Theatrical Scene Painting

W
'
I am i
Souther IllinoIs
For Jenny, Averie, and Reilly
Copyright 1987, 2008 by the Board of Trustees, Southern Il linois University
All rights reserved, First edition 1987
Second edition 2008
Printed in the United States of America
11 10 09 08 4 3 2
Library of Congress Cataloging-in- Publication Data
Pinnell, William H.
Theatrical scene painting: a lesson guide I William H. Pinnell-2nd ed.
p. cm.
ISBN-13: 978-0-8093-2765-2 (pbk. : alk. paper)
ISBN-lO: 0-8093-2765-1 (pbk. : alk. paper)
1. Scene painting-Technique. 1. Title.
ND2885.P562008
751.7'5- dc22 2007019669
Printed on recycled paper. 0
The paper used in this publication meets the minimum requirements of American
National Standard for Information Sciences-Permanence of Paper for Printed
Library Materials, ANSI Z39.48-1992.0
Contents
Preface to the Second Edition vii
Preface to the First Edition ix
Acknowledgments xi
Part 1
Materials and Techniques of Texture 1
1. Space 3
Paint frame; boomerang; continental system; floor paper
2. Equipment 7
Buckets and containers; paint carriers; brushes; paint and dye: dry
pigments, cascin, vinyl paints, latex paints, dyes, bronze powders
3. Color 19
Color psychology; basic color mixing; color wheel; primaries,
secondaries, and complementaries; using black and white; Table ofNioc
Mixtures; classic scene-painting palette (tradi tional terminology)
4. Mixing the Base, Tint, and Shade 29
Procedure; analogous colors and the common denominator
5. Prepari ng the Surface to Be Painted 32
Flameproofing; primer coat
6. Basic Scene Painting and Text ure 34
Focus and toning; procedural methods; graded wet blend; scumbling;
spattering (and spatter and drag); sponging; stippling; rag rolling;
rolling; flogging; puddling; dry brushing; stenciling and stamping;
spraying; brush care
v
Part 2.
Basic Lessons 71
7. The Three-Dimensional Illusion and the Light Source 71
Highlights and lowlights; shadows, glazes/washes; lining; using the
straightedge
8. Stonework 80
Bricks; rough stones; cut stones; marble
9. Wallpaper 103
Painting considerations; pounce method; stenciling; pattern
arrangements; spattering or spraying; stamping a pattern
10. Woodwork 116
Graining; rendering methods: wash method, opaque method, dry-
brush method; wainscoting; recessed and protruding panels; addi tional
examples
Part 3.
Advanced Lcssons 139
11. Cornice Moldings 139
Roman agee and cove; reversing the light source
12. Panels and Posts 157
13. Reflecti ve Metallic Objects 161
Graphic-arts approach; scene-painting approach
14. Draperies 170
15. Foliage 180
16. Clouds, Mountains, and Water 191
17. Scale Transfers 202
Pai nter's elevation; gridding; opaque and overhead projectors
18. Perspective and the Vista 209
Perspectivc; vanishing points
19. Drops and Scrims 222
Laying out; starch priming; storing drops; flexible glue; painting the
drop; translucencies; cut drops and scrims
20. A Final Word 232
Glossary 235
Preface to the Second Edition
Any readers familiar with the first edition of this book will fi nd its second
edition far morc comprehensive in scope. lhe first edition, a good primer, is
geared to the beginning- and intermediate-level scene painters, but I have found
over the decades of teaching design and painting at the university level that as
the caliber of my students began to risc, so did the need for a more in-depth syl-
labus for my scene-painting courses. The first edition of 'Theatrical Scene Painting
left some questions unanswered, and the range of its painting examples did not
match the growth and eagerness of my students. I have expanded the painting
projects in my classes, so writing a second edition to keep in step seemed the
natural and necessary thing to do. Many sections from the first edition were
kept, some dated ones ] threw out, and in others, I updated methods of proce-
dure for both the basic and advanced painting lessons. Some new features are
additional text to support origins of painting techniques
clearer step-by-step descriptions and more convenient illustration-to-text
sequencing
many new instructional photographs and drawings
additional painting projects and their possible variations
an expanded glossary
a gaIJery featuring examples of professional scenic designers and scenic art ists
' Lhese improvements are speCifically intended to allow the reader and
painter a more clear and concise formula for effiCiently and successfully creat-
ing impressive projects. This edition, with its clarity and appeal, was created
in the hope of inspiring further explorations into the magical illusions unique
to the art of theatrical scene painting.
vu
Preface to the First Edition
All stage scenery strives for a textural quality, a surface smoothness or
roughness that will provoke a particular, albeit subconscious, emotional reac-
tion in the spectator. One does not react or relate equally to textures of coarse
stucco, plush velvet, aged wood, or polished chrome. lluough the setting, the
scenic designer uses, among other tools, textures and dimensions to support
the emotional qualities inherent in tbe play. Appropriate to the extent of the
production budget, those textures may be three-dimensionally duplicated or
achieved through the artistry of the scene painter.
The following work takes a very traditional and singular line. The tech-
niques that form the foundation of traditional scene painting are what will be
examined here, techniques employed to fool the eye into believing that two-
dimensional surfaces possess a third dimension. Many devices and materials
can be used to supplement the illusion of scene painting. Exciting and creative
developments have been made with an aggregate of materials and textural
aides. But this book is geared to the creative artist who, for lack of additional
tools or for personal preference, must work with merely canvas and color.
Everyt hing discussed and illustrated on the following pages is directed
toward techniques employed in the realistic style of scene painting. But attempt-
ing to teach or learn and recognize reali sm is merely a starting point. Although
reali sm and attempts to "mirror the real world" may be the foundation of one of
the largest walls in the theater, they do not necessarily provide the most enjoy-
able entertainment. Reali sm may, conversely, serve as a model from which we
derive our own interpretations and create individual styles of expression.
Of course, scenery and its accompanying scene painting must blend into
the style and interpretation of the production. And more often than not, a play
will demand a realistic locale for the passage of its events. Accordingly, the
painter must apply his knowledge of realistic impressions. But it is important
that each and every painter in doing so not preoccupy him or herself with a
quest for realistic duplication. Style must be encouraged. For with the devel-
opment of style, self-assessments of aptitude and strong and weak points will
occur. With the strong points will come the confidence needed to expand and
experiment. With the weak points, ideally, efforts will be made to overcome
shortcomings or find alternate approaches.
What will result will be the individual painter-a painter who, through
experimentation, has developed a uniqueness of expression unlike any other
painter. And, after all, is that not what the theater is about: to develop an abi l-
ity to perceive, evaluate, and create an expression that is distinctly individual,
meaningful, and entertaining?
Scene painting can be pleasurable or a devastatingly arduous and tedious
experience. l 11e hours can be long, and your wardrobe will take a good beating
if you are not suitably dressed. The importance of preplanning and organiza-
tion cannot be minimized. Preparation is the key. Carefully plot what has to
be done, and verify the sequence of painting steps that best suit your work-
ing habits. Make sure the scenery has been fully prepared for painting and
is securely in position. Is there enough floor space for safe mobility? There is
nothing worse than having to walk uphill no matter which direction you head.
Have extra surfaces been set aside for testing paint samples? Finally, are there
enough buckets, containers, and stir sticks available to mix your colors? The
next morning you will thank yourself for quitting earlier the day before so the
painting area could be cleaned and reorganized.
Most importantly, make every effort to keep your work enjoyable. Take a
break when you need it. Don't push for the marathon sessions. Remember that
your painting is making a valuable contribution to the production and is no
less important and integral [0 its success than any other element. Your role is
an expressive one, but unlike any other in the theater, it can only be achieved
by the sympat het ic stroke of the painter's brush.
Acknowledgments
The design and painting process is constantly one of creative self-educa-
tion coupled wi th the tutelage given by respected and trusted mentors. Much
of this book is evidence of the talented instruction given me by Professor
Emeritus Russell E. Smith of Wayne State University and scenic artists Vern
Smith and James Miller.
Special thanks are extended to the following: Rick Banville, production
manager of Opera Atelier in Toronto, Ontario, for his kind permission to
feature many examples taken from the Opera's productions; to Gerard Gauci,
resident designer for Opera Atelier, for his breathtaking designs and color
plates he generously allowed me to USC; to Richard Mongiat from Scenic Drop
Studios in Toronto, who, on behalf of his late business partner and fr iend Jules
Tonus, painted the designs commissioned by Opera Atelier; and to David
Court, whose ever-growing talent is evidenced through his kind contribu-
t ions. With Richard Mongiat, 1 also gratefully recognize the artistry of any
additional painters whose specific contributions could not be identified. Much
apprcciation is extended for the generous assistance of the technical theater
staff at the University of Windsor, in particular Nancy and Tedfred Myers,
Nicola Oi Risio, and Daniellc Mac Kinnon.
Finally, I will forever deeply appreciate the support and patience of Kelly
and my mother and father, without whose love, advice, and encouragement
this book and its revision would never have been written.
xi
Theatrical Scene Painting
Part 1
Materials and Techniques of Texture
Scholars and historians have debated for centuri es as to how, when, and
by whom scene painting came into being. The debate has raged because most
of what is known is relatively scant, upon which conjecture has been based.
What can be cited arc the writings of Roman historian Vitruvius, who, w r t ~
ing in the first century H.C.E., made mention of a painter who worked with the
Creek playwright Aeschylus. As many of toclay's theat rical conventions found
their beginnings in ancient Greece, it is hardly ullsurprising, and quite likely,
that the first person to use some semblance of theatrical painting was this first
of all great Greek playwrights. The painter with whom he worked-and on
what play or how many is unknown-was a gifted and inventive painter by the
name of Agatharchus. His bag of tricks may have contained a technique the
Greeks called skiagraphia, or "shadow painting." This is most interesting, as
the mere hint of a shadow in a painted illusion leads to the assumpt ion that the
paintings created by Agatharchus likely possessed some semblance of depth,
plane variation, or three-dimensional illusion.
