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INTERPRETATION OF WELD RADIOGRAPHS

1. Introduction
Assessment and interpretation of radiographic images is widely used in industry for the quality
control of weldments and castings. The purpose of this programme is to introduce the basic
requirements for successful interpretation and to provide examples of weld defect types as
revealed by radiography.
The requirements for satisfactory interpretation are that the interpreter must have adequate
eyesight, whether corrected or uncorrected, and have the ability to recognise features in the
image caused by various conditions. The standards usually quoted for eyesight require that
personnel are able to read a minimum of the J level on the Jaeger eyesight chart with the
chart at positioned a distance of !".# centimetres. Ability to recognise the features on a
radiograph comes largely with experience.
$efore viewing a radiograph the interpreter should have a basic %nowledge of how the image
was created and be aware of the radiographic technique used. The interpreter should have
details of the weld configuration and should have some %nowledge of the welding procedure
used.
&iewing of radiographs should be carried out using a film viewer in a dar%ened room. 'hen
entering a dar%ened room from bright sunlight some time should be spent under dar%room
conditions prior to commencing interpretation in order that eyesight can ad(ust to the low light
level. &iewer screens should be cleaned before viewing and care must be ta%en to avoid
mar%ing or damaging the film. The area where films are viewed should be clean, wor%
surfaces dry and the films handled by the edges to prevent fingerprints and damage to the film
surfaces. )oft cotton gloves are often used by interpreters to limit the possibility of film
damage.
*ach radiograph is mas%ed on the viewer so that stray light from around the film does not
blind the interpreter. The film viewer can be activated by a foot switch when the film to be
examined is in position. A dim side light can be used in order that notes can be made during
the wor%.
2. Film qualit
+adiographs should be reviewed for film quality prior to interpreting the image for possible
defects. +adiographs should be chec%ed for identification, density and sensitivity and also for
the presence of artefacts that may interfere with the assessment. 'here film quality is
unacceptable the area of weld covered by the film should be re,radiographed.
2.1 Id!nti"ication
-anufacturers may have a method of radiographic identification which is lin%ed to a
quality system but the following is a guide to the normal requirements for details
appearing on the radiograph.
The identification should include the manufacturer.s symbol, the component/item/weld
number as appropriate, the location within the weld 0such as location mar%ers 1 to , $
to 1 etc2 and the date radiography was carried out.
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The identification details usually appear in the image but sometimes a system of
4flashing4 the details on to the film before exposure is used. 3n all cases location
mar%ers which indicate the diagnostic length 0extent of the weld on the film to be
examined2 must appear as radiographic images. The repair status of the weld should
also be shown, usually by mar%ers R10repair2, R20second repair2 etc. 3dentification
details must not encroach on the weld area of interest , the length of weld and heat
affected 5one between the length mar%ers.
2.2 Film d!n#it
+adiographic images are viewed by transmitted light with the film placed on a light box
or viewer. The blac%ness or density of the image can be assessed by comparison with a
film strip having a range of density values. A more accurate method is to use an
electronic device %nown as a film transmission densitometer. This device simply
measures the logarithmic ratio of incident to transmitted light through the image from
the viewer. 6ilm density is therefore a number which will vary from " 0film totally
transparent2 to about # 0film virtually opaque2. 3n general, densities above 7 are only
used for special applications.
The densitometer must be regularly calibrated for accuracy throughout its range and
must be set to 5ero on the illuminated viewer immediately before use.
6ilm density influences the contrast and hence the visibility of defects on a radiograph.
6ilm contrast is the difference in density between ad(acent areas on the radiograph, the
greater the density difference the higher the contrast. 3n addition, radiographic film
characteristics are such that contrast increases with film density. 6or this reason a
minimum film density on the area being examined is required by most codes and
standards.
A)-* & Article requires a minimum of 1.8 for x,ray techniques and minimum of ."
for gamma ray techniques. $)/*9 standards require a minimum density of ." 0.! for
high sensitivity techniques2 for both : and gamma rays. ;ther codes such as J3) will
accept a minimum density of 1.#. These minimum figures for film density apply to the
area of interest 0the diagnostic length of the weld2 on the radiograph.
