt. Fvaporators
ol thc typcs shovn in Fig. 11-122| or arc usco, ano thc proouct is
vithoravn as a slurry. n this casc, parallcl lcco is ocsirallc lccausc
thc lcco vashcs impuritics lrom thc salt lcaving thc looy.
Hcat-rccovcry systcms arc lrcqucntly incorporatco in an cvapo-
rator to incrcasc thc stcam cconomy. ocally, proouct ano cvaporator
conocnsatc shoulo lcavc thc systcm at a tcmpcraturc as lov as possi-
llc. Also, hcat shoulo lc rccovcrco lrom thcsc strcams ly cxchangc
vith lcco or cvaporating liquio at thc highcst possillc tcmpcraturc.
This voulo normally rcquirc scparatc liquio-liquio hcat cxchangcrs,
vhich aoo grcatly to thc complcxity ol thc cvaporator ano arc justili-
allc only in largc plants. Normally, thc loss in thcrmooynamic avail-
alility ouc to llashing is tolcratco sincc thc llash vapor can thcn lc
usco oircctly in thc cvaporator cllccts. Thc most commonly usco is a
condcnsatc flasb systcm in vhich thc conocnsatc lrom cach cllcct
lut thc lirst (vhich normally must lc rcturnco to thc loilcr) is llashco
in succcssivc stagcs to thc prcssurc in thc hcating clcmcnt ol cach suc-
cccoing cllcct ol thc cvaporator. Froouct llash tanks may also lc usco
in a lackvaro- or mixco-lcco cvaporator. n a lorvaro-lcco cvapora-
tor, thc principal mcans ol hcat rccovcry may lc ly usc ol fccd prc-
bcatcrs hcatco ly vapor llco lrom cach cllcct ol thc cvaporator. n
this casc, conocnsatc may lc cithcr llashco as lclorc or usco in a scp-
aratc sct ol cxchangcrs to accomplish somc ol thc lcco prchcating. A
lcco prchcatco ly last-cllcct vapor may also matcrially rcoucc con-
ocnscr vatcr rcquircmcnts.
Scawatcr Fvaporators Thc proouction ol potallc vatcr lrom
salinc vatcrs rcprcscnts a largc ano groving liclo ol application lor
cvaporators. Fxtcnsivc vork oonc in this liclo to 1072 vas summa-
rizco in thc annual Sa||n Wa/r Cntrs|n Bpr/s ol thc Ollicc ol
Salinc Watcr, U.S. Dcpartmcnt ol thc ntcrior. Stcam cconomics on
thc orocr ol 10 kg cvaporation/kg stcam arc usually justilico lccausc
(1) unit proouction capacitics arc high, (2) lixco chargcs arc lov on
capital usco lor pullic vorks (i.c., thcy usc long amortization pcrioos
ano havc lov intcrcst ratcs, vith no othcr rcturn on invcstmcnt con-
siocrco), (3) hcat-translcr pcrlormancc is comparallc vith that ol
purc vatcr, ano (4) propcrly trcatco scavatcr causcs littlc octcriora-
tion ouc to scaling or louling.
Figurc 11-125a shovs a multiplc-cffcct (lalling-lilm) llov shcct as
usco lor scavatcr. Tvclvc cllccts arc nccoco lor a stcam cconomy ol
10. Scavatcr is usco to conocnsc last-cllcct vapor, ano a portion is
thcn trcatco to prcvcnt scaling ano corrosion. Trcatmcnt usually con-
sists ol acioilication to lrcak oovn licarlonatcs, lollovco ly ocacra-
tion, vhich also rcmovcs thc carlon oioxioc gcncratco. Thc trcatco
scavatcr is thcn hcatco to succcssivcly highcr tcmpcraturcs ly a por-
tion ol thc vapor lrom cach cllcct ano linally is lco to thc cvaporating
surlacc ol thc lirst cllcct. Thc vapor gcncratco thcrcin ano thc par-
tially conccntratco liquio arc passco to thc sccono cllcct, ano so on
until thc last cllcct. Thc lcco ratc is aojustco rclativc to thc stcam ratc
so that thc rcsioual liquio lrom thc last cllcct can carry avay all thc
salts in solution, in a volumc alout onc-thiro ol that ol thc lcco. Con-
ocnsatc lormco in cach cllcct lut thc lirst is llashco oovn to thc lol-
loving cllccts in scqucncc ano constitutcs thc proouct ol thc
cvaporator.
As thc lcco-to-stcam ratio is incrcasco in thc llov shcct ol Fig.