To what extent the forms of scene painting used now were in practice
then is totally without evidence. It is assumed that a type of scenic surface-or
pinake (a precursor of the scenic Rat), which scholars believe was inserted in
entrance doorways of the skene or scene house (see fig. l)-was painted upon,
thus giving an impression of the genre or theme of the play being presented.
Despite the historical references to shadow paiming, however convincing or
tangible the images may have been, is, unfortunately, in the hands of the wish-
ful dreamer; and what could have been an interesting illusion to the eye of the
ancient Greek was probably achieved by accident or keen observation on the
part of the painter. It is safe to say that practitioners in antiquity possessed no
1

- )
.. '-. /
A cOlljeclUral plaecmcru of '- ____
a pinoke ( P) in a doorway of -
an ancient Greek skene. or 5CCne house -
Figure 1
knowledge oflinear-pcrspectivc formulae or what the art world has come to rely
on as the most powerful and expressive tools: line, mass, color, and texture.
The appreciation and potency of texture for scenic reality came into prom-
inence in the twentieth century. Texture remains an invaluable tool and has
received nearly as much scientific investigations on the subconscious as have
the psychology of colors and aroma therapy. And t he term lexture, in the visual
arena, is not meant to just be applicable to a flat surface that possesses a tact ile
illusion. Multiplaned surfaces (actually replete with sculpted moldings) reces-
sions, and architectural protrusions can also said to be visibly textural.
Texture on stage scenery may be achieved in two ways: aetna/or simulated.
Actual textures assume a three-dimensional form and may be const ructed by
using dimensional replicas or by building up the scenic surface with substi-
tutes, such as resins, Styrofoam, carpeting, and plastics. The list of materials
for applicat ion is practically endless and can be as simple and ingenious as
using painted bubble wrap for chain mail. Simulated textures are achieved
through the techniques and talents of scene painting in which the audience
is fooled into believing that a surface is actually textured or multilevcled. Not
only can the scene painter produce a wide variety of textures but also create
amazing illusions of depth and prot rusion.
The scene painter employs a number of tools to achieve texture: varying
shapes and sizes of brushes, sponges, fabric, sprayers, rollers, feather dusters,
and string. One need only look around, for there is really no limit to what can
be used. The utensils coveted in this book are time tested; they may, however,
2
be abandoned or substituted according to the preference or style of the indi-
vidual painter.
But before further discussions on texture as simulated through scene
painting, it is necessary to outline the working requirements of space and
materials one will need before this art of illusion can begin.
1. Space
A good working area is essential. A warm, dry atmosphere is a distinct
asset. The consistencies of most paints and dyes react unfavorably to cold, and
the drying time will be markedly and inconveniently retarded. Conversely,
paint ing in a warm room or in sunlight will speed up the drying times.
Paint Frame
Many professional scene shops and theaters have large, wooden paint
frames, hung vertically, to which drops, scrims, and other forms of two-dim en-
sional scenery may be attached. The frame is usually permanently attached to
the back walJ of the theater or paint shop, but it may be of such a nature that
it can be raised or lowered through a slit in the floor, allowing the scenic artist
to remain on one level without climbing ladders (see fig. 2).
S" ElMOV
WQr\!jnl t,m:t
Figure 2
3
Boomerang
If the paint frame is stationary, the scene painter may either work on a
movable bridge or use a boomerang. A boomerang is a construction on casters
much resembling a flight of steps with convenient landings so the scene painter
can change his or her elevation and paint the scenery with ease (see fig. 3).
A BOOMERANG
Figure 3
Continental System
Should a paint frame not be avai lable and large drops or scrims have to be
painted, a room with adequate floor space is necessary. Individual flats can be
painted on their sides or, if ceiling space allows, may be stood upright. Should
the room's available height be a restriction, the scenery must be placed flat on
the Roar. The method of painting scenery while it is lying faceup on the floor
is called the (ontinental system. 1his system originated in Europe and received
its moniker by Westerners in referring to Europe as "the continent." Paint-
ing continentally is also commonly referred to as horizontal painting, painting
jlat, or painting down. Most scene painters prefer the continental method for
painting much of their scenery, regardless of the space and f..1.c ilities available.
4
This preference is largely related to the number of painting effects that can be
achieved when the forces of gravity are not in play. Blending and man ling o l ~
ors into soft, ethereal fusions are all but impossible on a vertical surface. And
when one works with dyes, which are generally much thinner in consistency
than paints, the control of color and line is much easier to accomplish conti-
nentally. Upright painting, where gravity can be the enemy, may result in the
unwanted and frustrating dripping of color. Painting a small piece of scenery
that is lying faceup and resting on sawhorses is a convenient arrangement in
that the painter may comfortably stand and work with the same proximity to
the painting surf.'lce as if it were placed vert ically. The adjustment from the
vertical to the horizontal approach when the scenery is lying on the floor does
require practice. In vertical painting, the bristles of the brush are within inches
of the motor control of the fingers and wri st. In horizontal painting, small
areas can be painted by the painter kneeling; however, to avoid back strain
and give the painter a broader visual scope of the work being done, brushes are
commonly attached to boards and bamboo sticks so the painter can remain
in a standing position (see figs. 4a and 4b) . With patience and practice, one
can develop the same sense of motor control with the bristles that are now
three feet away. Not only will the painter work with ease but the paint is, by
gravity, always running downward to the tip of the brush, thereby lessening
Figure 4a.}ules Tonus, scenic artist
5
CONTINENTAL PAI NTING - STANDING
Figure 4b
the number of times the brush must be recharged. An additional advantage
to the continental method rests in the retarded drying time of the paints and
dyes. Because air cannot readi ly circulate bet ween the scenery and the floor,
paints will remain wetter longer and allow additional time for the wet mixing
of colors if desired.
Floor Paper
When continentally painting flats, t he floor should be covered wit h brown
kraft paper to catch spilled or refuse paint. When painting drops or scrims
on the floor, gray bogus paper as an undercovering should be used to allow
evenness in drying. (The rough side of the bogus paper should be facing up to
allow maximum absorption.) Kraft paper, on the other hand, should not be
used under drops and scrims, as it does not absorb water well and wilJ buckJe
when wet. Commercially available waxed paper should be used when gluing
appliques or reinforcing cut drops with scrim or scenic netting. The waxed
paper will peel away from the rear of the drops and scrims, whereas gray bogus
paper will stick.
6
2. Equipment
Buckets and Containers
Even for paiming small, simple pieces of scenery, buckets and contain-
ers in which to mix paint are needed. The obvious containers are the ones
in which the paint is shipped. Most commonly, manufacturers package theif
products in either of two types of containers:
1. convenient 1- or S-gaJlon plastic bucket that has its own snap-on lids
to keep the color fresh. These may be cleaned and used for years, will
stack neatly together, and are very light and portable.
2. I-gallon metal or plastic paint cans with lids. Those of metal will not
stack, and the lids, when firmly sealed, must be pried open with a
paint key or slot screwdriver. Plastic cans are available with snap-on
and screw-on lids and stack when empty.
l he main drawback of these cans occurs when paint is allowed to collect
in the top groove of the can in which the lid goes. Taking a few moments to
hammer nails to make holes through this groove will allow collecting paint to
drip into the can, keeping the groove clear and allowing the lid to be resealed
with ease. Both of these containers types are fairly easy to clean ifhot water is
allowed to soak in them soon after the paint has been exhausted.
It is wise to save the 5-gallon containers that white or black paint come in
when large quantities are ordered. These containers are rugged plastic, with
sturdy handles and heavy-duty lids with pour spouts perfect for mixing large
quantities of a color and storing unused quantities. Plastic buckets (2- to 3-
gallon capacity) with shaped pour spouts are a must. The only draw back is that
many available in hardware and dO-it-yourself centers may not come with lids.
For the durat ion of the painting period, 1,4 inch plyvvood disks may be placed
on the top of the bucket, with a weight of some sort resting upon it. This will
keep most of the air out and hclp paint retain freshness for a couple of weeks .
Aluminum cans, commercial ly referred to as number 10 size, will prove very
handy for smaller quantities of special colors (dozens of these cans arc thrown
out daily by restaurants and cafeterias) as are coffee cans with plastic lids. For
smaller quantities of brilliant colors, metallic paints, and the like, maintain a
generous supply of plastic, lidded containers from margarine, yogurt, dessert
topping, and similar items (see fig. 5).
7
Figure 5
5 gallon
Paint Carriers
23 gallon
No. 10 can
(coffee can)
Paint carriers are a must for the painter who has to move from area to area
in the shop (sec fig. 6). These not only provide for the easy mobility of the paint
but helps prevent the spilling of it and includes a storage area for extra brushes,
charcoal sticks, and fclt-tip markers. Under the rolling carrier are casters for
roUing the unit around, while furniture pads tacked on the underside of the
base of the pick-up-and-carry type minimize the possibility of damage to the
horizontal painting surface when the carrier is moved .
;. PAINT C ARRJ ERS .;.
PICKUP & CARRY
Figure 6
8
Brushes
The brush is the painter's most prized possession. To the sensitive painter,
each brush in his or her collection has a unique feel and special purpose. 1he
more superstitious of painters will only work with their own brushes (much
the way a ballplayer uses only his or her own bat) and claim that borrowed
brushes are unsuitable, inferior, and simply don't feel right. Regardless ofindi-
vidual preferences, eccentricities, or superstitions, every painter is aware that
no one brush will serve all painting needs and that a repertoire of shapes and
sizes is required to fulfill painting stroke requirements.
Figure 7 illustrates the components of the paintbrush. The shapes of the
bristle and ferrule and the length and shape of the handle determine the type
of brush and its recommended usage.
