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ROTARY EQUIPMENT
CHAPTER - 1
PROCESS PUMPS
1.1 Introduction
To enable the procurement of a pump, it is necessary to convey to the vendor all pertinent
process information. This process information is conveyed to the Specialist/Mechanical
group of TPPL in the form of Process group's standard Pump Data Sheet. Based on this
information, the Mechanical group prepares the pump specification sheet to be sent to the
vendors. The pump calculation sheet helps the process engineer in assembling the required
data in the pump data sheet. Following guidelines should be used in preparing pump data
sheets.
Pumps generally used in process industries are of centrifugal, reciprocating (piston, plunger
or diaphgram type) or rotary (gear, screw, lobe or others) types. A proper selection of the
type of pump to be used in a particular service has to be made.
Except for special purpose pumps for specific services, most of the process pumps are
made in standard sizes, and hence, the main problem is to select the size and type that most
nearly fits the service in question. Though the final selection of the pump will be made
close cooperation between the vendor and the Mechanical group, a preliminary selection of
the type of pump required is made by the process engineer. Selection of thc pump type can
be made on the basis of capacity-head requirements or fluid properties e.g. viscosity, solid
content and corrosive or erosive nature. Use Figure 1.1 for pump type selection based on
head-capacity requirements.
Centrifugal type pumps will handle liquids having viscosity up to about 200 cst. For higher
viscosities, specify screw, gear or reciprocating types. If solids are present in the stream to
be handled, the choice of pumps is further restricted. When solids are present, all internal
passages should have adequate dimensions. If solids are abrasive, close internal tolerances
between stationary and moving parts are undesirable. Generally, centrifugal type pump
(especially open impeller type) is the choice for handling liquids present in them.
Improper suction conditions are the largest source of pump troubles. Careful attention
should be given to NPSH (Net positive suction head). NPSH is the net remaining pressure
at the suction flange of the pump after all negative forces that restrict liquid from getting
into the pump are subtracted from all the positive forces that assist liquid in getting into the
pump. Two terms of NPSH are referred to:
NPSHA = Net Positive Suction Head available in the system expressed as meters of
liquid.
NPSHR = Net Positive Suction Head required by the pump expressed as meters of
liquid.
NPSHA = Terminal Pressure in the Vessel + Height of Fluid above Pump Centre Line
(see note) + Atmospheric Pressure – (Vapour Pressure of Liquid + Friction
Loss in Suction Piping up to Pump Centre Line + Entrance and Exit Losses
From Vessel + Loss in Suction Filter + Loss in Control Vale, Exhaner etc.,
if any)
Note :
1. The height of liquid in the vessel should be taken to be at the vessel bottom
tangent line.
2. Pump centre line should be considered at 3/4 meter above the ground level.
Calculate NPSHA carefully considering all conditions i.e. start-up, original fill of lines,
winter operation, all control valve pressure drops, summer operation, piping conditions,
exit and entrance losses. Provide NPSHA at 1 meter over worse conceived NPSHR curve
by the manufacturer. In general, NPSHR of pumps should be considered as 3.0 meters,
though the exact requirement will be specified by the pump manufacturer. In case of
submersible pumps, the available submergence should be specified.
When liquids at their bubble points are pumped from closed vessels, NPSHA is only the
static liquid head above the pump centre minus the friction losses in the suction piping. In
such cases, it is usual to elevate the vessels suitably (or sometimes cool the liquid before it
enters the pump) to get a margin of NPSHA over NPSHR. Sometimes, booster pumps (low
head, high capacity pumps which require low NPSH) are used ahead of main line pumps to
improve the NPSHA for the main pump which has high capacity high head requirements.
Proper care should be taken in establishing the rated capacity of the pump. Normal flow
rate required by the process to be pumped should be estimated. A margin over this normal
should be added to take care against pump runout, internal leakage/ slippage in the pump
and contingencies. Following guidelines should be useful for specifying the capacity:
Pumps should not be oversized beyond the above recommended margins. Operating at
reduced capacities can result in increased bearing loads, reduction in pump efficiency and
sometimes increased NPSH requirement. When a future capacity increase in anticipated,
find out whether it can be accommodated by adding one more pump in future or using a
new wide impeller instead of specifying the pump for the future requirements and running
it at reduced flows now.
1.7 Discharge Conditions
The suction pressure and discharge pressure at the pump suction and discharge flanges
respectively should be estimated by drawing the system sketch in the pump calculation
sheet. All pressure drops in the system should be considered for various conditions – start
up, shutdown, fouled condition of piping/ equipment, start of run, end of run etc. The
difference between the discharge pressure and suction pressure so calculated is the
differential pressure or differential head when expressed in meters of liquid. The
differential head required for different conditions should be estimated and specified in the
pump process datasheet after taking about 10% margin over the normal differential head
requirement.