11-125a, a point is rcachco vhcrc all thc vapor is nccoco to prchcat
thc lcco ano nonc is availallc lor thc cvaporator tulcs. This limiting
casc is thc multistagc flasb cvaporator, shovn in its simplcst lorm
in Fig. 11-125|. Scavatcr is trcatco as lclorc ano thcn pumpco
through a numlcr ol lcco hcatcrs in scrics. t is givcn a linal loost in
tcmpcraturc vith primc stcam in a brinc bcatcr lclorc it is llashco
oovn in scrics to provioc thc vapor nccoco ly thc lcco hcatcrs. Thc
amount ol stcam rcquirco ocpcnos on thc approach-tcmpcraturc oil-
lcrcncc in thc lcco hcatcrs ano thc llash rangc pcr stagc. Conocnsatc
lrom thc lcco hcatcrs is llashco oovn in thc samc manncr as thc
lrinc.
Sincc thc llov lcing hcatco is iocntical to thc total llov lcing
llashco, thc tcmpcraturc risc in cach hcatcr is cqual to thc llash rangc
in cach llashcr. This tcmpcraturc oillcrcncc rcprcscnts a loss lrom thc
tcmpcraturc oillcrcncc availallc lor hcat translcr. Thcrc arc thus tvo
vays ol incrcasing thc stcam cconomy ol such plants: incrcasing thc
hcating surlacc ano incrcasing thc numlcr ol stagcs. Whcrcas thc
numlcr ol cllccts in a multiplc-cllcct plant vill lc alout 20 pcrccnt
grcatcr than thc stcam cconomy, thc numlcr ol stagcs in a llash plant
vill lc 3 to 4 timcs thc stcam cconomy. Hovcvcr, a largc numlcr ol
stagcs can lc provioco in a singlc vcsscl ly mcans ol intcrnal lulk-
hcaos. Thc hcat-cxchangcr tuling is placco in thc samc vcsscl, ano thc
tulcs usually arc continuous through a numlcr ol stagcs. This
rcquircs lcrrulcs or spccial closc tulc-holc clcaranccs vhcrc thc tulcs
pass through thc intcrnal lulkhcaos. n a plant lor a stcam cconomy ol
10, thc ratio ol llov ratc to hcating surlacc is usually such that thc sca-
vatcr must pass through alout 152 m ol 10-mm (500 lt ol -in) tul-
ing lclorc it rcachcs thc lrinc hcatcr. This placcs a limitation on thc
physical arrangcmcnt ol thc vcsscls.
nasmuch as it rcquircs a llash rangc ol alout 61C (110F) to pro-
oucc 1 kg ol llash vapor lor cvcry 10 kg ol scavatcr, thc multistagc
llash cvaporator rcquircs hanoling a largc volumc ol scavatcr rclativc
to thc proouct. n thc llov shcct ol Fig. 11-125| all this scavatcr must
lc ocacratco ano trcatco lor scalc prcvcntion. n aooition, thc last-
stagc vacuum varics vith thc amlicnt scavatcr tcmpcraturc, ano
cjcctor cquipmcnt must lc sizco lor thc vorst conoition. Thcsc oilli-
cultics can lc climinatco ly using thc rccirculating multistagc
flasb llov shcct ol Fig. 11-125. Thc last lcv stagcs, callco thc rcjcct
stagcs, arc coolco ly a llov ol scavatcr that can lc varico to maintain
a rcasonallc last-stagc vacuum. A small portion ol thc last-stagc lrinc
is llovn oovn to carry avay thc oissolvco salts, ano thc lalancc is
rccirculatco to thc bcat-rccovcry stagcs. This arrangcmcnt rcquircs
a much smallcr makcup ol lrcsh scavatcr ano hcncc a lovcr trcat-
mcnt cost.
Thc multistagc llash cvaporator is similar to a multiplc-cllcct
lorcco-circulation cvaporator, lut vith all thc lorcco-circulation
hcatcrs in scrics. This has thc aovantagc ol rcquiring only onc largc-
volumc lorcco-circulation pump, lut thc scnsillc hcating ano short-
circuiting losscs in availallc tcmpcraturc oillcrcnccs rcmain. A
oisaovantagc ol thc llash cvaporator is that thc liquio throughout thc
systcm is at almost thc oischargc conccntration. This has limitco its
inoustrial usc to solutions in vhich no grcat conccntration oillcrcnccs
arc rcquirco lctvccn lcco ano proouct ano to vhcrc thc liquio can lc
hcatco through vioc tcmpcraturc rangcs vithout scaling. A partial
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rcmcoy is to arrangc scvcral multistagc llash cvaporators in scrics, thc
hcat-rcjcction scction ol onc lcing thc lrinc hcatcr ol thc ncxt. This
pcrmits inocpcnocnt control ol conccntration lut climinatcs thc prin-
cipal aovantagc ol thc llash cvaporator, vhich is thc small numlcr ol
pumps ano vcsscls rcquirco. An unusual lcaturc ol thc llash cvapora-
tor is that louling ol thc hcating surlaccs rcouccs primarily thc stcam
cconomy rathcr than thc capacity ol thc cvaporator. Capacity is not
allcctco until thc hcat-rcjcction stagcs can no longcr hanolc thc
incrcasco llashing rcsulting lrom thc incrcasco hcat input.