1be foUowing brushes common to scene painting arc displayed in figure 8:
1. A large brush called a primer is 5 to 6 inches in width and, as its name
would suggest, is used to treat newly covered flats with a scaling coat of
paint. Its bristles are soft and should not be confused with a whitewashing
brush, which has stiffer bristles. The larger the brush the marc smoothly and
quickly large areas can be covered. The primer brush may also be used for
applying base coats of paint. This brush is usually ordered through a theatri-
cal supplier, although some home centers do carry wide brushes with fairly
supple bristles.
2. Lay-in brushes come in 3 inch, 4 inch, and 5 inch widths. They cover
rapidly and cut sharp edges when twisted. Brushes of this nature can be pur-
chased in any paint or hardware store and home center, but be sure to choose
ones with relatively soft bristles. (Those referred to as "latex brushes" will work
well, as many brands of scenic paint come in latex form.) Bristle length is also
important. Avoid stubby brushes, as the longer the bristle, the more paint the
brush will hold.
3. Foliage brushes, sometimes called jantai/s, range from Ph to 3'h inches
in width at the ferrule. 1beir unique bristle shape allows for graceful imprints
when the edge of the bristles' length is pressed against the painting surface.
Fantails arc purchased through theatrical painting and supply houses.
4. Small, long-handled brushes arc called liner brushes (or, more com-
monly years ago, fitches) and will range from a 1J4 inch cutting brush to 2
inches in width. These brushes possess a sharp chisel point, generally made
from Chinese bristles, and are used primarily for lining, tapering strokes, and
endless detail work and touch-ups. 1he ends of the bristles may be parallel to
9
.;. DIAGRAM OF THE PAINT BRUSH .;.
Figure 7
2 3 4 5 6
-
'."
'1ftt : , , ~ :
" t'i J IUU,
Trim EJrush
Figure 8
10
the bottom edge of the ferrule or shaped at an angle, resembling a standard
trim brush (see the trim brush in fig. 8). They are available through theatrical
suppliers.
5. Stencil brushes and round brushes have a round ferrule and are used to
pound paint through stencils. Not as long as a stencil brush, round brushes
come in varieties of diameters and bristle qualities and may also be used for
detail work. They are available through theatrical supply, arts supply, craft
stores, and similar places.
Trim brushes are favored by house and interior painters because their angled
bristles allow easy painting into corners, at wall-ceitingjunctures, and around
moldings and trim. They can be used for variety of utility purposes in scene
painting and are available at hardware stores and home centers.
6. Spuialty brushes are those adapted from new brushes or from older or
worn brushes. One common example is the cut-bristle brush, which is used
for graining, cloth-fiber appearances, and general linear texturing. Clumps
of bristles have either fallen out or been removed. Any brush could become
a specialty brush if one is ingenious enough. Hardware and paint stores also
feature semidisposable, black, foam-rubber brushes with wooden handles.
These brushes come in va rious widths and have a preformed chisel point but
are not suited to large-scale tasks. TIle foam brush can be effective in painting
props, set dressing, and smaller units of hard scenery. They can be used to cut
in detail lines and arc sweeps. Notching the chisel end can produce interest-
ing wood graining (see fig. 40b). But the foam itself is shorr-lived, crumbles
easily, and never holds a great deal of paint. There are no rules as to what
to use to get the job done: whatever works well and can be llsed repeatedly
should qualify.
Push brushes or brooms are ordinary long-handled janitor's brooms with
softened bristles. Used for continental painting techniques, they can be found
in hardware stores and home centers.
With the possible exception of push brushes and brooms, all ot her paint-
brushes have one t hing in common: each can be used in a variety of ways.
Using a lay-in brush for the following examples, one may stroke on the paint
in the usual fashion or imprint paint in three different ways:
1. jlat print. The broad face of the brush is pressed against the surface
(see fig. 9a). A variation on this is thejlick, which somewhat resembles
a scumble stroke.
2. jlat-twist print. The broad bristl e t:'lce is placed flat against the surface,
and the brush is gently twisted or flipped over (see fig. 9b).
11
Figure 9
3.
(a) Flat Print
side print. The side edge of the brush lies on the paint surface as the
handle begins a rolling up motion (sec fig. 9c).
Another attack is the end print, which, essentially, is a stippling motion
in that just the ends of the bristles make contact. It behooves one to practice
these st rokes and possible combinations and variations with all different types
of brushes as mastery will create a valuable arsenal.
If one is serious about scene painting, it is worthwhile to buy best-quality
brushes. Brushes resembling some of those described above might be found
in cavernous home centers, but for scene-painting needs, it is best to shop
through a theatrical supplier where one can be sure the brushes purchased suit
theatrical needs. European white bristle liner and f.1.ntail brushes are extremely
durable if properly used, cleaned, and stored. Artist easel brushes may find a
calling for special painting needs but are generally of too hard or soft a bristle
texture for scene-painting needs.
12
Though certainly not a brush, having a supply of painter's tape on hand
is important. Resembling masking tape, though not as strong and stubborn,
painter's tape is intended to mask off areas and is much more easily removed
than masking tape. It comes in a variety of widths, is found in the painting
supply area of almost any hardware store or home center, and is conveniently
recognized by its green or blue color (for additional scene painting aids, please
see part 2, section 7, L i n i n g , ~ and section 9, "Wallpaper").
Paint and Dye
Many types of paints and dyes are used in painting scenery. Paints, in
their opaque form, are used to provide a color that will mask over a previous
color. When t hinned to a wash, also called glaze, consistency, they work much
in the same way as a dye by casting a transparent or semi-transparent color
over an existing one. (The terms wash and glaze arc synonymous and may be
used interchangeably.) The original colorwiU show through to the extent it has
been enhanced or masked by the thinned paint or dye-aver-color.
All paints, whether used straight from containers, watered down, or
mixed with other colors, are classified as a suspension, rather than a solution.
A solution is a combination ofingredients that when mixed will not separate;
in a suspension, the ingredients separate. Paints are composed of a coloring
agent mixed with a liquid binding agent. This binding agent is made from
water and another substance that will cause the paint to stick to the painting
surface after the water in the binding agent evaporates. The color property in
t he paint is almost excluSively heavier than its binding agent, which is why
paints need to be stirred often. The coloring agent or agents are floating,
that is, suspended, in the liquid binding agent. And the more paint is t hinned
down, the more likely the color will sink to the bottom if the paint is not
repeatedly stirred.
l hose coloring mediums that have historical significance and those in
common use today, which may be of historical significance, are (though not in
any significant order) :
dry pigments
caselO
vinyl paint
latex paint
dyes
bronze powders
13
From the above, many derivatives are available, and the combined usage
of several on one painting project is not uncommon. Each is described below
for its singular characteristics and individual usage.
Dry pigments are the oldest and most form of scene paint.
1heir use, in primitive form, predates not only the theater but the civilized
world. Paleolithic artists whose cave paintings were discovered quite by acci-
dent by amateur spelunkers in southeastern France created colored images that
have been carbon-dated to thirty thousand years. The age of the paintings is
under somewhat of a controversy as some of the paints used were created from
iron oxides. As only those drawings and paintings whose colors were mixed
wi th bone, wood, or plant fibers (i.e., from once-living organisms) can be dated
using carbon 14 dat ing, a scholarly squabble to do with the exact dating of the
cave paintings will continue unt il other empirical evidence, if any, surfaces. It
does appear that the most prevalent color used in ancient paintings was a red
derived from what is now classified as hematite. The word hematite is derived
from the Greek word hema or haima, meaning blood. Although hematite can
be found in two forms, either in black, lustrous crystals or red powder, it was
the red that was most used by Paleolithic peoples. The color red was associated
with blood, the most vi tal of fluids. It came to dramatically symbolize life's
very beginning and end. Although the Paleolithic color spectrum was but a
flicker of the unlimited one in use today, they used red, black, and yellow to
create impressive and often magnificent sweeps of line that majestically cap-
tured their prey and beasts of prey. Their coloring pigments of ground rock,
bits of clay, limestone, charcoal, ground bone, roots, and berries were mixed
into a paste that served as a binding agent that would make the paints adhere
to the cave's walls. The binding liquids were made from rendered fat and bone
marrow, sinew, saliva, vegetable juices, urine, or egg whites. The extent to
which the ancient colors were liquefied would have had a direct bearing on
their methods of application.
While the cave paintings may be spectacular in appearance and sophisti-
cated in scope, there is no evidence to suggest that the colors were employed
other than in a crayon-stick type of consistency. Perhaps brushing, as now
thought of, was not even used. Historians can only speculate on how the paints
were applied by observing the final product. The very pock-marked surface of
the cave walls could lead to speculation that the paints were either dabbed
or smeared on, perhaps by using the fingertips. Large areas could have been
covered by using animals skins damp with paint. To suggest primitive people
invented the paintbrush is wishful speculation. It is, however, reasonable to
assume that commensurate with the extent of the artistry found on the cave
14
walls could have been the creative technology capable of binding hair to a stick
or bone, thus resembling the beginnings of a paintbrush. As the consistency
of the paint medium became thinner, one might jump to the notion that its
application could have become more graceful and refined. Could feathers have
come into play? The Yanomami peoples, li ving an almost prehistoric existence
in remote areas ofVenezue1a and Brazil, blow thinned colors through hollow
bones, thus creating an air-brushed appearance to their paintings. Could their
global ancestors have done likewise?
Regardless as to debamble met hods of application, primitive paints have
much in common even with roday's media, in that every form of modern paint
contains a binding agent; and as was the case in the dawn of humankind, once
the water in the binding agent evaporates the adherent property-whether
animal sinew or acrylic-allows the paint to stick to a surface. And although
the basic formula of color plus binding agent has not changed since prehistoric
times, its processing has evolved light-years in terms of synthetic substitutions
and color variations.
Despite their color range, which is broad and often brilliantly rich, dry
pigments are not in common use today largely because of two f.'lctors: (1) the
inconveniences of preparation and maintenance and (2) health concerns. Dry
pigments are finely ground; although heavier in volume than talcum powder,
particles, when sifted and measured, may go into the air and may be ingested.