A centrifugal pump will not produce a higher pressure than its shut-off pressure even if the
discharge line is completely blocked. On the average, shut-off pressure is the maximum
suction pressure plus 1.2 times the differential pressure depending on the characteristic
curve of the pump. To avoid changes in the design at a later stage, the pump shut-off
pressure should be considered as maximum suction pressure plus 1.25 times the differential
pressure. All downstream equipment in the system e.g. piping, valves, exchangers, vessels
etc. should be designed for this shut-off pressure. During detailed engineering, this shut-off
pressure should be checked against the actual shut-off pressure specified by the vendor.
Normally, only one pump is provided for regular use. In some cases, however, when
pumping capacities are very large and a single pump is not available, more than one
operating pump may be specified. Where substantial future capacity has to be catered for, it
is advisable to put additional pump in future (for which space should be kept in the system)
than to oversize the present pump.
Following criteria can be used for identifying the various service conditions :
• Essential Services
∼ Furnace and reactor charge pumps
∼ Product and reflux pumps
• Non-essential Services
∼ Product transfer pumps
∼ Chemical and additive injection pumps
∼ Product blending and circulation pumps
• Dirty/Clogging Services
∼ Pump feeding from tank bottoms
∼ Pumps taking suction from tower
∼ Bottoms slurry service
• Pump Reliability
∼ Pumps having mechanical seals are generally more reliable than pumps with
stuffing boxes.
∼ Rotary and positive displacement pumps are less reliable than centrifugal
pumps.
Standby pumps under hot services (temperature above 150°C) should be always kept
heated up by providing a warm-up connection. Refer to Chapter 7 of Volume-IV of the
Process Engineering Manual titled P&ID Development for typical sketches of these warm-
up connections.
1. Economy - two pumps and one standby can be more economical than one larger pump
and a standby
Some cooling water and fire water pumps are typical examples.
Figure 1.2 is a typical characteristic curve of a centrifugal pump. The nature of head
capacity curve, efficiency and NPSH curves can be different depending upon the type of
pump. For a given system, the head-capacity curve of the system is superimposed on the
head-capacity curve of the pump and the point of intersection of the two curves is the duty
point at which the pump will operate at its best efficiency. The system head curve is a
function of the system static head and pressure head which are constant and the friction
head which varies with the flow.
Pump vendors will supply the characteristic curve for each pump. Following points should
be considered while finally accepting the pump:
• The slope of the head capacity curve should not be too steep if the pump delivers into a
distribution system, since a small change in flow will cause a large change in delivery
pressure.
• The slope should not be too flat if the pump capacity is to be controlled by throttling
discharge (manually or by a control valve).
• When pumps are to run in parallel, the head-capacity curve should be stable i.e. a curve
with the head constantly increasing as one approaches zero capacity. A dropping type
curve (where the shut-off head is less than the maximum head) gives an unstable
operation. This requirement is also valid for all pumps within battery limits having
standby.
• Manufacturers supply characteristic curves of pumps based on water as test fluid used in
the testing shop. While handling viscous fluids in actual practice, certain corrections
need to be made for viscosity to get the actual head, capacity and efficiency. Use Figure
1.3 for correction charts for pumping viscous fluids.
Electric motor is by far the most common drive for pumps in the process industry.
Occasionally, special considerations such as reliability of power, safety considerations and
criticality of service require turbine drives to be used. Sometimes, the plant utility balance
makes turbine drives necessary on large pumps. Steam turbines are effective for standby
pumps for a few larger, vital pumps such as charge pumps, cooling water pumps, unit
pump out pumps or flushing out pumps. These considerations have to be firmed up during
the design basis stage.
In some cases like offshore platforms, oil and gas processing terminals etc., gas turbines are
used as drivers for large pumps.
All pumps will need some utilities – electrical power for motor driven pumps ; steam for
steam-turbine driven pumps; cooling water for condensers of steam turbines; cooling water
for bearings, casing pedestals and packing; steam for seal quench, jacketing etc. Though
the exact requirements of different utilities needed by a pump will be specified by the pump
vendor, it is essential for a process engineer to have a fairly good idea about these
requirements so that they can be included in the utility summary sheet of the plant. These
requirements can later be firmed up after getting the vendor information. Following
guidelines can be used for estimating utilities required by the pump.
Compute the power consumption for the pump as shown in the pump calculation sheet.