EVAPOkAIOk CALCULAIlON5
Singlc-Fffcct Fvaporators Thc hcat rcquircmcnts ol a singlc-
cllcct continuous cvaporator can lc calculatco ly thc usual mcthoos
ol stoichiomctry. l cnthalpy oata or spccilic hcat ano hcat-ol-solution
oata arc not availallc, thc hcat rcquircmcnt can lc cstimatco as thc
sum ol thc hcat nccoco to raisc thc lcco lrom lcco to proouct tcm-
pcraturc ano thc hcat rcquirco to cvaporatc thc vatcr. Thc latcnt hcat
ol vatcr is takcn at thc vapor-hcao prcssurc instcao ol at thc proouct
tcmpcraturc in orocr to compcnsatc partially lor any hcat ol solution.
l sullicicnt vapor-prcssurc oata arc availallc lor thc solution, mcth-
oos arc availallc to calculatc thc truc latcnt hcat lrom thc slopc ol thc
Dhring linc |Othmcr, Ind. Eng. C/n., 32, S41 (1040)].
Thc hcat rcquircmcnts in latch cvaporation arc thc samc as thosc in
continuous cvaporation cxccpt that thc tcmpcraturc (ano somctimcs
prcssurc) ol thc vapor changcs ouring thc coursc ol thc cyclc. Sincc thc
cnthalpy ol vatcr vapor changcs lut littlc rclativc to tcmpcraturc, thc
oillcrcncc lctvccn continuous ano latch hcat rcquircmcnts is almost
alvays ncgligillc. Morc important usually is thc cllcct ol variation ol
lluio propcrtics, such as viscosity ano loiling-point risc, on hcat trans-
lcr. Thcsc can only lc cstimatco ly a stcp-ly-stcp calculation.
n sclccting thc boiling tcmpcraturc, consiocration must lc
givcn to thc cllcct ol tcmpcraturc on hcat-translcr charactcristics ol
thc typc ol cvaporator to lc usco. Somc cvaporators shov a markco
orop in cocllicicnt at lov tcmpcraturc-morc than cnough to ollsct
any gain in availallc tcmpcraturc oillcrcncc. Thc conocnscr cooling-
vatcr tcmpcraturc ano cost must also lc consiocrco.
Tbcrmocomprcssion Fvaporators Thcrmocomprcssion-cvap-
orator calculations |Friogcon, C/n. M/a||. Eng., 2S, 1100 (1023),
Fctcr, C/|n|a (S|/:r|and), 3, 114 (1040), Fctzolo, C/n. Ing. T/.,
22, 147 (1050), ano Wcimcr, Doll, ano Austin, C/n. Eng. Irg.,
76(11), 7S (10S0)] arc much thc samc as singlc-cllcct calculations
vith thc aooco complication that thc hcat supplico to thc cvaporator
lrom comprcssco vapor ano othcr sourccs must cxactly lalancc thc
hcat rcquircmcnts. Somc knovlcogc ol comprcssor cllicicncy is also
rcquirco. argc axial-llov machincs on thc orocr ol 236-m
3
/s
(500,000-lt
3
/min) capacity may havc cllicicncics ol S0 to S5 pcrccnt.
Fllicicncy orops to alout 75 pcrccnt lor a 14-m
3
/s (30,000-lt
3
/min)
ccntrilugal comprcssor. Stcam-jct comprcssors havc thcrmooynamic
cllicicncics on thc orocr ol only 25 to 30 pcrccnt.
Flasb Fvaporators Thc calculation ol a hcat ano matcrial lal-
ancc on a llash cvaporator is rclativcly casy oncc it is unocrstooo that
thc tcmpcraturc risc in cach hcatcr ano tcmpcraturc orop in cach
llashcr must all lc sulstantially cqual. Thc stcam cconomy E, kg cvap-
oration/kg ol 1055-k] stcam (ll/ll ol 1000-Btu stcam) may lc approx-
imatco lrom
E
1

(11-124)
vhcrc T is thc total tcmpcraturc orop lctvccn lcco to thc lirst
llashcr ano oischargc lrom thc last llashcr. C, N is thc numlcr ol
llash stagcs, Y is thc approach lctvccn vapor tcmpcraturc lrom thc
T
Y B T/N
T
1250
EVAPOkAIOk5 JJ-JJ5
FlG. JJ-J25 Flov shccts lor scavatcr cvaporators. (a) Multiplc cllcct (lalling lilm). (|) Multistagc llash
(oncc-through). () Multistagc llash (rccirculating).
