CHARACTERISTICS OF DC GENERATORS

The Curves or graphs which gives the relationship between various quantities of generator (such as
field current (If),generatedemf (Eg),terminal voltage(Vt) and load current(IL) etc) are known as
generator characteristics.
IMPORTANT CHARACTERISTICS OF DC GENERATORS
1. Open circuit characteristics(o.c.c)
Or
Magnetization characteristics
Or
No-load saturation characteristics:
These are drawn b/w E0&If. Which gives the relationship b/w no load generated emf (E0) and
field current(If).
NOTE: The shape of these c/s are practically same for all type of generators.
2. Internal characteristics
Or
Total characteristics:
These are drawn b/w Eg&Ia. Which gives the relationship b/w e.m.f generated in armature(Eg)
and armature current(Ia).
3. External characteristics
Or
Voltage regulated characteristics:
These are drawn b/w Vt&IL.Which gives the relationship b/w terminal voltage(Vt)and load
current(IL).
when consider voltage drop in armatureVt<Eg [i.e V=Eg-Ia Ra]. Because of this external characteristics
are always lies below the internal characteristics.
Separately Excited dc generator:
In separately excited DC generator the excitation is provide by an external independent dc voltage
source.Generated e.m.fEg=
60
ZN u
*
A
P
60 A
ZP
=constant
If N=constantEg u
Under no-load condition Eg=E0 andWe know u If

From the above the no-load induced emf (E0) varies with field current.


E
0
u I
f

1) Magnetization characteristics:
Experimental determination of magnetization c/s
The ckt diagram of separately exited dc generator to determine magnetization or o.c.c is shown below.

Construction:
1. Mechanical input is applied to the generator by motor.
2. The generator field wdg is connected across a separate dc source through a rheostat.
3. The ammeter A is connected in series with field wdg to measure field current(If).
4. An voltmeter V is connected across armature to measure no-load generated voltage(E
o
).
Procedure:
1. Initially keep field rheostat in max position.
2.Adjust speed of generator to rated value.
3. Note down the reading of voltmeter (E
o
) and ammeter (If). At max position of field rheostat If is zero
but E0 not equal to zero due to residual flux.
4.Vary the field rheostat from max position to min position in equal steps and note down voltmeter
and ammeter readings
5.Tabulate the readings
If in amps
E
o
in volts







6. Plot the graph by taking If on x-axis and Eo on y-axis.A graph is obtained is called magnetization
curve or o.c.c.


V
A
I
f

F
E
O

FF
A
AA
A

Magnetization c/s are shown below:

- At I
f
=0 small voltage (OA)is induced due to residual flux.
- If the field current is increased thenE
0
increased linearly from point B to C.
- At point C magnetic ckt begins to saturate. This point is called saturation point (or)knee point.
Therefore from point CtoD large variation in I
f
causes small variation in E
0

- Further increase in If beyond point D no change in E0.
1) External And Internal Characteristics:
Experimental Determination of External And Internal Characteristics
The circuit diagram of separately excited dc generators to determine external and internal c/s is
shown below

V
A
I
f

F
V
L
or V
t

FF
A
AA
A
L
O
A
D
I
L
=I
a


Field current( I
f
)
e.m.f due to residual flux
A
B
C
D
O
CONSTRUCTION:
1 .Mechanical input is applied to generator by motor.
2. Field winding is connected to separate dc source through field rheostat and ammeter A1.
3.Load is connected across armature terminals.
4. An ammeter A2 is connected in series with load to measure load current(IL).
5. Voltmeter is connected across load terminal to measure load voltage VL (or)Vt.
PROCEDURE:
1. Initially keep field rheostat in max..position.
2. Adjust speed of generator to rated value.
3. Vary the generator field rheostat from max to min position until voltmeter represents rated voltage.
4. Vary the load in equal steps and note down armature readings (IL) and voltmeter readings (VL) in
each step.
NOTE: Generally the load will varied up to ammeter A represents rated load current of generator.
5. Tabulate the readings
IL(Amp) VL (Volts) Ia=IL IA RA Eg=V+ IaRa
.