Although more difficult to purchase now, dry pigments are available by the
pound in powder form, and later mixed with a separate binder, or glue solu-
tion. If mixed only with water, the paint will dry back to its original powdered
smte and not adhere to the scenery.
Though almost any type of binder could be used with this kind of scene
paint, the one type that wi ll not dull the Vibrancy of the powder pigments
and is the most economical in the long run is called size water. Although size
water may apply to any glue solution that has been cut with water, ground,
or flaked, animal glue and hot water are the ingredients of traditional size
water. Using animal glue has become both an environmental and political
powder keg, greatly discouraging its use. As to the maintenance of lique-
fied dry pigments, all binding solutions have a tendency to separate with
the gluing agent, which, being heavier than water, will settle to the bottom.
This can cause quite the sludge at the bucket's base, which must be stirred
until the paint is mixed thoroughly again. (When using the old animal glue,
the binder would coagulate and harden when cool. The bucket needed to be
reheated in a double-boiler arrangement to soften it, and the resulting smell
could be putrid!)
15
When dry pigments have dried, they may often lack the permanence of
other media, such as, casein, vinyl, or latex, and may need to be "sealed," or
covered, by a waterproof glaze (Le., latex or vinyl) to prevent the pigments
from rubbing off. Whiting is used to stretch the quantity of the paint, which
is then tinted to the appropriate color with other more expensive and exotic
dry-pigment colors. On the cheaper end of the price scale is the whiting; the
price of pigments per pound increases as the colors become more brilliant. Dry
pigments are at least three times darker when wet, so some painters mix their
colors fi rst in powder form, thus approximating the value of t he paint after it
has dried, and then add the binder, and mix to the desired consistency.
Couin, along with vinyl colors, is a very popular medium because of its
ease of workability. Casein contains its own binder and stems from protein
found in milk. It can be poured in its thin paste form from the can and conve-
niently mixed with warm water. Dyes may be added to casein to deepen and
strengthen its tone. Completely waterproof when dry, casein can be washed
wi th a light solution of soap and water. Offering good hiding power, it may
also be thinned to a wash and will mix readily with other water-based media.
Because ofits durabi lity, casein may be covered with glazes of dyes or thinncd
paints without being rubbed up. Its Rat drying finish is slightly lighter when
dry, and its rich colors maintain most of their wet-state vibrancy. Shelf life is
excellent if tightly scaled. A small amount of water can be added to the top of
the paint to keep it moist.
Vinyl paint comes in liquid form, contains its own binder, and is thinned
with water. Like casein and latex colors, its principal attributes lie in its perma-
nence and the convenience of preparation and workability. It docs, however,
lack the brilliance of dry-pigment colors and is not as vivid as casein, but it can
be heightened (or enriched) by adding dye or casein paint. Vinyl paint is avail-
able in flat or semigloss and when applied straight from the can is very durable
for painting floors and platforms. Thinned to a normal paint consistency, it
can be used on muslin or canvas; further t hinning will produce an excellent
wash. Clear liquid vinyl can be used to waterproof dry-pigment colors, while
clear gloss vinyl adds an extra dimension of richness to wood graining, a luster
to marbleized units, and the like.
Although latex paint is available in wide ranges of colors, it has a tendency
to gray very slightly when dry. Alkyd-latex (its formal name) comes in consis-
tencies ranging between thin paste and hcavy cream, with a base containing
synthctic rubber. Readily thinned with water, latex dries to permanency. Latex
contains its own binder and can be scrubbed clean when applied to porous and
semiporous surfaces {e.g., canvas and wood).lt forms its own resilient surf.'lce
16
that accepts glazes of cascin, vinyl, or dye. Latex does not adhere well, if at
all, to nonporous surf.'lces, such as plastic or glass. It adheres to Plexiglass if
first thinned to a wash; thick and paste-like consistencies peel away. Latex is
available in flat, semigloss, and clear varieties. Clear latex, which somewhat
resembles heavy cream when wet, dries completely transparent and is available
in gloss and mane finishes. I n the glossy variety, the degree of sheen is con-
trolled by the amount of water used to thin the mixture (the more water, the
less sheen). Working straight from the original container will result in a highly
polished look. Clear latex is excellent for increasing surface richness and as a
"fixative" for all dry pigments. including dry tempera. As with clear liquid
vinyls, expect a darkening of the painted surface. Color may be added to clear
finishes if one wishes to alter the tone of a painted surface. This provides not
only an excellent corrective tool should the finished product be too bright but
can also lend a sense of age or the appearance of built-up grime to a surface.
Dyes come in both powder and crystal forms. Most are soluble in hot
water; some are alcohol soluble. Household laundry dyes may be purchased at
any grocery, hardware store, and pharmacy; more potent and large-case orders
are available from theatrical supply. All dry dyes will mix readily with one
another, allowing for an infinite spectrum of possible colors. Even some read-
ily available dyes claiming to be water-soluble may float on the surface of even
the hottest of water; a small amount of isopropyl alcohol added sparingly will
break down any resistance. Salt added to the hot-water solution wilJ increase
the dye's permanence.
The type of dye traditionally used in the theater has been aniline dye. It
comes in powder form with a shelflife that is exceptional. Its richness of color
will not fade with age if the container (preferably a metal can) is kept tightly
scaled. Although many theaters may still have a supply of aniline dyes, its
use could pose serious health and environmental consequences. Aniline dyes
(ontain an extract oj benzene, a poisonous liquid obtained from coal tar. If one must
work with aniline, one iJ adviJed to do so in a well-ventilated area while wear-
ing a maJk and by taking frequent breaks to minimize continuous exposure to its
fumes. Painters are advised to find alternatives to aniline dye, including using
the commercially available household varieties and increasing their strength
and depth of color by cutting back on the amount of water added. Watering
down a scenic paint to a thin wash, or glaze, consistency actually creates a dye,
although most paints cannot be removed with bleach once they have set. One
of the strongest and most permanent of dyes can be made by boiling red or
yellow onion skins; costumers and property makers often use tea as an aging
or "breaking down" element.
17
As the name of the medium suggests, a dye enhances or alters the color
upon which it is applied. 1t can be used to bleed or puddle on fabric backdrops,
augment the beauty of a velour's texture, pull out the grain of raw wood, create
a dreamlike mist on a scrim, or cast superb shadows. Dyes must be used and
prepared with care. The general rule is to prepare a dye that is a little weak
rather than one that is too strong. The darker the desired effect, the more
applications of dye should be used. Dye only works one way: it darkem. To
lighten is to bleach. Dye that has been mixed too strongly (i.e., with very little
water) will crystallize and rub off. To be safe and to assure permanence, even
the most inexpensive of dyes can be made permanent by mixing them with
binders of size water, white glue, or clear vinyl.
Bronze powders are not exclusively bronze-colored but are metallic in
nature. The title brol1ze is a generi c one, and the powders come in a wide
range of colors. These metallic pigments are not readily available and arc
expensive but, in terms of traditional scene painting, were once indispens-
able for scenic use. Like dry pigments and aniline dyes, bronze powders
have fallen out of favor for health and contaminant reasons. The powders
arc incredibly light in weight and seem to float out of the can when opcned.
Thcy can be easily inhaled and spread through the air by the slightest breeze.
When mixed with a reliable binder, however, they adhere nicely to a surface.
Tn their heyday, they were ideal for gilding architectural ornaments, picture
frames, set and hand props; highlighting decorative filigree and drapery tas-
sels; denoting veining in stonework; or stenciling on drops and flats. Metal-
lic powders can be used on wood, plastic, metal, or fabric. Frugally added
to paint, they will float to the surface of the painting as it dries to lend a
metall ic glaze. Though bronze powders can be mixed with many types of
binders, almost all forms will dull the metallic pigment to varying degrees.
For minimal discoloration, mix with clear gloss vinyl (2 parts vinyl to 1 part
water). Stir often.
Convenient alternatives to bronze powders are available in ready-to-
use metallic coiors, thanks to the blossoming popularity of custom-interi or
painters, home decorators, and their loyal legions of home dO-it-yourselfers .
Some of these metallics arc water based and may be mixed with a variety
of scene paints. Many can be ordered f.'lctory-direct in large quantities. For
finishing touches, enamel and water-based metallic spray paints may be used.
It is advisable to work il1 weI/-ventilated areas and wear a mask whenever using
any type of spray paint. 1n a pinch, a spray can may be upended and sprayed
into its own cap, creating a puddle of paint, which then can be applied with
a brush.
18
3. Color
Color psychology
The psychology of color is a fascinating subject, one that has been researched
extensively. Documented findings receive increasing importance and impact on
daily lives. Scientists studying chromadynamics have to an extent proven the
effects colors have on vision, respiratory rhythm, heart rate, rhe endocrine sys-
tem, diet, mood, and the like. Such studies and subsequently published find-
ings have led to a method of t herapy called chromatherapy, whereby patients
with certain disorders arc exposed to various colors and color combinations in
an effort to minimize or eradicate side effects associated with the disorder.
The degrees to which muscular tcnsion, tremors, and relaxat ion increase
or abate can be measured and, often, are overtly noticeable. Some patients
afflicted with Parkinson's disease have been observed with increases in tremors
when exposed to red and yellow. Equippi ng these same patients with green-
tinted eye lenses avoided tremor increase when exposed to these colors. StilJ
other colors may, in some cases, affect judgment. There is a tendency for those
exposed to red (possibly denoting heat) over an extended period to overesti-
mate the amount of time that had elapsed, while those exposed to blue (denot-
ing cold) underestimated how much time passed.
Although numerous and highly interesting examples may be given as to
the varying effects colors have on individuals, one must not lose sight of the
subjective side of color stimulation and reaction. Some people, perhaps due to
personal association, may react in opposite ways to a color. A child who stuffed
himself wit h banana cream pic to the point of vomiting may forever have an
aversion to light, creamy yellow. The color that may provoke nausea in one per-
son may lead to tranqUility in another. Globally, various cultures put opposing
weight on their Significance of color communication: white may suggest purity
and virginity in many Western cult ures, whereas it may be symbolic of deat h
in others.