Refer Figures 1.4, 1.5 and 1.6 for efficiencies of different types of pumps and Table 1.1 for
motor efficiencies. Take 120% of the power so computed for utility estimation.
1.11.2 Steam for Turbines
Steam requirements of a steam turbine can be estimated by using Figures 1.7 and 1.8.
Following instructions apply for the use of these figures.
1. Compute the delivered horse power (BHP) as shown in the pump calculation sheet.
2. Determine turbine efficiency from table below :
KW Overall Efficiency %
150 35
From 151 – 500 45
From 501 – 2000 55
From 2001 – 6000 65
Above 6000 70
Cooling water may be required for a pump for cooling its bearing, pedestral, gland packing,
etc. This water can be fresh raw water, circulating cooling water or sea water. Generally,
the water after cooling the various parts of the pumps is routed to drain. Use the following
general guidelines for estimating water requirement for pump cooling :
Some minor leakage of oil from the pump can be expected which will also be routed to
drain along with the above water. Take about 200 ppm of oil content in the outlet water to
drain for the purpose of effluent summary of the plant.
Pumps handling high pour point products like Bitumen, LSHS, DMT, Phthalic Anhydride
and other such products are often steam jacketed. Specify steam conditions available in the
datasheet. The approximate requirement of steam for each such pump may be taken as 200
kg/hr.
1.12 Pump Sealing System
Process data sheets for pumps should indicate the type of sealing to be provided. Use the
following guidelines for selection of type of sealing:
Pumps taking suction from pumps where Packed Box Not Applicable
leakage can be redirected to the sumps
Typical mechanical seal arrangements for centrifugal pumps are shown in Figure 1.9.
Where external seal flushing is required, the process engineer should make suitable
provision to supply the flush liquid. API-610 provides recommendations on the seal
flushing plan for centrifugal pumps for different services (refer Figures 1.10 and 1.11)
The bubble temperature of the external flush fluid should be about 10°C higher than the
maximum operating temperature at operating pressure to avoid vapourisation of the fluid
and consequent vapour locking.
PROCESS COMPRESSORS
2.1 General
Positive displacement type compressors compress a constant volume of fluid in each stroke
or rotation. They include reciprocating, rotary and diaphragm compressors.
Reciprocating compressors are the oldest and still the most widely used type of
compressors. They consist of one or more cylinders each with a piston or plunger that
moves back and forth, displacing a positive volume with each stroke. They are available
from less than 1 hp to more than 3000 hp and for pressures ranging from below
atmospheric to 50,000 psig (about 3520 kg/cm2a ). They run at speeds from 150 rpm to
1000 rpm. Overall efficiency of reciprocating compressors range from 75-80%. Vacuum
pumps are a variation of the reciprocating compressor. Suction pressure of0.5 to 1.5 inches
of mercury absolute are quite common. Vacuum pumps are characterised by high
compression ratio.
Rotary compressors cover lobe-type, screw type, vane type and liquid ring type, each
having a casing with one or more rotating elements that either mesh with each other such as
lobes or screws, or that displace a fixed volume with each rotation. The screw type is
probably the most important for general refinery and petrochemical plant application.
Screw compressors run at speeds from 2000 to 15000 rpm. These compressors can operate
on relatively dirty gases and are by nature nonlubricated. Efficiency is somewhat lower
than those for comparable reciprocating compressors.
Dynamic type compressors include radial-flow (centrifugal), axial-flow and mixed flow
machines. They are rotary continuous-flow compressors in which the rotating element
(impeller or bladed rotor) accelerates the fluid as it passes through the element, converting
the velocity head into static pressure, partially in the rotating element and partially in
stationary diffusers or blades.
Centrifugal compressors have variable head-capacity characteristics. These are used for
handling large volume of gas at relatively intermediate discharge pressures. These
compressors are simple, require less maintenance and have longer reliability factors.Axial
compressors are somewhat similar to centrifugal compressors, but instead of having
impellers moving inside diffusers, they consist of a series of stator and rotory blades. These
are used for handling very large flows at relatively low heads. Generally, they do not have
a stable operating range over as wide a capacity and are therefore, considered less versatile.
Ejectors are “thermal” compressors that use a high velocity gas or steam jet to entrain the
inflowing fluid, then convert the velocity of the mixture to pressure in a diffuser.
Though the final selection of the compressor for a specific requirement will be done by
close cooperation of the vendor and the Specialist/Mechanical group, a preliminary
selection of the type of compressor required is made by the process engineer based on his
process needs. Figure 2.2 should be used for the general range of application of the various
compressor types.