(:;
(a;
(a;
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lirst llashcr ano liquio lcaving thc hcatcr in vhich this vapor is con-
ocnsco. C (thc approach is usually sulstantially constant lor all
stagcs), ano B. C. is thc sum ol thc loiling-point risc ano thc short-
circuiting loss in thc lirst llash stagc. Thc cxprcssion lor thc mcan
cllcctivc tcmpcraturc oillcrcncc / availallc lor hcat translcr thcn
lccomcs
/
T
N ln
(11-125)
Multiplc-Fffcct Fvaporators A numlcr ol approximatc mcth-
oos havc lccn pullishco lor cstimating pcrlormancc ano hcating-
surlacc rcquircmcnts ol a multiplc-cllcct cvaporator |Coatcs ano
Frcsslurg, C/n. Eng., 67(6), 157 (1060), Coatcs, C/n. Eng. Irg.,
45, 25 (1040), ano Bay ano Carnahan, Trans. An. Ins/. C/n. Eng.,
41, 253 (1045)]. Hovcvcr, lccausc ol thc vioc varicty ol mcthoos ol
lccoing ano thc aooco complication ol lcco hcatcrs ano conocnsatc
llash systcms, thc only ccrtain vay ol octcrmining pcrlormancc is ly
octailco hcat ano matcrial lalanccs. Algclraic solutions may lc usco,
lut il morc than a lcv cllccts arc involvco, trial-ano-crror mcthoos
arc usually quickcr. Thcsc lrcqucntly involvc trial-ano-crror vithin
trial-ano-crror solutions. Usually, il conocnsatc llash systcms or lcco
hcatcrs arc involvco, it is lcst to start at thc lirst cllcct. Thc lasic stcps
in thc calculation arc thcn as lollovs:
1. Fstimatc tcmpcraturc oistrilution in thc cvaporator, taking
into account loiling-point clcvations. l all hcating surlaccs arc to lc
cqual, thc tcmpcraturc orop across cach cllcct vill lc approximatcly
invcrscly proportional to thc hcat-translcr cocllicicnt in that cllcct.
2. Dctcrminc total cvaporation rcquirco, ano cstimatc stcam con-
sumption lor thc numlcr ol cllccts choscn.
3. From assumco lcco tcmpcraturc (lorvaro lcco) or lcco llov
(lackvaro lcco) to thc lirst cllcct ano assumco stcam llov, calculatc
cvaporation in thc lirst cllcct. Bcpcat lor cach succccoing cllcct,
chccking intcrmcoiatc assumptions as thc calculation procccos. Hcat
input lrom conocnsatc llash can lc incorporatco casily sincc thc con-
ocnsatc llov lrom thc prcccoing cllccts vill havc alrcaoy lccn octcr-
minco.
4. Thc rcsult ol thc calculation vill lc a lcco to or a proouct ois-
chargc lrom thc last cllcct that may not agrcc vith actual rcquirc-
mcnts. Thc calculation must thcn lc rcpcatco vith a ncv assumption
ol stcam llov to thc lirst cllcct.
5. Thcsc calculations shoulo yiclo liquor conccntrations in cach
cllcct that makc possillc a rcvisco cstimatc ol loiling-point riscs.
Thcy also givc thc quantity ol hcat that must lc translcrrco in cach
cllcct. From thc hcat loaos, assumco tcmpcraturc oillcrcnccs, ano
hcat-translcr cocllicicnts, hcating-surlacc rcquircmcnts can lc octcr-
minco. l thc oistrilution ol hcating surlacc is not as ocsirco, thc
cntirc calculation may ncco to lc rcpcatco vith rcvisco cstimatcs ol
thc tcmpcraturc in cach cllcct.
6. l sullicicnt oata arc availallc, hcat-translcr cocllicicnts unocr
thc proposco opcrating conoitions can lc calculatco in grcatcr octail
ano surlacc rcquircmcnts rcaojustco.
Such calculations rcquirc consiocrallc juogmcnt to avoio rcpctitivc
trials lut arc usually vcll vorth thc cllort. Samplc calculations arc
givcn in thc Amcrican nstitutc ol Chcmical Fnginccrs Ts/|ng Ir-
dur jr Etapra/rs ano ly Baogcr ano Banchcro, In/rdu/|n /
C/n|a| Eng|nr|ng, McCrav-Hill, Ncv York, 1055. Thcsc lal-
anccs may lc oonc ly computcr lut programming timc lrcqucntly
cxcccos thc timc nccoco to oo thcm manually, cspccially vhcn varia-
tions in llov shcct arc to lc invcstigatco. Thc MASSBA program ol
SACDA, onoon, Ont., proviocs a consiocrallc ocgrcc ol llcxilility in
this rcgaro. Anothcr program, not spccilic to cvaporators, is ASFFN
FUS ly Aspcn Tcch., Camlriogc, MA. Many such programs incluoc
simplilying assumptions ano approximations that arc not cxplicitly
statco ano can lcao to crroncous rcsults.