Draw the graph VL Vs IL . It gives external C/S.
Draw the graph EgVsIa . It gives internal C/s. Which are shown below.


Armature reaction drop
I
a
R
a
drop
G
e
n
e
r
a
t
e
d

v
o
l
t
a
g
e


(
E
g
)

T
e
r
m
i
n
a
l

v
o
l
t
a
g
e
(
V
t
)

E
O

Load current( I
L
)
I
a
R
a
drop line
0
External characteristics:
External c/s gives relation b/w terminal voltage (Vt) and load current I
L
.
Here terminal voltage Vt decreases slowly with increase in load current. This is due to
1. Armature resistance drop(I
a
R
a
)
| = +
a a g
R I E V
2. Armature reactiondrop
Increase in load current increases the armature reaction. Therefore main flux reduced and hence
reduces generated e.m.fE
g
.
+ u + o
g
E

a a g
R I E V + = +

Internal characteristics:
Internal c/s gives the relationship b/w generated e.m.f(E
g
) and armature current(I
a
).
Internal c/s can be obtained from external c/s by adding the armature resistance drop to the terminal
voltage. i.e
a a g
R I V E + =
The generated e.m.f decreases with increase in load current this is due to fallowing effects
1. Armature reactiondrop
When the load on the generator is increases armature reaction increased and main flux reduced.
Therefore generated e.m.f reduced.
L
I | + u

+ u + o
g
E

- The straight line OA represents the I
a
R
a
drop. Which increase with Load current( I
L
).
Field resistance line:
Consider field ckts of the generator with constant field resistance (Rf).then the current(If)
Flowing through it is proportional to voltage (V ) of applied across it.
If a curve is drawn between V and If is a straight line which is passing through origin is known as
Field resistance line of generator.
- For example if the field resistance are 50,100,150.
Then the field Resistance lines shown In figure.
- From the above curves it is observed that the slope of
field resistance Line increase with increase in resistance of field.

Slope of the line =Tan
-
1
(Rf)
CRITICAL FIELDS RESISTANCE:
If the field resistance is increased, at one point the field resistance line becomes a tangent to the OCC.
This value of field resistance is called CRITICAL FIELD RESISTANCE.
The point of intersection of field resistance line and OCC represents the maximum voltage generated
by the generator.




From the diagram:
The line OA is field resistance line, then the
maximum generated E.M.F. is oa. If the field
resistance increased to value represented by a line
OB, then the generated E.M.F. will be ob. Further
increase in field resistance represented by a line
OC, which becomes tangent to OCC. Then the
generated EMF is oc and the value of resistance is
given by this line is called the CRITICAL
RESISTANCE.
Critical field resistance RC=
od
oc

Further increase in field resistance represented by a line OD, the generator will not buildup voltage
because no point of intersection with OCC.
So generator will not buildup if the field resistance is above the critical field resistance.
DETERMINATION OF CRITICAL RESISTANCE FROM O.C.C :
1. Plot the O.C.C of shunt generator from
the given data.
2. Draw a tangent line to O.C.C
3. The slope of this line will give the
value of critical resistance.
Critical resistance =slope of tangent line=
OB
OA



E
0

O
A
B
E0
I
f

O
c
b
A
B
D C
a
d
I
f

HOW TO DRAW O.C.C AT DIFFERENT SPEEDS:
Suppose we have the data for O.C.C of a generator at fixed speed say N1. The O.C.C at any another
speed N2 can be obtained from O.C.C of speed N2. In the fallowing way
We know that: Eg N

1
2
1
2
N
N
E
E
=
1
1
2
2
* E
N
N
E =


Draw the vertical line AC. The point of
intersection of AC and O.C.C (at N1) gives the
induced EMF AC for a fixed current OC . Now
the induced EMF at speed N2 for field current
OC will be
1
2
2
N
N
AC E = =AB
In this way point B is identified. Similarly other
such points can be found. Join all such point to
get new O.C.C at speed N2.