According to chromadynamics, colors are absorbed by the eye and the
body. Red radiates waves oflight that are closer toget her than blue, thus bom-
barding, perhaps, the eye and body more quickly and intensely. We are con-
stantly influenced, even on the minutest of subconscious levels, by the colors
surrounding us. Therefore, the colors of the environments in which we work
and live need serious consideration. From young children who need the stim-
uli of primary colors to the sick and aged who require pale blues and greens to
relieve tension and despair, color can intensify or relax the human condition.
19
The theater uses color as one of its strongest tools but usually in ways
that are not meant to assault or bombard the spectator. Many colors on the
stage are used in muted form so as to not take their taU on the audience over
a two- to three-hour period of exposure. Stage lighting plays an enormous
role on the impact of colors by either increasing or decreasing the proxim-
ity of visual waves being emitted. 1l1e waves are controlled by enhancing or
neutralizing paint colors through the color oflight and by the degree ofillu-
mination (bright light bouncing off even a pale gray wall can be absolutely
confrontational to the viewer.) Primary colors and "first" secondaries (true
orange, purple, and green) are rarely used in large quantities as they are very
ri ch and cause more dist raction than support. While individuals may have
hugely diverse and subjective reactions to various colors in isolation, those
same colors used in little bits here and there on the stage have little effect
on the spectator. A scenic, costume, or li ghting deSigner simply cannot be
overly concerned with how individuals may react to color, other than to make
strong and select ive statements on occasion for dramatic impact. Dressing the
conniving woman in scarlet is apropos and supports the nature of her charac-
ter. Bathing the romantic scene in moonlight rather than noon sunshine only
enhances the mood. Painting the set for the hospital corridor in a soothing
light mint green instead of nauseating malaria yellow just makes sense! As
such, designers know that certain colors when supported by appropriate uses of
line, texture, and mass work appropriately to enhance the genre of the play:
light, frothy colors for comedy; intense pastels for fa rce; primaries for extreme
stylizations and cartoon-like skits; earthen tones for drama; deep rich, heavy
tones for tragedy. Bur even these have exceptions.
Basic Color Mixing
For the beginning painter, the mixing of t he paint sometimes takes longer
than the actual scene painting. It is worthwhile to go to the precautions neces-
sary to ensure the colors and consistencies are exactly right before the paint is
applied to the scenery. The scene painter must have a thorough understand-
ing of the harmony, balance, and sequence of colors as they vary in value and
intensity. If the scenic designer and scene painter are not the same person, then
the role of the painter is one of duplicator of colors. lherefore, the designer
must provide the painter with an accurate sample of the finished painting. A
painter's elevation is produced by the designer, whereby, unless a full drop or
scrim is to be painted, only select portions of the set are usually pictured (see
figs. lOa. lOb, and 10c).
20
Figure: lOa
,
Figure lOb
21
Figure lOe
Color Wheel
The first step facing the painter is to identify the position that each of the
colors occupies on the color wheel. The color wheel is the most familiar graphic
arrangement of color relationships in use. Although the wheel may come in
a variety of formats, the circular sequence is universal and shows the step-to-
step formation and sequencing of colors that eventually end at the point where
the flow began. Observe the color wheel in figure 11. While some color wheels
may contain several variations in color, the simplicity of this wheel indicates
color relationships found in their purist form. Within the circle is a six-pointed
dotted figure, overlapped by a striped triangle that in turn is overlapped by a
solid t riangle.
22
COLOR WHEEL.
Figure 11
Primaries, Secondaries, and Complementaries
The solid triangle points to three colors: yellow, red, and blue. These are
called primaries because they cannot be mixed from other colors. Thei r pig-
ments must be obtained from natural elements or plants containing those col-
ors. The striped triangle points to the three colors created by the mixing of
two equal quantities of primaries. The resulting orange, purple, and green arc
cal led the secondaries. (Colors made from combining a primary with a second-
ary or two secondaries combined together may be called tertiary, when, techni-
cally, all colors other than the three primaries arc secondary colors.) The initial
secondari es of orange, purple, and green arc said to be the principal or central
secondaries because of t he equal ratio of their primary components. Lastly, the
dotted figure points to six additional secondaries that are the results of the
proport ions of the hvo primary colors that are mixed to create them.
This color wheel, then, contains the twelve principal hues that make up
the scene painter's palette. One might recogni ze colors similar to t hose on the
wheel in the average paint store. No doubt the yellow orange will not be called
23
as such because the name is unexciting albeit true to its base formula. Instead
it might be labeled Santa Fe Sunset, for example, to increase its appeal. TIle
very complex nomenclature of color is a problem in and of itself, even when
ordering from theatrical suppliers, because there is a great discrepancy in the
way the terms are used. Unfortunately, individual terminology and definition
are subject to particular tastes, preferences, convenience, or popular trends.
As an example, one company may offer a primary red pigment, while
another company counters with the supposed equivalent-spectrum red. By
definition, a primary is an original hue in the light spectrum of color. Do not
be surprised if the corresponding reds are very different in value. One may be
a bluish red, that is, a red with blue cast; t he other may have touches of yellow.
Any time the primary is not a trut primary (and, surprisingly, that is most of
the t ime), the color is said to have contaminatiorl.
Commercial colors usually have some degree of color contamination. Most
have additives of white or black. The problem is that contamination is not uni-
form.lf one were to be able to count on a certain degree of white contamina-
tion, say, in all of one's colors, one would be able to account for the contami-
nations during mixing. However, the degree and colors of contaminants vary
largely from color to color and company to company. One must be on guard for
such variances and through experience learn to counteract their effect.
If one were to procure absolute primaries, equal quantities of the three
mixed together would create black. Most commercial colors claiming to be
primary or spectrum colors when mixed equalJy will produce either a deep
gray or deep brown, depending on the contaminants used, instead of black.
Any pairs of colors when mixed to produce black are called compltmentaries.
An easy way to discover a color's complement is to match that color with the
one directly across the color wheel. For example, green and red are comple-
mentary colors. Mixing these together will create black only if combined in
equal quantities ifall colors involved.
1 quart of RED
Combining
with 2 quarts of GREEN
(1 quart YE l. LOW and 1 quart BLUE)
is the same as an equal mixture
of the three primaries
~ n d equals Bl.ACK ....
An example that proves the same principle but is visually more interest-
ing is this demonstration: To 2 cups of the relatively dark color that is purple
24
(made from 1 cup of red and 1 cup of blue), add 1 cup of the lighter color of
yellow. Stir, and the result will again be black. Hard to believe adding a light
color to a dark color can produce an even darker one.
Suppose 1 quart of red and 1 quart of green arc added together. Break
the colors down into small er parts. The red accounts for 2 pims of tile primary
color red. The true or central green is made of1 pint each of the primary colors
yellow and blue. The 2 pints total of yellow and blue combine with 1 pint of red
to produce black (for a total of3 pints mixed together). Leftover will be 1 pint
of red. The final mix, which is 3 pints black plus 1 pint red, will be a black red,
or more likely a black that has the faintest cast of red. Changing the ratios of
any of the contributors will alter the value of the eventual hue.
Black was used in the past example to illustrate two points: (1) absolute
primaries combined in equal proportion, or any complementaries combined in
equal color-component proportion, will produce black, and (2) black is inte-
gral in the mixing of colors when variation in color value-thc quality or rich-
ness of color--is needed. The absence of black in the scheme of color mixing
could be a detriment.
Why, then, is black not included on the color wheel? It certainly does not
fall into the category of a primary because it can be mixed from other colors.
Neither is white found on the color wheel, yet it is like the primaries in that it
cannot be mixed from other colors. Some proponents of color theory refer to
black as the combination of all colors and refer to white as the absence of color.
What is important to note is that black and white can tint or shade with similar
results as the colors on the color wheel. In the practical mixing of color, the use
of primaries and secondaries to create various hues can be costiy, particularly
when large quantities are called for. At the risk of diluting or dulling a color's
strength, the experienced painter can cut many a corner and save quantities of
the more valuable color by using black andlor white in appropriate measures.
Using Black and White
Colors may be described not only to their relative placement on the color
wheel but also by the amount of white or black they may contain. White can
be combined with any color and what will result is a tint of the original color.
The white will soften the original color or render it increasingly paler as the
amount of added white increases. Black added to a color will create a darker
version of the color, or a shade. Darkening a color with black erodes away the
color's richness, making the color duller and more "lifeless" as the amount of
added black increases. However, with judicious use of black (perhaps the least
25
expensive color) and white, an extensive array of tints and shades of anyone
color is possible.
To create a shade that retains more of the richness of the base color than an addi-
tive of black would aI/ow, add to the base color its complement (found on the color
wheel): that is, add some orange to some base blue to arrive at a shade of blue. This
principal can get quite confusing when a base color starts off as a mixture
of several other colors. To avoid an unintentional muddy appearance, mix as
few colors together as possible to create the base. The painter will eventually
acquire a feci for how colors interact. As a shade is usually associated with a
cool tone, and a tint with a warmer glow, experiment with adding deep blues
or purples to create a rich shade. For example, a powerfully rich shade of burnt
umber can be made by adding purple to it.
Table of Nine Mixtures
Black and white can be mixed together in countless proportions. What
has become standard for a beginner's scene-painting needs is the Table of Nine
Mixtures. 1110ugh black and white are used below, the Table of Nine Mixtures
can be applied to any two root-color combinations, using the following formula.
26
Table of Nine Mixtures
(The number is any unit of measure, such as a cup.)
white 0
black 8
white 1
black 7
white 2
black 6
white 3
black 5
white 4
black 4
white 5
black 3
white 6
black 2
white 7
black 1
white 8
black 0
This column is a scale of mixture from black to white. The top combina-
tion represents a pure black and the bottom a pure white; those in between
represent varying values of gray.