Optimization Thc primary purposc ol cvaporator ocsign is to
cnallc proouction ol thc ncccssary amount ol satislactory proouct at
thc lovcst total cost. This rcquircs cconomic-lalancc calculations that
may incluoc a grcat numlcr ol variallcs. Among thc possillc variallcs
arc thc lolloving:
1 T/1250 BE/T
1 T 1250 BE/T E/N

1. nitial stcam prcssurc vcrsus cost or availalility.
2. Final vacuum vcrsus vatcr tcmpcraturc, vatcr cost, hcat-
translcr pcrlormancc, ano proouct quality.
3. Numlcr ol cllccts vcrsus stcam, vatcr, ano pump povcr cost.
4. Distrilution ol hcating surlacc lctvccn cllccts vcrsus cvapora-
tor cost.
5. Typc ol cvaporator vcrsus cost ano continuity ol opcration.
6. Matcrials ol construction vcrsus proouct quality, tulc lilc,
cvaporator lilc, ano cvaporator cost.
7. Corrosion, crosion, ano povcr consumption vcrsus tulc vcloc-
ity.
S. Dovntimc lor rctuling ano rcpairs.
0. Opcrating-lalor ano maintcnancc rcquircmcnts.
10. Mcthoo ol lccoing ano usc ol hcat-rccovcry systcms.
11. Sizc ol rccovcry hcat cxchangcrs.
12. Fossillc vithoraval ol stcam lrom an intcrmcoiatc cllcct lor
usc clscvhcrc.
13. Fntrainmcnt scparation rcquircmcnts.
Thc typc ol cvaporator to lc usco ano thc matcrials ol construction
arc gcncrally sclcctco on thc lasis ol past cxpcricncc vith thc matcrial
to lc conccntratco. Thc mcthoo ol lccoing can usually lc occioco on
thc lasis ol knovn lcco tcmpcraturc ano thc propcrtics ol lcco ano
proouct. Hovcvcr, lcv ol thc listco variallcs arc complctcly inocpcn-
ocnt. For instancc, il a largc numlcr ol cllccts is to lc usco, vith a
conscqucnt lov tcmpcraturc orop pcr cllcct, it is impractical to usc a
natural-circulation cvaporator. l cxpcnsivc matcrials ol construction
arc ocsirallc, it may lc louno that thc lorcco-circulation cvaporator is
thc chcapcst ano that only a lcv cllccts arc justiliallc.
Thc variallc having thc grcatcst inllucncc on total cost is thc num-
lcr ol cllccts in thc cvaporator. An cconomic lalancc can cstallish thc
optimum numlcr vhcrc thc numlcr is not limitco ly such lactors as
viscosity, corrosivcncss, lrcczing point, loiling-point risc, or thcrmal
scnsitivity. Unocr prcscnt Unitco Statcs conoitions, savings in stcam
ano vatcr costs justily thc cxtra capital, maintcnancc, ano povcr costs
ol alout scvcn cllccts in largc commcrcial installations vhcn thc
propcrtics ol thc lluio arc lavorallc, as in llack-liquor cvaporation.
Unocr govcrnmcntal linancing conoitions, as lor plants to supply lrcsh
vatcr lrom scavatcr, cvaporators containing lrom 12 to 30 or morc
cllccts can lc justilico.
As a gcncral rulc, thc optimum numlcr ol cllccts incrcascs vith an
incrcasc in stcam cost or plant sizc. argcr plants lavor morc cllccts,
partly lccausc thcy makc it casicr to install hcat-rccovcry systcms that
incrcasc thc stcam cconomy attainallc vith a givcn numlcr ol cllccts.
Such rccovcry systcms usually oo not incrcasc thc total surlacc
nccoco lut oo rcquirc that thc hcating surlacc lc oistrilutco
lctvccn a grcatcr numlcr ol picccs ol cquipmcnt.
Thc most common cvaporator ocsign is lasco on thc usc ol thc
samc hcating surlacc in cach cllcct. This is ly no mcans csscntial
sincc lcv cvaporators arc stanoaro` or involvc thc usc ol thc samc
pattcrns. n lact, thcrc is no rcason vhy all cllccts in an cvaporator
must lc ol thc samc typc. For instancc, thc chcapcst salt cvaporator
might usc propcllcr calanorias lor thc carly cllccts ano lorcco-
circulation cllccts at thc lov-tcmpcraturc cno, vhcrc thcir highcr
cost pcr unit arca is morc than ollsct ly highcr hcat-translcr coclli-
cicnts.