Voltage builds up of a shunt generator at no load:
Before loading a shunt generator it is necessary the generator build up to its rated voltage. Due to
the presence of residual magnetism, a small e.m.f is produced initially. This emf causes a small current
in the field circuit which increases the flux. When the flux is increased generated emf increased. which
further increases the flux and so on.
The buildup process of shunt generator is shown in below figure
The line OP represents the shunt field
resistance. OA represents the Induced e.m.f due
to residual magnetism which appears across
field circuit and causes a field current oa to
flow. This current increases the flux and hence
Produce e.m.f OB. This increased e.m.f OB
causes field current ob.
which creates more flux and further increases
the e.m.f this process is cumulative till the
voltage induced in the armature is enough to
meet the ohmic drop in the field circuit
The generated emf in the armature is
Eg=Ish Rsh+
dt
di
L
f


Field current( I
f
)
A
B
C
D
O
a b c
d
e
O.C.C
Field resistance line
P
Eo
max


E
0

I
f

O
A

B
C

N
1


N
2


From the gaph:
- Corresponding to field current oc ,the generated emf is OD, Out of this OC goes to supply
ohmic drop (IshRsh) and CD goes to overcome self induced emf in the coil.

- Corresponding to field current oe ,the whole generated emf is used to overcome the ohmic
drop. At these instant no energy is stored in field winding .{i.e.
dt
di
L
f
=0}.


- The value of induced emf Eg and field current (If) increases until the point of intersection of
field resistance line and o.c.c (i.e point D).beyond these point no further increases influx and
generated emf.

- So the point of intersection of o.c.c and field resistance line represents maximum buildup
voltage machine.
Condition for self-excitation of generator:
1. Residual magnetism must be present in the poles.
2. The excitation must aid the residual magnetism
3. The field resistance must be less than the critical field resistance
i.e Rsh <Rc when shunt generator excited on no load.
4. If excited on load then the shunt field resistance should be more than a critical field resistance.
i.e Rsh>Rc
5. The speed of the machine must be above critical speed
i.e N>Nc
6. In case of series generator there must be some load on the generator for building up of E.M.F.
i.e load resistance is should be less than the critical resistance of the load.
7. In case of shunt generator load resistance should be greater than critical resistance of the load.
REASONS FOR FAILURE TO BUILD UP OF SHUNT GENERATOR:
If the self-excited generator fails to build up the voltage at no load, it may be due to any one of the
following reasons remedies for this also given.
s.no Reasons Remedies
1. Absence of residual
magnetism
1) A few dry cells can be connected across the field winding for 5-
10 min to restore the residual magnetism.
2) The machine can be run as d.c shunt motor for 10 min before
running it as a generator.
2. Method of connection of
field wdg to armature

If the machine fails to built up voltage even in the presence of
residual magnetism due to reverse connection of field wdg as
shown in the below fig2.
*connect field wdg properly (fig1)






Normal operation the
residual flux (d) and (f) are
in same direction. Resultant
flux increases , obviously Eg
also increase.





During the reverse of field
connection (d) and (f) are oppose
each other. (f) cancel out the
residual flux. So no emf
generated.

3. field resistance is to high This can be due to due to a break in the field circuit (or) due to a
dirty commutator(or)due to improper contact between the
commutator and the brush.

This can be rectified by cleaning the commutator and fixing the
brushes properly on to the commutator.

Sometimes generator field rheostat resistance is to large. Change it
to low value.

4. reverse rotation of the
armature
Due to reverse rotation of the armature negative voltage
developed across the armature ,even field coils are connected in
correct way. This can overcome by changing the rotation of the
armature.





5. when speed is low Even after checking the above maintained measures if the machine
still fails to build up the voltage. This may due to speed of the
generator being less than the critical speed .this can be overcome
by increasing the speed to the rated value.
CRITICAL SPEED (Nc):
The speed of shunt generator at which field resistance line becomes tangent to the O.C.C curve
drawn at that speed is called critical speed (Nc).
Here instead of increasing field resistance the speed of the machine is reduced and at one particular
speed line becomes tangent to O.C.C. That particular speed is Nc.
PROCEDURE TO DETERMINATION OF Nc FROM
O.C.C:
1. Draw the O.C.C curve at rated speed.
2. Draw the field resistance line with a slope Rsh
3. Draw critical field resistance line ,i.e tangent to
O.C.C
4. From any point on critical field resistance line draw
a vertical Line on to If axis.
5. Represent the intersection point of vertical line with
F.R.L and Rsh line ,If axis i.e. A and B , C
6. From the graph
Critical speed Nc=