2.$ Radio%ra&'ic #!n#iti(it
The ability of a radiograph to reveal internal defects is determined by the quality or
sensitivity of the image produced. 3n addition it should be noted that planar weld
defects such as crac%s or lac% of sidewall fusion may appear faint or even be invisible if
they are unfavourably orientated with the direction of the radiation beam.
The sensitivity of the radiograph produced is affected by many factors but basically, the
higher the contrast and definition 0sharpness2 of the image the more sensitive the
technique will be for detecting imperfections in the ob(ect being examined.
3mage <uality 3ndicators 03<3s2 are used in order to demonstrate that adequate
radiographic sensitivity has been achieved. An image quality indicator is a device
placed on the surface of the component prior to radiography. The indicator provides a
comparative measure of the definition and contrast achieved on the radiograph and at
least one 3<3 should appear on each individual radiograph.
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Two types of indicator are in common use , the wire type and the plate/hole type.
2.$.1 Wir! T&! I)I
The wire type 3<3 consists of a thin plastic wallet containing a series of wires
of progressively varying diameters. The wallet is placed in the area of interest
with the wires positioned across the weld. The radiographic sensitivity can be
given a numerical value by dividing the diameter of the smallest wire visible on
the radiograph by the thic%ness of the component and expressing it as a
percentage. 6or example a ".# mm diameter wire visible on a weld of # mm
thic% would be a sensitivity of 1=. Acceptable percentage sensitivity varies
with weld thic%ness and to remove the need for calculation A)-* 0American
)ociety of -echanical *ngineers2 and *9 standards provide reference tables
defining the smallest wire which should be visible for acceptable sensitivity
according to the component thic%ness and the radiographic technique used.
3n the *uropean standard there are nineteen wire diameters in the range from
!. mm to "."# mm covering component thic%nesses from over !8" mm down
to 1.# mm. *ach 3<3 has seven wires and there are four models covering the
range with overlap between models. The 3<3 wire material is available in
copper, steel, titanium and aluminium.
The A)T- 0American )ociety for Testing and -aterials2 wire type 3<3 is
available in four models with six wires in each model covering the range of 1
wire diameters from "."8 mm to 8mm. There are eight different material
groups, three for the light metals including aluminium and five for the heavy
metals including steel.
2.$.2 AST* P!n!tram!t!r#
The A)T- plate/hole type 3<3 0%nown as a penetrameter2 is a small piece of
material radiographically similar to the component and is placed beside the
weld to be radiographed. 3ts thic%ness is typically = of the component
thic%ness and there are three holes, 1T, T and 7T in diameter where >T. is the
thic%ness of the penetrameter. There are eight different material models
covering the light and heavy metal groups.

The A)-* 1ode )ection & Article details the appropriate penetrameter
selection and defines the ?essential? hole in the penetrameter which must be
visible on the radiograph to establish that satisfactory image quality has been
achieved. 6or weld radiography, metal shims are used to build up the material
under the penetrameter so that it rests on a thic%ness equivalent to the weld
and weld cap reinforcement.
2.$.$ I)I Plac!m!nt
6or meaningful results it is necessary that the indicator be placed on the surface
of the component facing the radiation 0source side2 and preferably towards the
edge of the field of view 0the least favourable position2.
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3n certain situations, for reasons of access, it is permitted to place the 3<3
between the film and the ob(ect being radiographed. This is necessary for
instance when radiographing a pipe butt weld where there is no access to the
bore or where there is gas or fluid in the pipe. 'ith the 3<3 in contact with the
film a much clearer image of the 3<3 will be produced giving a false
0favourable2 indication of sensitivity. To compensate for this, the codes or and
standards define a more stringent requirement as to which 3<3 wire must be
visible or which designation of penetrameter should be used. 'hen film side
3<3 are used a lead letter @6A should be placed beside the 3<3 to indicate the
positioning.