Figure 2.2: General Range of Application of Various Compressor Types
The main differences between reciprocating and centrifugal compressors (the two most
commonly used type of compressors) are summarised in Figure 2.3.
CENTRIFUGAL vs RECIPROCATING
All the properties of fluid to be compressed should be clearly specified in the process
datasheet of the compressor. The composition of the fluid, moisture content, molecular
weight, ratio of specific heats (K = Cp/Cv), critical temperature and pressure and the
compressibility factor (Z) should be known. Volume I of the Process Engineering Manual
titled Process Databook can be used for properties for pure gases. The GPSA Databook
can be used to supplement the Process Databook. In case of mixed gas, calculate the
properties of the mixture by using the following guidelines. Further, any impurities like
solid particles, polymers, corrosive and erosive elements in the gas should be clearly
defined.
2.4.1 Adiabatic Exponent (K = Cp/Cv)
To calculate K, the adiabatic exponent i.e. the ratio of specific heats (Cp/Cv) of a gas
mixture, first calculate MCP for the mixture based on mole fractions of individual
components:
n
(MCP )mix = ∑ yi(MCP )i
i =1
where n is the total number of components in the mixture, yi is the mole fraction of the ith
component and (MCp)i is the molar heat capacity of the ith component. The adiabatic
exponent is then calculated as below:
(MCP )mix
K mix =
(MCP )mix − R
If MCp is in Btu/ibmol °R or kcal/kgmol °C, the value of R is 1.986. Refer to Figure 2.4 for
molar heat capacities of individual hydrocarbons. Since the heat capacities vary
considerably with temperature, K is normally determined at the average of suction and
discharge temperatures. Aproximate adiabatic exponents for hydrocarbon gases based on
average molecular weights are given in Figure 2.5.
Compressibility factors, which modify the ideal gas law are important primarily for
multistage reciprocating and centrifugal compressors where volumes must be calculated for
each succeeding stage. For perfect gases like H2, N2, air etc., compressibility factor is 1.0.
Calculate average compressibility factor of non-ideal gas/gas mixture as below:
Z1 + Z 2
Z avg =
2
Z1 = Compressibility factor at suction conditions
Z2 = Compressibility factor at discharge conditions
Use the following for calculating the discharge temperature T2 based on the suction
temperature T1 and the suction and discharge pressures (P1 and P2) :
K −1
P K
T2 = T 2
P1
Charts given in section 7.8 of the Process Databook can be used for calculating
compressibility factors for hydrocarbon gases of different molecular weights.
2.4.3 Composition of gas
The composition of gas to be compressed should be known and the same is to be indicated
in the data sheet of the compressor. In case of a mixture of gases, give the composition of
the individual constituents of the mixture and the molecular weight of the mixture. Also
specify the water content in the gas, if any. Moisture content is very important because
when gases are compressed, their ability to hold water or other potential condensates
decreases at a given temperature and provision must be made for separating the condensed
material between different stages of compression. For air compressors, the inlet relative
humidity is required from which the amount of water present in the air can be determined.
The normal flow rate required by the process should be estimated in kg/hr.
Z1 + Z2 1545 P1
H ad = T1
2 M K − 1
K
WH ad
HPad =
3300ηad
Adiabatic efficiency (ηad) can be taken as 65-70% for most of the cases for preliminary
estimation.
K −1
P K
(T2 ) ad = T1 2
P1
− 1
Z + Z 2 1545 P1
H poly = 1 T1
2 M N − 1
N
(b) Polytropic Gas Horse Power :
WH poly
HPpoly =
33000η poly
Polytropic efficiency (ηpoly) can be taken as 70-75% for most of the cases for preliminary
estimation.
(c) Polytropic Discharge Temperature :
N −1
P N
(T2 ) poly = T1 2
P1
N − 1 K − 1 1
=
N K η poly
H poly H ad
=
η poly η ad
Legend of symbols used
HP = Gas Horse Power
H = Head, ft lb/lb
Z1 = Compressibility Factor
M = Molecular Weight of gas
T = Temperature of gas in °R
K = Ratio of specific heats Cp/Cv, adiabatic exponent
N = Polytropic exponent
W = Weight flow, lb/min
η = Compression Efficiency
Subscripts
ad = Adiabatic Compression
poly = Polytropic Compression
1 = At suction of compressor
2 = At discharge of compressor
Compression ratio of any stage of a compressor is the ratio of absolute pressure at the
discharge of that stage to the absolute pressure at the suction of that stage. It is normal
practice to balance the cmpression stages so that each stage is designed for approximately
the same compression ratio. This is done partly for economic reason but also to limit
maximum interstage discharge temperatures. For example, discharge temperatures in
lubricated reciprocating type air compressors are limited to 160°C to avoid the potential
danger of fires from a reaction of oxygen with hot oil. In general, it is not advisable to use a
single stage compressor for compression ratio above 3.5 at relatively low pressures. For
suction pressures above 70 kg/cm2a, a compression ratio of not more than 2.5 per stage
should be considered. When multistage compressors are involved, care should be taken to
provide means for routing the interstage condensate to some appropriate location in the
process flow scheme.