rated speed




Self-excited DC generators:
These generators are excited by current supplied by the generator itself.
To determine O.C.C (or) magnetizing c/s of self-excited generators. The shunt&series field windings
are disconnected from the armature winding and these are excited by an external dc source as in the
case of separately excited dc generator.
Therelationship b/w If&E0 at no load is independent on type of connections b/w arm
wdg and field wdg
DC Shunt generator:
1) Magnetization characteristics:
///Circuit diagram and procedure is same as separately excited dc generator.///
Note: the shape of O.C.C is same for all types of generators whether they are Separately excited (or)
self-excited.


NC=

Nr
N
o
-
l
o
a
d

G
e
n
e
r
a
t
e
d


e
.
m
.
f


(
E
0
)

Field current( I
f
)
O
A
B
C
2) External and internal c/s of dc shunt generator:
Experimental Determination Of External And Internal Characteristics
The ckt arrangement for determination of the external and internal c/s of shunt generator is shown
below.

CONSTRUCTION:
1. Mechanical input is applied to generator by motor.
2. Field winding is connected across armature through a field rheostat and armmeterA1.
3. Load is connected across armature terminals.
4. An ammeter A2 is connected in series with load to measure load current (IL).
5. Voltmeter V is connected across load terminal to measure load voltage VL (or) Vt.
PROCEDURE:
1. Initially keep field rheostat in max..Position.
2. Adjust speed of generator to rated value. (Maintain constant speed throughout experiment)
3. Vary the generator field rheostat from max to min position until voltmeter represents rated
voltage.
4. Vary the load in equal steps and note down ammeters readings IL andIsh, voltmeter readings
VLin each step.
NOTE: Generally the load will varied up to ammeter A represents rated load current of
generator.
5. Tabulate the readings
IL(Amp) VL (Volts) Ish Ia=IL+Ish IaRa Eg=V+ IaRa
.



..


Draw the graph VL Vs IL . It gives external C/S.
Draw the graph EgVsIa . It gives internal C/s. Which are shown below
V
V
L
or V
t

A
AA
A
L
O
A
D
I
L

A
2

I
a

F
FF
A
I
sh



External c/s:
External c/s gives relation b/w terminal voltage(Vt) and load current I
L
.
From the graph it is clear that the terminal voltage (Vt) of the generator falls very rapidly with
increase of load current indicated by curve PQ .This is due following effects
1. Armature resistance drop(I
a
R
a
)
| = +
a a g
R I E V
2. In shunt generator field wdg is connected across the armature, so any reduction in terminal
voltage causes reduction in field current(I
sh
).therefore decrease the emf (E
g)
.
sh
sh
R
V
I
+
= +

a a g
R I E V + = +
3. Increase in load current increases the armature reaction. Therefore main flux reduced and
hence reduces generated e.m.f E
g
.

+ u + o
g
E

a a g
R I E V + = +
- If the load current increases beyond the full load value the terminal voltage decreases very
rapidly due to increase in armature reaction.
- The load resistance RL corresponding to point Q is called critical load resistance. Any
reduction in the load resistance below this value causes load current to decrease instead of
increase. So the c/s are turns back(represents with curve QS).External c/s are meet current axis
at S.
- At point Sgenerator terminals are short circuited (i.eRL =0), So the terminal voltage is also
equal to 0.The current OS due to residual voltage.
- Therefore theshunt generators normally operated in PQ region and not in QS.
Note: Shunt generators are self-protective against accidental short ckts.
G
e
n
e
r
a
t
e
d

v
o
l
t
a
g
e


(
E
g
)

T
e
r
m
i
n
a
l

v
o
l
t
a
g
e
(
V
t
)
N
o
-
l
o
a
d

G
e
n
e
r
a
t
e
d


e
.
m
.
f


(
E
0
)

EO
Load current( IL )
Armature current( I
a
)