2.$.+ ,ac- #catt!r
$ac% scattered radiation from surfaces and ob(ects behind the film during
exposure can degrade the image and reduce radiographic sensitivity. 1ode
requirements specify that a lead letter 4$4 must be attached to the bac% of the
film cassette before exposure. Buring interpretation if the interpreter can
discern a faint light image of the lead letter on the radiograph then this would
indicate that excessive bac%scatter had been present during exposure and that
the radiograph is unacceptable. The absence of the lead letter image indicates
that acceptably low scatter levels have been achieved.
2.$.. O/#ol!t! 0ir! t&! I)I
Archived radiographs which pre,date the *uropean *9 and $) *9 standards
may include other image quality indicators such as the 3); type B39
0Beutsches 3nstitute fur 9ormung e.&.2 or $ritish )tandard. -any of the
radiograph images in this training programme have these types of 3<3.
The B39 3<3 was very similar to the *9 type and the wire numbering system
and wire diameters were the same.
The $ritish )tandards 3<3 differed from the *9 type in that the wire numbering
was reversed 0higher numbers being thic%er wires2 and the wire grouping of the
models was different.
2.+ Art!"act#
An artefact on a radiograph is any image on the film which is not related to the ob(ect
being radiographed. Artefacts can be produced by mechanical or chemical damage to
the film before or after processing and by damaged or dirty intensifying screens.
Artefacts are cause for re(ection of the film only if they interfere with the image in the
area of interest of the weld being examined. )ome examples of artefacts are described
below.
Scratc'!#
A scratch on the film can appear as a dar% or light image in the radiograph.
3mages resulting from film scratches can usually be identified by viewing the
film in reflected light and should be visible on one side of the film only.
)cratches on lead intensifying screens may appear in the radiographic image as
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either light or dar% lines which cannot be seen in reflected light. These are
more difficult to identify and in case of doubt it may be necessary to repeat the
radiograph using different screens. 3ntensifying screens should be regularly
inspected and should be discarded if damaged.
Proc!##in% mar-#
*xamples of processing mar%s include roller mar%s which are caused by poor
maintenance of automatic film processors and strea%iness or mottling which
can be due to insufficient agitation during manual development. Cnder or over
development usually leads to a mottled effect on the finished radiograph. A
similar effect is produced by exhausted developer.
Wat!r mar-#
These are easily seen on the radiograph both by transmitted and reflected light
and are due to a dry or partially dry film being wetted locally either by
splashing or by water running down from a film hanger clip.
Static El!ctricit
3n very dry conditions static charge can build up on the film in the plastic film
cassette or when removed from the film storage box. This may discharge when
the film is removed for processing or loading. The discharge spar%s cause dar%
mar%s in the image due to the exposure to light. The mar%s can appear as dar%
star shapes or fine branching dar% lines.
$. Radio%ra&'ic T!c'niqu!#
The technique applied to inspect a particular component or weld is selected by reference to the
possible defects which may occur, the equipment and access available, the material and the
shape of the item.
$.1 Sin%l! Wall Sin%l! Ima%!
+adiography is usually carried out by the single wall, single image 0)')32 technique
which requires access to both surfaces of the ob(ect to be radiographed. The source of
radiation is placed on one side of the item and film on the opposite side.
$.2 Panoramic
An arrangement of )')3 used for vessel girth welds or for large diameter pipe butt
welds is the panoramic technique where the :,ray head or gamma radiation source is
placed at the centre of the vessel or pipe and film is placed around the outer
circumference of the weld. The complete weld can be radiographed in a single
exposure with this technique. The resulting image may be on one single length of film
covering the entire weld length or on a series of overlapping films with location
mar%ers. Docation mar%ers must be attached to the component and not to the film
cassette.
$.$ Dou/l! Wall T!c'niqu!#
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There are many instances where radiography by )')3 techniques is not possible due
to the requirement for access to both surfaces of the item to be inspected. This occurs
with radiography of pipe butt welds for example where access along the pipe is
restricted by si5e or bends or where the pipewor% is in service. 3n these situations
techniques are used which involve having the radiation source and film on opposite
sides external to the pipe and passing the radiation beam through both pipe walls to
produce an image of part of the weld circumference on the film.
$.+ Dou/l! Wall Dou/l! Ima%!