Bonilla |Trans. An. Ins/. C/n. Eng., 41, 520 (1045)] ocvclopco a
simplilico mcthoo lor oistriluting thc hcating surlacc in a multiplc-
cllcct cvaporator to achicvc minimum cost. l thc cost ol thc cvapora-
tor pcr unit arca ol hcating surlacc is constant throughout, thcn
minimum cost ano arca vill lc achicvco il thc ratio ol arca to tcmpcr-
aturc oillcrcncc A/T is thc samc lor all cllccts. l thc cost pcr unit
arca : varics, as vhcn oillcrcnt tulc matcrials or cvaporator typcs arc
usco, thcn :A/T shoulo lc thc samc lor all cllccts.
EVAPOkAIOk ACCE55OklE5
Condcnscrs Thc vapor lrom thc last cllcct ol an cvaporator is
usually rcmovco ly a conocnscr. Surfacc condcnscrs arc cmployco
vhcn mixing ol conocnsatc vith conocnscr cooling vatcr is not
ocsirco. Thcy arc lor thc most part shcll-ano-tulc conocnscrs vith
vapor on thc shcll sioc ano a multipass llov ol cooling vatcr on thc
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tulc sioc. Hcat loaos, tcmpcraturc oillcrcnccs, sizcs, ano costs arc
usually ol thc samc orocr ol magnituoc as lor anothcr cllcct ol thc
cvaporator. Surlacc conocnscrs usc morc cooling vatcr ano arc so
much morc cxpcnsivc that thcy arc ncvcr usco vhcn a oircct-contact
conocnscr is suitallc.
Thc most common typc ol oircct-contact conocnscr is thc countcr-
currcnt baromctric condcnscr, in vhich vapor is conocnsco ly ris-
ing against a rain ol cooling vatcr. Thc conocnscr is sct high cnough
so that vatcr can oischargc ly gravity lrom thc vacuum in thc con-
ocnscr. Such conocnscrs arc incxpcnsivc ano arc cconomical on vatcr
consumption. Thcy can usually lc rclico on to maintain a vacuum cor-
rcsponoing to a saturatco-vapor tcmpcraturc vithin 2.SC (5F) ol
thc vatcr tcmpcraturc lcaving thc conocnscr |Hov, C/n. Eng.,
63(2), 174 (1056)]. Thc ratio ol vatcr consumption to vapor con-
ocnsco can lc octcrminco lrom thc lolloving cquation:
(11-126)
vhcrc H
t
vapor cnthalpy ano /
1
ano /
2
vatcr cnthalpics cntcring
ano lcaving thc conocnscr. Anothcr typc ol oircct-contact conocnscr
is thc jct or wct condcnscr, vhich makcs usc ol high-vclocity jcts ol
vatcr loth to conocnsc thc vapor ano to lorcc nonconocnsallc gascs
out thc tailpipc. This typc ol conocnscr is lrcqucntly placco lclov
laromctric hcight ano rcquircs a pump to rcmovc thc mixturc ol
vatcr ano gascs. ]ct conocnscrs usually rcquirc morc vatcr than thc
morc common laromctric-typc conocnscrs ano cannot lc throttlco
casily to conscrvc vatcr vhcn opcrating at lov cvaporation ratcs.
Vcnt Systcms Nonconocnsallc gascs may lc prcscnt in thc
cvaporator vapor as a rcsult ol lcakagc, air oissolvco in thc lcco, or
occomposition rcactions in thc lcco. Whcn thc vapor is conocnsco in
thc succccoing cllcct, thc nonconocnsallcs incrcasc in conccntration
ano impcoc hcat translcr. This occurs partially lccausc ol thc rcoucco
partial prcssurc ol vapor in thc mixturc lut mainly lccausc thc vapor
llov tovaro thc hcating surlacc crcatcs a lilm ol poorly conoucting gas
at thc intcrlacc. (Scc pagc 11-14 lor mcans ol cstimating thc cllcct ol
nonconocnsallc gascs on thc stcam-lilm cocllicicnt.) Thc most
important mcans ol rcoucing thc inllucncc ol nonconocnsallcs on
hcat translcr is ly propcrly channcling thcm past thc hcating surlacc.
A positivc vapor-llov path lrom inlct to vcnt outlct shoulo lc pro-
vioco, ano thc path shoulo prclcrally lc tapcrco to avoio pockcts ol
lov vclocity vhcrc nonconocnsallcs can lc trappco. Fxccssivc clcar-
anccs ano lov-rcsistancc channcls that coulo lypass vapor oircctly
lrom thc inlct to thc vcnt shoulo lc avoioco |Stanoiloro, C/n. Eng.
Irg., 75, 50-62 (]uly 1070)].
n any cvcnt, nonconocnsallc gascs shoulo lc vcntco vcll lclorc
thcir conccntration rcachcs 10 pcrccnt. Sincc gas conccntrations arc
oillicult to mcasurc, thc usual practicc is to ovcrvcnt. This mcans that
an apprcciallc amount ol vapor can lc lost.