I
a
R
a
drop line
Internal characteristics
External characteristics
O
P
Q
R
S
Internal c/s :
Internal c/s gives the relationship b/w generated e.m.f(E
g
) and armature current(I
a
).
Internal c/s can be obtained from external c/s by adding the armature resistance drop to the terminal
voltage. i.e
a a g
R I V E + =
- At the time of short ckt, the terminal voltage is 0. But the generated emf is equal to RS which is
due to residual flux and short circuited current OS. RS is very small which can be completely
neutralized by armature reaction.
for this reason the shunt generator often fail to build up after they shut down by severe type
of short ckt.
DC Series Generator:
In Series Generators the armature winding and field winding, External load all are connected in
series with each other. So all parts carry same current i.eIa= Ise=IL
Characteristics of series generator:-
1) Magnetization characteristics:
O.C.C (or) Magnetizing characteristics are obtained by running the series generator as a separately
excited one.
///Circuit diagram and procedure is same as separately excited dc generator.////
Note: the shape of O.C.C is same for all types of generators whether they are Separately excited (or)
self-excited.
2) External and internal c/s of dc series generator:
Experimental Determination Of External And Internal Characteristics
Circuit diagram for determination of load characteristics is shown below.


V
V
L
or V
t
A
AA
A
L
O
A
D
I
L

I
a
=
I
se
=
I
L



Y
YY
A
CONSTRCTION:
1. Mechanical input is applied to generator by motor.
2. Field winding is connected in series with armature.
3. Load is connected across both armature and series field.
4. An ammeter Ais connected in series with load to measure load current (IL).
5. Voltmeter V is connected across load terminal to measure load voltage VL (or) Vt.
PROCEDURE:
1. Initially apply small load on the generator.
2. Adjust speed of generator to rated value. (Maintain constant speed throughout experiment)
3. Initially the voltmeter reads a small residual voltage.
4. Increase load (reduce load resistance) in equal steps and note down the ammeter and
voltmeter readings in each step.
NOTE: Generally the load will varied up to ammeter A represents rated load current of generator.
5. Tabulate the readings
IL(Amp) VL (Volts) Ia=IL Eg=V+ Ia(Ra+Rse)
.



..
Draw the graph VL VsIL . It gives external C/S.
Draw the graph EgVsIa . It gives internal C/s. Which are shown below.

External characteristics:
External c/s gives relation b/w terminal voltage(Vt) and load current I
L
.
From the external characteristics it is observed that the terminal voltage first increase with increase in
load current (IL),reaches max value and finally decreases.
Armature reaction drop
I
a
(R
a
+R
se
)drop line
G
e
n
e
r
a
t
e
d

v
o
l
t
a
g
e


(
E
g
)

T
e
r
m
i
n
a
l

v
o
l
t
a
g
e
(
V
t
)

Load current( I
L
=I
a
=I
f
)
I
a
(R
a
+R
se
) drop
Internal characteristics
External characteristics
O.C.C
O
A
C
B D
The terminal voltage increases with load current (IL) in the portion AC and becomes max at point C,
corresponding load current is OB.Any further increase in load current the terminal voltage reduced
and may fall to zero. So external characteristics touch the x-axis at D.
In the regionACthe terminal voltage proportional to load current .so in this region operation of series
generator is unstable for constant load.
In the region CD terminal voltage drops while increasing load current. So in this region operation of
series generator is stable for a constant load. Because the series generator gives constant current
irrespective of load.
Internal characteristics :
Internal c/s gives the relationship b/w generated e.m.f(E
g
) and armature current(I
a
).
The internal c/s are obtained by adding Ia(Ra+Rse) drop to the terminal voltage i.eEg=V+Ia(Ra+Rse)
Due to the armature reaction drop the internal c/s are lie some What below the o.c.c.
Note:To control field m.m.f a small resistance is called field diverter, isnormally connected across the
series field. For the creation of maximum m.m.f during self-excitation, if the field diverter is present
it must be opened.
Compound generator:
Compound wound DC generators are of two types
1. Cumulative Compoundgenerators.
2. Differential Compoundgenerators.
Depending on method of connection of field wdgthese are classified as
1) Long-shunt Cumulative Compoundgenerators.
2) Long-shunt Differential Compound generators.
3) Short-shunt Cumulative Compoundgenerators.
4) Short-shunt Differential Compound generators.
Note: ckts connection are shown in previous chapters.
In cumulative compound generator the flux of the two fields aid each other. In differential compound
generator the flux of the two windings oppose each other.
The series field current in long-shunt(Ise=Ish+IL) is greater than that in short-shunt(Ise=IL) generator.
Generally shunt field current is very small ,it has little effect on generated voltage. Therefore the
characteristics are almost same in both cases.