A process engineer will usually indicate his requirement of flow in the process data sheet
expressed as kg/hr. In case of recycle streams, the material balance of various recycle
streams should be indicated in the process data sheet by making a system sketch. In case
inlet flow in volumetric units is required, the following expression can be used :
Q 1 = V1 * W
Z1 RT1
V1 =
144P1
where,
In case of reciprocating compressors, oil/gas engine drives have certain advantages in cases
where gas or oil is in abundance and no other power supply is conveniently available. This
might be the case in oil or gas field installations or for pipeline pumping and compression
units. Direct steam engine drive is also used frequently for reciprocating compressors. It
should be recognised, however, that waste steam or condensate from such units contains oil
and cannot be directly returned to a condensate system. Steam or gas turbines are not very
common drives for reciprocating compressors. If used, care must be taken to provide speed
reducing gears, flywheels, torsional couplings etc. Electric motors are used quite frequently
as drives for reciprocating compressors in the process plants. Motors for big compressors
are generally synchronous type, whereas small compressors may use a V-bolt drive, gear
reducer or direct valve with an induction motor.
Electric motors, steam turbines and in some case, gas turbines are used to supply motive
power to centrifugal compressors. Since these compressors generally operate well above
3600 rpm, speed-increasing gears are employed with motor drives. Steam turbines can
either be condensing, non-condensing or extraction type, depending on such matters as
steam cost and need for process steam at different pressure levels.
Gas turbines may be used to supply power to large (5000-7000 hp) centrifugal
compressors, for instance in ethylene plants, offshore gas compression units, etc.
Generally, the reliability factor for reciprocating machines vary from 95% to 98% and for
centrifugal machines from 99.5% to 100%. If the client has no particular preference,
following criteria (based on economic considerations) can be used for selecting the number
of compressors. However, the actual number of spares will depend on the clients
philosophy on operation and maintenance.
Reciprocating
All compressors need utilities like electric power, steam or gas for their drivers, cooling
water for condenser, jacket, bearing, intercooler, aftercooler and oil cooler etc., fuel gas and
starting air for gas turbines. Though the exact requirement of various utilities needed by a
compressor will be specified by the compressor vendor, it is essential for a process
engineer to have a fairly good idea about these requirements at the stage of process design
work so that these can be included in the overall utility summary sheet of the plant. These
requirements can later be firmed up after getting the vendor information. The process
engineer should indicate the utility conditions in the compressor process data sheet.
Following guidelines can be used for estimating utilities required by the compressor.
Following steps are involved in estimating the electric power required by the compressor:
(a) Calculate the gas horse power of the compressor as given in section 2.5.
(b) Calculate the BHP of the compressor by dividing the gas horse power by the
mechanical efficiency. Take 95% as mechanical efficiency for centrifugal
compressors. Use following table for mechanical efficiencies for reciprocating
compressors.
(c) Applying the overload capacity requirement of the compressor and the service factor
of electric motors, estimate the driver horse power as follows :
Power requirement of Motor = BHP / (0.9 x Motor efficiency)
Motor efficiencies can be taken as 95-98%
Gas Engines
Use an average figure of 2400 kcal/BHP/hr. Estimate the fuel gas requirement based on
this figure and the calorific value of the fuel gas available for use. Gas engines can be run
at fuel rated power when burning any fuel gas having a heating value of 7100-23000
kcal/m3, but no more than 10 mole% butane. If it contains more than 10 mole% butane, the
engine must be derated by 10% i.e. a 500 hp engine will be suitable for 450 hp.
Gas Turbines
Use an average figure of 3000-3200 kcal/BHP/hr. Estimate the fuel gas requirement based
on this average figure and the calorific value (net) of the fuel gas available for use. Horse
power rating of gas turbines are based on 26.5°C combustion air temperature and 300 meter
altitude. They should be derated by 5% for every 5°C increase in air temperature.
Different types of compressor and their drives require cooling water. Estimate the cooling
water as follows. Consider a 9°C rise in temperature of cooling water from inlet to outlet.