Begin to imagine, for example, the virtually limitless possibilities of color
with mixing the medium (4 to 4) gray with purple. Create an entirely new
scale wit h the ratios of the black-white Table of Nine Mixtures: mix 8 parts
purple with 0 parts medium gray, and continue through to t he end of the table,
o to 8. If this series is cont inued wi th all values of gray from the black-white
table, the resul t is for ty-nine different values of purple, excluding the pure
purple and original values of gray resulting from 0-to-8 and 0-to-8 ratios.
Values of gray can be used to neutralize bright colors and lessen their vibrancy.
The procedure is called graying down a color.
l he usc of white alone with purple in the nine-mixture table produces
seven different tints of purple. Using black will create seven shades. Because
many of the black pigments available are contaminated, shades appear muddy.
Always purchase t he purist of blacks and the most brilliant of whites.
Classic Scene-Painting Palette (Traditional Terminology)
While it is theoretically true that a painter could get by with uncontami-
nated quantit ies of the three primaries plus black and white, convenience dic-
tates that at least those colors found on an expanded version of the basic color
wheel should be on hand to f,'lcilitate mixing. The following palette lists the
twelve principal hues of the expanded wheel and names the colors closest to those
hues. lhese colors represent a respectable palette to have in inventory. Paint
distributors may classify the paints by the traditional names, but the individual
paint shop may va ry its palette structure according to its own preference.
YELLOW: light chrome yellow
YELLOW ORANGE: medium chrome yellow
ORANGE: American vermilion
ORANGE RED: flame red
RED: turkey red lake
REO PURPLE: magenta lake
27
PURPLE: royal purple
PURPLE BLUE: violet lake
BLUE: cobalt blue
BLUE GREEN: celestial blue or teal
GREEN: emerald green
YELLOW GREEN: primrose yellow or cadmium yellow
I n addition, careful selections of white, black, and earth colors are important
to complete the palette. They are less expensive than the colors listed above.
BROWNS: burnt sienna, burnt umber, raw sienna, golden ochre
WHITE: permanent white
BLACK: ivory drop black
Colors may roughly be divided into two categories: warm or cool. Those
colors possessing predominant proportions of blue, purple, or green arc sooth-
ing to t he eye and are referred to as cool. Colors having a predominance of red,
orange, or yellow are striking and energetic, arouse emotion, and arc warm.
Taking these categories to extreme will render them cold or hot. Cool and cold
colors have a tendency to lie dormant or lend an illusion of distance to objects.
They may seem to recede from the observer and, thus, are passive in nature.
Warm and hot colors are energetic and create an excitement that can be force-
ful and seem to approach the observer. As such, they are active in nature.
It is nO[ unusual in scene painting to add blotches of a warm or cool color
to a colored surf.1ce. Not only will visual variety and interest be enhanced but
the temperature of the surface may be strengthened or altered. The painting
surface "temperature," combined with supporting texture, will aid the scenery
in the establ ishment of mood for the environment. Although elements ofline,
mass, and color are standard tools of expression for the art ist, the scene painter
docs not have control of the uses of line and mass within his or her area of
responsibility, unless, of course, the scene painter is the designer as well . The
painter must combine color and texture on the confines of a two-dimensional
surface to create illusions, using ranges of color and texture appropriate to
everyday existence or, if required, taking the tools to extreme. All effects arc
gauged in relation to the actor or what has popularly become known as the
human condition. We cannot help but associate visual elements with our own
frameworks of existence. Should a hospital be a deep yellow-green stucco envi-
ronment or a soothing light mint green with smooth walls? Should one create
a sense of serenity or ill at ease? ]s a fireplace to be made of crisp, aqua ceramic
28
tiles or seasoned orange-brown bricks? Decisions of visual expression and
observer impression are fundamental to the overall conception of the designer,
but the matter of execution and knowledge of color and texture must finally
be assumed by the painter.1he use of temperature in color and the illusions of
texture are the keys to the visual expression entrusted to and controlled by the
scene painter. I n its simplest form, all illusionary painting requires the mixing
of three hues of the predominant color: a base, a tint, and a shade.
4. Mixing the Base, Tint, and Shade
To produce almost all types of scene-painting techniques, from texturing
to detail work and regardless of the type of paint used, a minimum of three
hues of a color are used.
Before beginning, one cardinal rule of color mixing must be recognized:
It is a/ways easier to mak.e a color darker than it is to mak.e it lighter. Surprisingly
large amounts of white are needed to lighten a color that accidentally was
mixed too dark. Many times itwiU behoove the painter to empty the ill-mixed
or too- dark a color into an "ends" bucket for use as a back- painting color than
to waste voluminous quantities of white in attempts to lighten a dark color.
The three hues of color to prepare are labeled according to their purpose.
The first color to mix will represent the predominant color the scenic unit is to
be painted. It is called the base color. From this are created the two remaining
colors: the tint and the shade. In synonymous painting terms, the tint may also
be called a highlight, and the shade a lowlight.
In the Table of Nine MiJ.:tures, t he middle of t he scale, or the 4-to-4 ratio,
represents the medium or base gray (although the black will exert more visual
strength than the white.) Those colors approaching the absolute white arc tints
or high(er) lights of the base; working toward absolute black finds the shades
or low(er) lights of the base color. An average tint and shade, according to the
table, could be made using the middles hues, that is, t int := 6 white + 2 black,
shade:= 2 white + 6 black. Mixing the base, tint, and shade by way of the ninc-
mixture table is no more than a simple cookbook recipe for the inexperienced
painter, but practice wiIl provide shortcuts to the measuring process. It is wise
for the novice painter to begin early to develop and strengthen an ability to
match sample colors. A simple beginning would be to miJ.: the base, tim, and
shade grays according to the table and then abandon all tools of measurement
other than the judgment of the eye and attempt to visually match the three
values made by t he table formula.
29
Procedure
The steps below encourage mixing by eye rather than recipe (see fig. ] 2):
Step 1:
Line up three buckets. To make t he base gray, into the center bucket add
4 equal parts each of black and white, and stir. This color will have to be
made in a large enough quantity as it will be used to create the tint and
the shade.
Step 2:
Into the right bucket add 2 parts of white. To this white, slowly add some
of the base color while sti rring to make t he tint. Arriving at t he desired
tint will take some practice. It may be best to work in teaspoon quantities
of white and base to get a feel for how quickly hues change.
Step 3:
Use the bucket on the left to mix the shade. Pour in 2 parts base color. Slowly
add black to this, while stirring, unti l the desired shade is reached.
TO MAKE
THE
TI NT :
TO MAKE
THE
51-l ADE:
r-- - -------- --,
ADD ".
l .... yr ---- ---- ~
WIIl TE
BLACK.
!.
Fi gure 12 BASE
30
Note that both the tint and shade are made by dark.ening lighter colors. Using
the base color to make the tint and shade is easier than relying on the
mixture method. Remember that when creating a shade for anything but a
base gray, use the base color's complement on the color wheel to create the
shade. As an example, if the base color is blue, usc its complement (orange) to
darken the base color to the desired depth of shade.
The extent to which the tint and shade arc removed in hue from the value
of the base color will have a definite relationship to the degree of texture, or
illusion, created. In other words, the more textural desired
for, say, a wall to look, the brighter the tint and the darker the shade should be.
Conversely, if a subtle textural illusion is required, mix the tint and the shade
in hues close to the base color. Avoid mix extremes for the t int and shade as
these will appear unnatural for realistic scenery, and create a cartooned look
(unless, of course, that is the look designed) .
For most painting projects, the paint should be mixed to a cons istency
lar to whole milk. When the stir stick is lifted from the bucket, the paint should
run from the stick smoothly, not in little drops. Beware of adding too much
water to the mixture. Translucency will result. Too little water will prevent the
paint from flowing off the brush. The paint should be opaque, spread easi ly,
and not be sticky or difficult to spread and blend. Being a suspension, all mixed
paints should be stirred frequently when in usc. If allowed to set, the
ment must be dug up from the bottom of the bucket before the color is appHed.
Failure to maintain a well-mixed solution will result in an uneven application
consisting of thin spots, and some colors may tend to separate slightly.
Imagine the base color is not a simple medium gray but a complex green-
blue green (an expansion of the twelve principal hues located between green
and blue green on the color wheel). One can, of course, pull out the table-mix-
ture recipe or proceed using t he base-color pigment as the common ingredient
in the tint and shade.
Analogous Colors and the Common Denominator
This common ingredient or root-color principle can be extended to allow
two colors that would normally be combative side by side to compatibly coex-
ist. Suppose that green and purple are reqUired to appear onstage in proxi m-
ity. The duo can be rendered analogolls if an identical additive is introduced to
each of them. Examining the properties of purple and green shows that blue
is a color found in each. Mix up a batch of white tinted with blue, and add
equal quantities to equal amounts of purple and green. What occurs is that the
31
blue white acts as a (ommon denominator and renders the two extreme colors
analogous. Carrying this theory further, virtually any color can exist with any
other color provided they have been neutralized by a like root. In essence, the
formulation of tints and shades derived directly from a base color is basically
the same theoretical procedure.
All of the above examples of color mixing have been illustrated because
of their simplicity. The theories are quite simple, provided the colors arc kept
relatively uncomplicated. Sophistication and expertise come with practice,
observation, and patience.
5. Preparing the Surface to Be Painted
Few thi ngs arc more annoying for the scene painter than to be confronted
with scenery that has not been properly prepared for painting. When first
built, framed scenery, such as the common scenic Rat, must be covered with
a decent-weight muslin or canvas and evenly stretched, glued, and stapled to
the outer frame. The material must then be sized (with glue and water, or size
water) so that the fabric shrinks and becomes taut.
Flameproofing
As required by fire codes, any cloth material used on the stage must be
Rameproofed. Flamcproofing the muslin and canvas can be done in the paint
shop, or the material can be ordered from the supplier already flameproofed.