1) Magnetization characteristics:
///Circuit diagram and procedure is same as separately excited dc generator.///
Note: the shape of O.C.C is same for all types of generators whether they are Separately excited (or)
self-excited.
2) External and internal c/s of dc shunt generator:
Experimental Determination Of External And Internal Characteristics
The ckt arrangement for determination of the external and internal c/s of compound generator is
shown below.

CONSTRCTION:
1. Mechanical input is applied to generator by motor.
2. Shunt field winding is connected across armature alone in case of short-shunt (or) across both
armature and series field in case of long-shunt , through a field rheostat and armmeterA1.
3. Load is connected across output terminals.
4. An ammeter A2 is connected in series with load to measure load current (IL).
5. Voltmeter V is connected across load terminal to measure load voltage VL (or) Vt.
PROCEDURE:
1. Initially keep shunt field rheostat in max.. Position.
2. Adjust speed of generator to rated value. (Maintain constant speed throughout experiment)
3. Vary the shunt field rheostat from max to min position until voltmeter represents rated
voltage.
4. Vary the load in equal steps and note down ammeters readings IL andIsh , voltmeter readings
VL in each step.
NOTE: Generally the load will varied up to ammeter A2 represents rated load current of
generator.


V
V
L
or V
t

A
L
O
A
D
I
L

A
2

I
a
=
I
se

F
FF
A
I
sh


Y
YY

AA
5. Tabulate the readings
IL(Amp) VL (Volts) Ish
.




Draw the graph VL VsIL . It gives external C/S (or) load characteristics.shown below
External characteristics: (load characteristics)
In case of shunt generator the terminal voltage falls down rapidly while increasing load. The shunt
generator can made to supply constant Voltage by adding a few turns in series with armature (or)
load.That is shunt generator will become compound generator.
The external c/s of compound generator are shown below
Cumulative compound:(
se sh r
u u = u )
As the load current increases,the current through the series wdg increased and increases the series
field flux. These series flux aid with shunt field flux (therefore resultant flux increased).Due to the
increase in flux the induced emf is also increases.
This increased emf balance voltage drops in the generator (i.e armature reaction drop and
IaRadrop).In this way the cumulative compound generator maintain constant terminal voltage from
no load to full load .



Over compound
T
e
r
m
i
n
a
l

v
o
l
t
a
g
e
(
V
t
)

E
O

Load current( I
L
)
O
Flat compound
Under compound
Differential compound
From the above c/s
If the terminal voltage is maintained constant from no-load to full load ,by suitable selection of series
wdg turns, Then the generator said to be level compounding or float compound generator .
If the terminal voltage is increased with increase in load current, by increasing no of series turns, then
the generator is said to be over compound generator.
If the terminal voltage decreases with increase in load current, by the use of less no. of series turns,
then generator is said to be under compound generator.
Differential compound: (
se sh r
u u = u )
In this generator series field flux opposes the shunt field flux.As the load current increases,the current
through the series wdg increased and increases the series field flux. But the resultant flux decreased.
Due to the decrease in flux the induced emf is decreases, therefore terminal voltage.
Hence the terminal voltage decreases with increase in load current.














Losses and efficiency of dc machine
The total losses in dc machine can be summarized below.