)mall diameter pipe welds up to about F" mm diameter can be radiographed by the
double wall double image 0B'B32 technique. 3t can be applied where the radiation
source is in line with the plane of the weld producing a radiograph where the upper
and lower weld images are superimposed or by offsetting the source so that the upper
and lower regions of the weld are separated in the image. 6or complete coverage of
the weld using the superimposed technique it is necessary to produce three separate
radiographs with the weld rotated by 1" between each. 6or the offset technique only
two radiographs with F" rotation are required. 3n both cases the 3<3 must be
positioned on top of the pipe closest to the radiation source.
$.. Dou/l! Wall Sin%l! Ima%!
The double wall single image 0B')32 technique is used on large diameter pipe welds
greater than F" mm diameter. The film is wrapped around the pipe and the exposure
made by passing radiation through both pipe walls. ;nly the image from the weld
section closest to the film will be suitable for examination since the side furthest from
the film will produce a blurred and distorted image. 6or complete coverage of the
weld it is necessary to ma%e several separate overlapping exposures at positions
around the pipe. The number of exposures required is dependent on the diameter and
wall thic%ness of the pipe. The relevant standards give guidance on establishing the
required number of exposures. )ince access to the pipe bore is usually restricted film
side 3<3s are permitted for this technique.
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+. W!ld )ualit
6ollowing the review of film quality, radiographs should be examined for the presence of
defects in the weld and ad(acent material. *xamination should be carried out even if the film
quality is unacceptable since gross defects may be visible and the component could be re(ected
without the need for further radiography. Befects visible should be noted and the component
sentenced according to the applicable acceptance criteria. 'here there is doubt whether an
image is due to an internal defect or a surface feature the weld area should be examined
visually to establish the cause.
+.1 W!ld #ur"ac! "!atur!#
Disted below are some of the irregular weld surface conditions that can be seen in
radiographic images. The severity of weld defects such as excessive penetration or
undercutting is difficult to (udge using radiographic evidence alone. 'herever possible
defects of this type should be (udged for acceptability by visual examination of the
weld.
+.1.1 E1c!##i(! root &!n!tration
*xcess weld material protruding through the root of a fusion weld made from
one side appears in the radiograph as a continuous or intermittent light
irregular band within the image of the weld.
+.1.2 Root conca(it
+oot concavity is a shallow groove which may occur in the root of a single
sided weld. 3t appears in the radiograph as a series of dar% areas along the
centre of the weld varying in density according to the depth of imperfection.
+.1.$ Incom&l!t!l "ill!d %roo(! 2lac- o" "ill3
This is a continuous or intermittent channel in the surface of the weld, running
along its length, due to insufficient weld material. The channel may be along
the centre or along one or both edges of the weld. 3t produces an image in the
radiograph of a dar% band or dar% patches within the image of the weld.
'here this occurs at the edge of the weld cap it is distinguished from
undercutting by the straight edge of the weld preparation on the parent
material.
+.1.+ 4nd!rcuttin%
An irregular groove at the toe the weld in the parent material due to burning
away during welding. 3t appears in the radiograph as a dar% / irregular
/intermittent band along the edge of either the cap or root bead or between
ad(acent capping runs. 3t may therefore appear inside or outside the weld
image on the radiograph.
+.1.. S&att!r
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Hlobules of material expelled during arc welding on to the surface of the parent
material or weld. )patter appears in the radiograph as small light spots on the
weld and ad(acent parent material.
+.2 W!ld d!"!ct#
'eld defects can occur in any position in the weld and may be visible on the
radiograph for assessment. )uspected defects which appear to be surface brea%ing
should be confirmed by visual or 9B* surface inspection techniques.
+.2.1 5rac-#
1rac%s due to welding may occur at the point of solidification, during the
deposition of subsequent welding runs or at a time after the completion of
welding. 1rac%s may occur either in the weld deposit or in the parent material.
1rac%s are usually parallel to the welding direction but can also occur in the
transverse plane. 1rater crac%s at stop/start positions can also occur.