Some Rameproofing solutions will not react well to different size waters or
primer paints, in that the canvas or muslin may actually begin to stretch after
it is attached to its wooden frame. Experimenting by applying liquid starch
to the material after Rameproofing should prevent the subsequent sizing and
priming from causing the material to sag. Any protruding staples must be
thoroughly pounded into the wooden frame because protruding staples will
catch the brush.
Primer Coat
Before the actual scene painting may begin, painting surfaces may often
need a primereont. The paint used as the primer should match the type of paint
to be used for the actual scene painting and can be any color or a combination
of leftover quantities (often referred to as slop paint). However, the pri mer
32
should normally be as light a color as possible so that a lightly colored base
color wiJi cover it easily. Priming is best defined by listing its purposes:
1. On newly built or covered flats, priming seals the weave in the fabric,
thus creating an even surface and eliminating the possibility of backlighting
bleeding through to the surface of the flat (also called light leaks).
2. Pri ming seals raw or unpainted wood surfaces. Untreated or unsealed
surfaces absorb more paint than a primed surf.'lce.
3. On older scenic units and flats, priming with a medium-neutral color
will help cover previous coats of paint. If stubborn or tenacious previous coats
tend to bleed through the primer, a water-soluble sealant may have to be
applied, and then the unit is reprimed.
Mix the priming paint as one would normally mix an opaque paint con-
sistency. If using white paint for priming, add some color to it so that it will
stand out against the white canvas or muslin of newly covered scenery.
As the water in the primer paint can cause wood fibers to expand, thus
pushing outward toward the surface, recheck for any staples that have risen up,
as these will need to get pounded in again. Exposed wooden areas willlikcly
Ileed to be sanded down, coated with a sealant, and reprimed. Be sure that any
sanding normally occurring as part of the bui lding stage has been completed
and no unintentionally uneven joinery planes or rough ends and edges exist.
On scenery that has been joined togcther, such as two or more flats that need
to fold togcther, assure that all dutchmans (the material that covers the hinges
and scams between the Rats) have been glued down with no protruding or
lifting edges. (New dutchmans that cover the scams between older, heavily
painted flats will need several coats of primer to smooth out their surface tex-
ture so as to match the surfaces of the older flats. This step will be necessary
regardless of the nature of the dutchman. Even cloth tape, which makes for
a qUick and serviceablc dutchman, will need several primer coats in order to
match the flats' surf.'lces.)
Using a primer brush or the widest lay-in brush available, work the mix-
ture well into the material. l be brush strokes should go in many directions (as
in cross-hatching), somewhat resembling a crude figure-cight pattern (see fig.
13). When painting a large area, solicit help. If painting alone, work in rough
squares, and work continuously. Do not work in haphazard patches and have to
go back and fill in spaces. On newly covered units, the idea is to paint quickly
to allow the entire surface to dry in unison. Failure to do so will cause unevcn
tightcning and shrinkage of the fabric. If possible, allow the scenery to dry
continentally for the even distribution and absorption of the primer paint. A
slightly thicker mixture should be used on coarse, heavier weights of canvas.
33
,-- - ......
I ,..... 'I
. ..... )
" /"./ _..... -
Figure 13
6. Basic Scene Painting and Texture
After the primer coat has dried thoroughly and no thin spots or painter's
holidays remain, the actual scene painting may begin. Some painters prefer to
take t heif base color and apply a base coat as a further sealant. This step is an
optional one and is dependent upon the condition of the painting surface and
the covering power of the primer coat. Applying just the base also rel ates to
the methods of preference employed by the individual painter, particularly in
situations when subsequent colors are applied over a dried base color.
34
Figure 14
The first step in the painting of scenery is to do the lay-in work. Covering
the surface with the base color alone or with its corresponding tint, shade, or
temperature color, constitutes the lay-in stage. Several techniques of texture
may be performed during this initial step, or the painter may restrict his or her
applicati on to simple background toning.
Scenery is rarely, if ever, painted using only one hue of one color on a
given surface. Nuances in tone or brightness must be incorporated not only
to approach a real istic appearance but also to lend visual interest. I n addition,
stage lighting is generally strong in intensity and often coming from so many
different direct ions that it has a tendency to Ratten out even three-dimen-
sional objects and will cause large, Rat surfaces to look dull and uninteresting
and, occasionally, reRective.
When a plain, one-colored surface, such as a wall, is studied in daylight
or under artificial light, the unevenness of interior light causes subtle varia-
tions in tone often near the edges and corners. While such delicate shadings
arc greatly minimized outdoors, owing to reflected sunlight, interior shadowy
areas are intensified, conversely, because of the lack of ambient light. TIle room
in figure 14 is depicted under daylight conditions with bright sunlight stream-
ing through the window. Notice the wall with the window is the darkest and
the wall opposite the lightest.1he source of light is singular and illuminates an
enclosure. TIle shadings that appear in the corners and near the ceiling create
shape and visual interest. As stage lighting cannot solely duplicate these varia-
35
tions in tone, the effects must be applied with paint. Even in stage settings
depicting an exterior scene, some degrees of toning must be applied to break
up the static appearance oflarge surfaces.
Focus and Toning
Complicated theories of light source and reflection aside, the common
practice in painting scenery, be it for interior or exteri or settings, is to paint
the top if the scU/ery darker than the bottom. I n interior settings, the gradation
of tones from dark to light is more in evidence than its exterior counterpart.
This is done primarily to prevent the eye of the spectator from being drawn
away from primary focus : the actor. As the eye is drawn to light rather than
dark, the bottom areas of the scenery, that is, where the actor is likely to stand,
are painted lighter than the top areas . The darker upper reaches help prevent
the eye from drifting upward and pulling focus away from the players. As the
stage lights can flatten three-dimensional shapes, recessed corners of the inte-
rior setting are also painted with darker tones so as to reinforce the setti ng's
shape. This theory is not at all unlike one of the main reasons an actor applies
make-up: to accentuate facial shape and features so as to be read as being
dimensional under the effects of stage lighting.
Unimportant areas of scenery should be made to fade away into shadows,
particularly those areas high above the actors' heads. Extensive, brightly lit
detail in insignificant places is most distracting and does not adhere to the
fundamental purpose of scenery: to focus on the action, not distract from it.
The scene painter must be aware of this general rule: "darker at the top, lighter
at the b o t t o m ~ Many stage settings, regardless of the quality of the deSign,
may be made or broken by the meri t of its scene painting and adherence to its
role of a supporting, albeit important, element in the production.
The initial step of painting is the laying in of color to tone or texture the
scenery. Tonillg is the process of applying a base color with its corresponding
shade and tint in order to reinforce the shape of the sceni c unit and maintain
focus to a specified area. Moreover, toning is a term used synonymously with
breaking dlJWn, or taming a visually distracting clement or characteristic of the
scenery. Texturing shares the responsibilities of focus and combating of light
glare with toning but takes a step further to simulate three-dimensionally tex-
tured surfaces. While individual painters discard, adapt, or conceive numerous
methods of rendering texture on scenery, twelve common methods of painting
texture serve as the foundation for all variations.
36
graded wet blend
scumbling
spattering (and spatter and drag)
sponging
stippling
rag rolling
rolling
flogging
puddling
dry brushing (also graining and combing)
stenci ling (and stamping)
spraying
As illustrated in part 2 of this book, it is certainly not uncommon to
employ more than one, if not several, of the above techniques on the same
scenic unit. Even t he names of some of the following examples may change,
depending on the exposure of the painter to various theater companies, coun-
nics, or methods of practice; for example, 5eumbling is sometimes referred
to as 5crumbling. Study and observation will prove that some techniques arc
enhanced when used in combination. Observing the work of other painters
is invaluable. When seeing a show painted by someone else, it is invaluable
for the beginning painter if he or she can view that same scenery under work
lights. Often, one may be pleasantly surprised and enHghtened by how a com-
pelling illusion seen under stage lighting has been achieved by a relatively
simple painting method.

Before embarking on t he following techniques of texture, a word about
painting method is in order. Although all of the methods illustrated below use
simply a base, tint, and shade, the three colors are opaque in nature, mean-
ing the paint is intended as a covering agent and cannot be seen through.
lhe painting of scenery from initial lay-in stages to final touch-ups may be
performed in what can be distinguished as three different procedural methods:
(1) opaque; (2) wash; and (3) textural. Experienced painters are not likely to
think of these approaches as separate entities, as the three constitute standard
tools that are combined, discarded, or used alone as the finished product will
demand. For the novice paimer, however, it is wise to be aware of these three
37
approaches and appreciate theif individual pros and cons. 111erefore, although
the following are illustrated only using opaque paims, all examples can be suc-
cessfully performed using wash or textural approaches. It is simply a matter of
painting style, preference, and the painter's decision to elect the most appro-
pri ate procedure according to the designer's image as provided on the painter's
elevation (see also part 2, section 10, "Rendering Methods").
Lastly, another important consideration is holding the paintbrush. Most
people will paint with the same grip that tennis players use for a forehand
shot. Young players are taught how to hold a racket by first placing it flat on
the floor and then picking it up. Accordingly, place the paintbrush fiat on the
floor. Wrap the fingers around the handle and lift up the brush.1ts handle will
fit diagonally across the palm of the hand (see fig.15a).
Figure 15a
38
Figure 15b
While this grip is common, it is also limiting, and the wrist may get tired
quickly. An alternate gri p that allows for more pivoting of the wrist and will
not tire as easily is one with the brush handle outside of the palm grip. The
fingers are almost Rat and rest diagonally across the fer rule, with the thumb
supporting from the other side (see fig. I5b). (The textural technique of scum-
bling is much easier to accomplish with this grip.) Both grips should be tried
and alternated if need be.