Magnetic (or) iron losses(or) core losses:
Due to the rotation of iron core of the armature in magnetic field , there are some losses taking place
in the core are known as iron losses (or) core losses.
Iron losses consists of 1. Hysteresis losses
2. Eddy current losses
*both of these are up to 20 to 30% of F.L losses.
NOTE:These losses are practically constant for shunt and compound generators, because field current
is practically constant in them.
I. Hysteresis losses:
These losses are due to the reversal of magnetization of armature core. The core under
goes one complete cycle of magnetic reversal after passing under one pair of poles.
Frequency of magnetic reversal
120
PN
F =
Where P=no. of poles ,N= armature speed in r.p.m
The hysteresis loss can be represented by Wh= v f B
6 . 1
max
q watts
Where v =volumes of core in m
3

=steinmetzhysteresis coefficient
This loss depends on volume and grade of iron, the value of flux density, frequency of magnetic
reversal. Wh f
Note: this loss can be reduced by using silicon steel.
Total losses
Iron losses
Hysteresis
losses
Eddy current
losses
copper losses
armature 'cu'
losses
shunt field
'cu' losses
mechanical
losses
friction losses
windage
losses
II. Eddy current losses:
During the rotation of the armature, the armature core also cuts the magnetic flux.Hencean e.m.f is
induced in the body of the core,thise.m.f cause large circulating current in the body of the core due to
itsmall resistance.this circulating current is known as eddy current.
The power loss due to flow of this current is known as eddy current loss.itis represented by
We=
2 2 2 2
max
v t f B K q
Where t=thickness of each lamination
v=volume of armature core
*in order to reduce these loss and heating of core ,core is made with thin laminations(shown in the
figure).these lamination are right angles to path of eddy currents.

Eddy current losses vary as the square of the thickness of lamination, so it is kept as small as possible.
Eddy current loss Wh f
2

Note: Eddy current loss reduced by using laminated core but hysteresis loss cannot be reduced in
this way. Hysteresis loss can be reduced by using special silicon steel.it should have low hysteresis
coefficient and high electrical resistivity.
Copper loss:
1. Armaturecopper losses:
This loss is given by Ia
2
Ra.
whereIa is armature current and Ra is armature resistance including brush contact resistance.
This loss is proportional to square of the armature current.
This loss is about 30to40% of full load loss. These are variable losses
2. Field copper loss:
i. Shunt field cu losses:
Shunt field loss is given by Ish
2
Rsh.
Where Rsh is shunt field resistance&Ishisshuntfieldcurrent.
This loss is practically constant.so shunt field cu loss is called constant losses.
ii. Series field cu losses: This loss is given byIse
2
Rse
WhereRse is series field resistance&Ise is series field current
*Field cu loss is about 20 to 30% of F.L losses






N N
S S
Mechanical losses: These losses are the friction and wind age losses
1. Friction loss at bearing& the friction loss b/w brushes & commutator .
2. wind age losses are produced by friction b/w the armature& the air inside of machine casing.
Stray losses: The magnetic &mechanical losses are collectively known as stray losses
Stray loss=magnetic losses+mechanical losses
Constant losses:
Constant loss (Wc)=shunt field cu losses+ stray losses
Variable losses:
Variable losses = armature cu losses = Ia
2
Ra
Total losses:
Total losses =variable loss+ constant loss
=Ia
2
Ra + Wc= (IL+Ish)
2
+Wc
Efficiency:
Total i/p to the machine= useful o/p+total losses
The ratio of o/p to i/p of the machine is calledefficiency of the machine.it is represented as
=
losses total output
output
input
losses total input
input
output
+
=

=
The condition for self-excitation of series generators is similar to that of a shunt generator.In the case
of series generator the field winding resistances is the same as the load circuit resistance.So load
circuit resistances must be made very low to help self-excitation.
Power flow diagram of a dc generator:








Mechanical input power
Electrical power developed
in armature(EgIa)
Electrical output power
Iron and mechanical
losses
Copper losses
From the power flow diagram:
1.
mover prime of output
I E
power input mechanical
armature in developed power
efficiency mechanical
a g
m
= = ) (q
2.
a g
L
e
I E
VI
armature in developed power
output power electrical
efficiency electrical = = ) (q
3.
power input mechanical
output power electrical
efficiency overall or commercial
e m g
= = q q q ) ( ) (