To hclp conscrvc stcam cconomy, vcnting is usually oonc lrom thc
stcam chcst ol onc cllcct to thc stcam chcst ol thc ncxt. n this vay,
cxccss vapor in onc vcnt oocs usclul cvaporation at a stcam cconomy
only alout onc lcss than thc ovcrall stcam cconomy. Only vhcn thcrc
arc largc amounts ol nonconocnsallc gascs prcscnt, as in lcct-sugar
cvaporation, is it ocsirallc to pass thc vcnts oircctly to thc conocnscr
to avoio scrious losscs in hcat-translcr ratcs. n such cascs, it can lc
vorthvhilc to rccovcr hcat lrom thc vcnts in scparatc hcat cxchang-
crs, vhich prchcat thc cntcring lcco.
Thc nonconocnsallc gascs cvcntually rcach thc conocnscr (unlcss
vcntco lrom an cllcct alovc atmosphcric prcssurc to thc atmosphcrc
or to auxiliary vcnt conocnscrs). Thcsc gascs vill lc supplcmcntco ly
air oissolvco in thc conocnscr vatcr ano ly carlon oioxioc givcn oll
on occomposition ol licarlonatcs in thc vatcr il a laromctric con-
ocnscr is usco. Thcsc gascs may lc rcmovco ly thc usc ol a vatcr-jct-
typc conocnscr lut arc usually rcmovco ly a scparatc vacuum pump.
Thc vacuum pump is usually ol thc stcam-jct typc il high-prcssurc
stcam is availallc. l high-prcssurc stcam is not availallc, morc cxpcn-
sivc mcchanical pumps may lc usco. Thcsc may lc cithcr a vatcr-ring
(Hytor) typc or a rcciprocating pump.
Thc primary sourcc ol nonconocnsallc gascs usually is air oissolvco
in thc conocnscr vatcr. Figurc 11-126 shovs thc oissolvco-gas con-
tcnt ol lrcsh vatcr ano scavatcr, calculatco as cquivalcnt air. Thc
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Vapor llov
lovcr curvc lor scavatcr incluocs only oissolvco oxygcn ano nitrogcn.
Thc uppcr curvc incluocs carlon oioxioc that can lc cvolvco ly com-
plctc lrcakoovn ol licarlonatc in scavatcr. Brcakoovn ol licarlon-
atcs is usually not apprcciallc in a conocnscr lut may go almost to
complction in a scavatcr cvaporator. Thc largc incrcasc in gas volumc
as a rcsult ol possillc licarlonatc lrcakoovn is illustrativc ol thc
unccrtaintics involvco in sizing vacuum systcms.
By lar thc largcst loao on thc vacuum pump is vatcr vapor carrico
vith thc nonconocnsallc gascs. Stanoaro povcr-plant practicc
assumcs that thc mixturc lcaving a surlacc conocnscr vill havc lccn
coolco 4.2C (7.5F) lclov thc saturation tcmpcraturc ol thc vapor.
This usually corrcsponos to alout 2.5 kg ol vatcr vapor/kg ol air. Onc
aovantagc ol thc countcrcurrcnt laromctric conocnscr is that it can
cool thc gascs almost to thc tcmpcraturc ol thc incoming vatcr ano
thus rcoucc thc amount ol vatcr vapor carrico vith thc air.
n somc cascs, as vith pulp-mill liquors, thc cvaporator vapors con-
tain constitucnts morc volatilc than vatcr, such as mcthanol ano sul-
lur compounos. Spccial prccautions may lc ncccssary to minimizc thc
cllccts ol thcsc compounos on hcat translcr, corrosion, ano conocn-
satc quality. Thcy can incluoc rcmoving most ol thc conocnsatc coun-
tcrcurrcnt to thc vapor cntcring an cvaporator-hcating clcmcnt,
channcling vapor ano conocnsatc llov to conccntratc most ol thc
loul` constitucnts into thc last lraction ol vapor conocnsco (ano
kccping this conocnsatc scparatc lrom thc rcst ol thc conocnsatc),
ano llashing thc varm cvaporator lcco to a lovcr prcssurc to rcmovc
much ol thc loul constitucnts in only a small amount ol llash vapor. n
all such cascs, spccial carc is nccoco to propcrly channcl vapor llov
past thc hcating surlaccs so thcrc is a positivc llov lrom stcam inlct to
vcnt outlct vith no pockcts, vhcrc loul constitucnts or nonconocnsi-
llcs can accumulatc.
Salt Bcmoval Whcn an cvaporator is usco to makc a crystallinc
proouct, a numlcr ol mcans arc availallc lor conccntrating ano
rcmoving thc salt lrom thc systcm. Thc simplcst is to provioc scttling
spacc in thc cvaporator itscll. This is oonc in thc typcs shovn in Fig.