The ability of the radiographic technique to detect a crac% is dependent on the
crac% orientation relative to the direction of the radiation. *ven a slight
deviation from the optimum orientation will greatly reduce the chances of
detection. 'hen they are detected they appear in the radiograph as dar%, fine
and often branching lines which are usually diffuse or discontinuous.
+.2.2 Lac- o" "u#ion
Dac% of fusion in welding can occur either between the weld deposit and the
parent material or between successive layers of weld material.
The ability of radiographic techniques to detect lac% of fusion is strongly
dependent on the orientation of the defect with respect to the incident beam of
radiation. Dac% of fusion with the parent material will appear as a fine dar%
straight line which may be continuous or intermittent. Cnfavourably orientated
lac% of fusion with the parent material may sometimes be detected due to the
presence of associated slag inclusions or porosityI a slag inclusion with a
straight edge normally indicates lac% of fusion. Has escaping from an area of
lac% of fusion during welding may show as linear porosity.
+.2.$ Incom&l!t! root &!n!tration
3ncomplete penetration appears in a radiograph as a dar% continuous or
intermittent linear band, the edges of which will be straight. 'here welds are
deposited without a root gap, lac% of penetration may appear as a single
continuous or intermittent straight dar% line. +oot gaps frequently close during
welding and even in cases where there should have been a root gap the lac% of
penetration may still appear in the radiograph as a single fine dar% line.
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+.2.+ Sla% inclu#ion#
)lag inclusions are irregularly shaped, they may be either rounded/isolated or
linear/elongated. Dinear slag inclusions with a straight edge may indicate lac%
of fusion. )ometimes linear slag will appear on the radiograph as two irregular
parallel lines referred to as tram lines or waggon trac%s. -ost weld slag and
other possible sources of non,metallic inclusions are radiographically much less
absorbing than the surrounding metallic material and appear in the radiograph
as dar% images.
+.2.. *!tallic inclu#ion#
-aterials such as tungsten or copper can be accidentally introduced into the
molten weld pool during welding, the materials usually coming from the
welding equipment in use. Tungsten inclusions are associated with the tungsten
inert,gas welding process and are caused by the brea%,up of the non,
consumable tungsten electrode during welding. Tungsten is very dense and the
inclusions always appear as bright images which tend to be sharp and angular.
They are usually small , typically ".# to 1 mm. 1opper inclusions can occur
with submerged,arc or other welding processes where the consumable
electrode is fed through a copper contact. 3f the copper touches the weld pool
it will melt and become included in the weld. 1opper is radiographically more
absorbing than steel so the inclusions are bright with diffuse edges. 1opper
inclusions in ferritic steel welds can cause crac%ing.
+.2.6 Ga# &oro#it
Has pores are easily detected by radiography since they are not sensitive to the
direction of radiation and the gas is many times less dense than the surrounding
material. Has pores appear on a radiograph as sharply defined dar% circular
spots. They may be isolated, grouped or evenly distributed. Dinear porosity is
usually an indication of lac% of fusion.
+.2.7 Elon%at!d 5a(iti!# 2'ollo0 /!ad8&i&in%3
These will generally only occur at the roots of welds deposited by manual
metal,arc. ;n the radiograph they have an appearance similar to that of slag.
The radiographic indication usually has rounded ends and is usually situated
above the centre of the root bead.
+.2.9 Worm Hol!#
These are gas pores which have become fro5en in the weld pool while
migrating towards the surface. They appear on the radiograph as a dar%
shadow the shape of which depends on the orientation of the defect. 3f the
worm hole is in line with the radiation a very dar% rounded shadow is formed.
3f the wormhole is not directly in line with the radiation beam then the dar%
spot has a faint tail. 'here a lamination in the parent material or a lac% of
fusion is the source of wormholes they are often apparent in the radiograph in a
herringbone shaped linear group.
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+.2.: 5rat!r crac-# and &i&!#
1rater crac%s are due to shrin%age and usually occur at weld stop/start
positions. They often have a star li%e appearance in the radiograph and their
radiographic image rarely measures more than ! or 7 mm. 1rater pipes appear
on the radiograph with an image similar to that of an isolated wormhole and
may be associated with crac%ing.
3nterpretation of 'eld +adiographs