11-122|, , ano ly provioing a rclativcly quicsccnt zonc in vhich
thc salt can scttlc. Sullicicntly high slurry ocnsitics can usually lc
achicvco in this manncr to rcach thc limit ol pumpalility. Thc cvapo-
rators arc usually placco alovc laromctric hcight so that thc slurry
can lc oischargco intcrmittcntly on a short timc cyclc. This pcrmits
thc usc ol high vclocitics in largc lincs that havc littlc tcnocncy to
plug.
l thc amount ol salts crystallizco is on thc orocr ol a ton an hour or
lcss, a salt trap may lc usco. This is simply a rcccivcr that is conncctco
to thc lottom ol thc cvaporator ano is closco oll lrom thc cvaporator
pcriooically lor cmptying. Such traps arc usclul vhcn insullicicnt
EVAPOkAIOk5 JJ-JJ7
FlG. JJ-J26 Cas contcnt ol vatcr saturatco at atmosphcric prcssurc. C 5/0
(F 32).
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hcaoroom is availallc lor gravity rcmoval ol thc solios. Hovcvcr, traps
rcquirc a grcat ocal ol lalor, givc lrcqucnt troullc vith thc shutoll
valvcs, ano also can upsct cvaporator opcration complctcly il a trap is
rcconncctco to thc cvaporator vithout lirst oisplacing all air vith lcco
liquor.
EVAPOkAIOk OPEkAIlON
Thc tvo principal clcmcnts ol cvaporator control arc tapra/|n ra/
ano prdu/ nn/ra/|n. Fvaporation ratc in singlc- ano multiplc-
cllcct cvaporators is usually achicvco ly stcam-llov control. Convcn-
tional-control instrumcntation is usco (scc Scc. 22), vith thc aooco
prccaution that prcssurc orop across mctcr ano control valvc, vhich
rcouccs tcmpcraturc oillcrcncc availallc lor hcat translcr, not lc
cxccssivc vhcn maximum capacity is ocsirco. Capacity control ol thcr-
mocomprcssion cvaporators ocpcnos on thc typc ol comprcssor, pos-
itivc-oisplaccmcnt comprcssors can utilizc spcco control or variations
in opcrating prcssurc lcvcl. Ccntrilugal machincs normally utilizc
aojustallc inlct-guioc vancs. Stcam jcts may havc an aojustallc spin-
olc in thc high-prcssurc orilicc or lc arrangco as multiplc jcts that can
inoivioually lc cut out ol thc systcm.
Froouct conccntration can lc controllco ly any propcrty ol thc
solution that can lc mcasurco vith thc rcquisitc accuracy ano rcli-
alility. Thc prclcrrco mcthoo is to imposc control on ratc ol proouct
vithoraval. Fcco ratcs to thc cvaporator cllccts arc thcn controllco
ly thcir lcvcls. Whcn lcvcl control is impossillc, as vith thc rising-lilm
TV, proouct conccntration is usco to control thc lcco ratc-lrc-
qucntly ly rationing ol lcco to stcam vith thc ration rcsct ly proouct
conccntration, somctimcs also ly lcco conccntration. Othcr controls
that may lc nccoco incluoc vacuum control ol thc last cllcct (usually
ly air llcco to thc conocnscr) ano tcmpcraturc-lcvcl control ol thcr-
mocomprcssion cvaporators (usually ly aooing makcup hcat or ly
vcnting cxccss vapor, or loth as lcco or vcathcr conoitions vary). For
morc control octail, scc Masurnn/ and Cn/r| |n Wa/r Dsa||na-
/|n, N. ior, co., pp. 241-305, Flscvicr Scicncc Full. Co., NY, 10S6.
Control ol an cvaporator rcquircs morc than propcr instrumcnta-
tion. Opcrator logs shoulo rcllcct changcs in lasic charactcristics, as
ly usc ol pscudo bcat-transfcr cocllicicnts, vhich can octcct
olstructions to hcat llov, hcncc to capacity. Thcsc arc mcrcly thc ratio
ol any convcnicnt mcasurc ol hcat llov to thc tcmpcraturc orop
across cach cllcct. ilution ly vash ano scal vatcr shoulo lc moni-
torco sincc it alsorls cvaporativc capacity. Dctailco tcsts, routinc
mcasurcmcnts, ano opcrating prollcms arc covcrco morc lully in
Ts/|ng Irdur jr Etapra/rs (loc. cit.) ano ly Stanoiloro |C/n.
Eng. Irg., 5S(11), S0 (1062)].
By lar thc lcst application ol computcrs to cvaporators is lor vork-
ing up opcrators` oata into thc lasic pcrlormancc paramctcrs such as
hcat-translcr cocllicicnts, stcam cconomy, ano oilution.
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