Graded Wet Blend
This method accomplishes a soft, linear blending of color values. Although
the term wet blend may refer to any number or method of brush-stroke proce-
39
dures, the intention with the graded wet blend is to produce an even progression
of tone from light to dark. The tones should progress in a seamless fashion
without distinction or a strata separating them. Although this procedure can
be achieved with a brush, using a sprayer and applying the paint continentally
may be easier if available space permits.
Roughly divide the area to be painted into three horizontal sections, the
middle of which is slightly la rger than the other two. Lay in a top band of shade
fairly heavily and quickly. Be generous with the amount of paint applied, as it
will be blended later and must still be wet. Below this, lay in the larger band
of base color, again quickly and heavily. FinaUy, paint in the remaining band
with the tint color (see fig. 16).
Figure 16
40
Go back with a clean, moist brush, and gently feather the edges of one
color band into another (see fig. 17). With a wide or primer brush
slightly charged with water and pressing firmly, start at the shade end, and
paint strokes in a horizontal direction. Proceed quickJy through the base area
with continuous strokes, not lifting the brush from the surface until you work
your way off the tint color of the flat (see fig. 18). If necessary, repeat this
procedure with a clean brush and work from the opposite direction of the flat.
Never work from the middle band out. A slight variation would be to paint the
shade band, then the base band, and immediately feather and blend the
necting edges together. Recharge the bottom area of the uncontaminated base
band with the base color, and proceed with the tint band, followed by its
Figure 17
41
Figure 18
ering and blending. When working on a very wide fiat, it may prove easier to
grade two colors at a time rather than three. To paint a flat whose edge will
form a recessed corner, simply vary t he shape of the top band of shade and arc
the following bands of color (see fig. 19). The common follow-up texturc for
the graded wct blend is normally a fine spattering or spraying.
Scumbling
Scumbling is used to simulate rough textures, such as plaster or stucco.
With less gradation between the hues of the base, tim, and shade, an
attractive and lightly textured background for wallpaper stencil ing may be
achieved. With scumbling especially, the extent of the textural illusion is
42
Figure 19
directly related to the contrast in hue of the three colors and the amount of
blending performed. That is, if one mixes the tint and shade colors toward
their respective extreme ends of the mixture table, the impression of rough
text ure is intensified. (Interior decorators and painters use this and many
of the following techniques with semi-transparent and transparent glazes,
sometimes referred to as wall washes. The use of washes/glazes is more appro-
priate to homes and businesses as the nature of a transparent medium creates
a softer ambience than opaque counterparts. And, the lighting is softer and
often indirect in nature.)
Though the rule "dark at the top, lighter at the o t t o m ~ still applies, the
scumbling painting stroke varies greatly from the long, continuous strokes of
the graded wet blend. Using a brush for each of the three colors is a necessity to
43
)
Figure 20
assure clarity of color hue. Lay in the shade area, leaving an irregularly shaped
edge toward the base color area (sec fig. 20). With another brush, immediately
lay in the base color area without overlapping the two colors; leave the bottom
of the base color section irregular toward the tint color area. Next, paint strokes
of the shade into the base and the base into the shade (see fig. 21). ll1cse strokes
are achieved by quickly twisting the wrist and flicking the brush while lifting
it ojfthc painting surface between every stroke. Leaving the brush on the sur-
face between strokes will not produce the crisp stroke pattern indicative of this
painting method. Do 1101 overwork this mingling ofcolor as the effect will only
turn muddy. A somewhat splotchy, irregular appearance is the goal.
44
)
Figure 21
Next, lay in the tint color. For added contrast, bring a few strokes of shade
into the tint area, and a lillIe tint into the shade (see fig. 22). Be careful not to
bring too much tint up top as the completed scumblc should still be darker at
top.
A fourth color, or temperature color, can be introduced to heighten the tex-
tural effect and add a degree of coolness or warmth. The temperature color has
as its common denominator a bit of the base color to which has been added a
temperature-producing color.
Scumbling. like the graded wet blend, is usually a foundation technique
upon which further methods arc applied.
45
Figure 22
Spattering (and Spatter and Drag)
Perhaps the most widely used method of texturing scenery, part icularly by
amateurs, is spattering. Some incorrectly refer to the technique as splattering,
which carries with it a rather uncontrolled and sloppy connotation. Spattering
is the act of flicking droplets of paint from a brush onto the painting surface.
The brush may be struck against the palm of the hand or piece of wood or be
snapped by sharply flicking the forearm and wrist as a unit. This method can
cover vast areas quickly. When performed correctly by snapping the forearm,
beginning painters, after spattering the firs t few times, will not ice soreness or
46
a tenderness on the outside of the forearm, just below the elbow, in a muscle
called the carpi radialis. l1)is soreness is si milar to a minor form of the pain
experienced from carpal-tunnel syndrome, although carpal tunnel is more
likely to affect the opposite side of the forearm and radiate down toward the
wrist. Most painters find that the initial tenderness from spattering is tempo-
rary until the musele becomes accustomed to the stroke. ]f discomfort contin-
ues, try spattering continentally, which, due to gravity, will greatly reduce the
intensity of movement needed. ]f this fails to prevent soreness, avoid spatter-
ing altogether as a technique, and replace it with sponging or stippling (see next
two technique sect ions).
Beginni ngpainters can reduce or prevent discomfort to the arm or shoulder
if they use the body with the forearm. Effect ive spattering uses the body's torso
much in the same way a tennis players swings a forehand stroke or a pitcher
throws a baseball (see figs. 23a and 23b). Neither of these players begins their
stroke or throw by facing the target. Instead, their dormant shoulder is in the
lead, pointing toward the target, while their active shoulder points away from
it. If one imagines the athlete as right-handed, an initial clockwise rotation or
wind-up begins the action, followed by the torso pivoting in a counter-clockwise
rotation toward the target as the power of the stroke is put in motion. Lastly,
the racket head or pitch follows the arc of the body, and the baU is unleashed.
a
b
Figure 23
47
Replace the racket or baseball with a brush, and this is the essence of the spatter
action. As in sports, for stability keep the feet wider apart than shoulder width,
and let the body work in concert with the arm in a flowing action.
Spattering can be heavy, medium, or fine, depending on the size of
droplets distributed (see fig. 24, heavy, medium, and fine). Droplet size and
shape may be controlled by the amount of paint on the brush but can also be
greatly affected by t he distance of the brush from the painting surface and
the angle of the stroke. Spatter droplets need to fly in order to form. Stand-
ing too close to the flat will prevent droplets from forming and cause stringy
patterns. Although there is no prescribed distance a painter needs to be from
the surface, an average of about five feet away should be adequate. For most
spattering jobs, which are intended to be nonpatterned and result in an overall
Figure 24. Heavy
48
ow . r: _ - .' _, .... . . WII; - ,- .-.' .,.
-r' .. "' .! ...... '.
,..... . ... "oI! '
. , J. , .......... '.. ''''''.'( '.,
.' - ' J. .- ' . . ."
' . .. !..,I '., .. ".. ,,;._.,
. . .", . .' ' r. , r.
.. , 0 , . ' ; .;; .. .",...... .. '
.. . . . ....... ). .. :.
rJ . ..... , .'
'" . ; .. . .. ... lI1I>!:, '. .;. :
. . ! : , . . , .. .'
'. ;; . -. ..... .... .' '-";':' .. '
" .:. .o';!' ' .. .;
.. .. ' .. ,' . . ..... \ _ ... , "'!
I'!:_'" r .. . .... . .,. '
. ' ., . <t ...... . ....... ";0' '"
',i '.. . ( .
. & . . . . i.
. . . ..... e.- '. ' .
. ..' ; .... ... ,-.. .' .. .. ', ,:. -".
.. '.. ' 0 ,:; ._ . ..
" . . :.';'_' .
. ... ... ,A';"' :' .;. .... . ,.t
.... . .. ..... .... " .... . ... " -. .
",.;. ; .. '. :.'. .: ,.: . ,; .. . .
,. . ;. : ..... . .. ! : .
\'; , ....... ; ... ...... ..... ;fIo :. .
, .... . . t' .. .... ,.c ..... " ... . .... .
......... .. . .
.. ,:... .. !,:: . ., ..... .
'. .. ,.' .. . . ... ,., ....... -- .... ... ,
.;, - ......... ". { . .. .. / . .. ..,. \-...... 4 .J. .. " ..
.. ...... :. ., .. ,. '. ",,: .. :: .; ...... :.,.
- t .t' ,.. t t .. . .. ."IIIl-, .
.. .. 1": .......
, . .... -.."" ... .. " .. '. ,
t . ,... . ...." .- . .... .. .,-.. ... . ...
U .. "t:r' '." 0'.,. .
..,. "., . .
". ' .... { " . ..... . .; : ... e.
..... t .. .... ,.' .. '.
l.:. , . ,.,. : .. .. " .. ': : .
,: .. . -..: .... ' .! . .. . ":'ft'. ' it ".:' c'
" .. , . '-. t ' ., . .
. ..-... ........... . . .'
.. . . . . .-. .
..... , .. . .. ..... _- . .." ... . - ,
Figure 24. Metlillm
coverage by droplets, the broad side of the brush's ferrule should be parallel to
the surface of the flat, which will allow for the widest dispersion of droplets.
Pivoting the fe rrule to 90 degrees to the painting surface will cause a linear
pattern of droplets to hit the Rat. It is also advisable to consistently change the
direction of spattering to avoid discernable patterns. An inexperienced painter
must first test his or her ability on an extra Rat or, if painting continentally, a
section of the paint-room Roor covered with paper.
Spattering uses the base, tint, and shade, and the entire surface is cov-
ered with each color. Agai n, to help prevent the viewer's eye from wandering
upward, be careful not to overly spatter with tint on the upper areas of the Rat.
A fourth, temperature color is optional at this point. For example, picture a
Rat scumbled and spattered with blues. 1t can be lit quite effect ively with cool
49
Figure 24. Fille
lighti ng to create an aura of moonlight. Now, if this same Rat also had to be
used for a sunset scene, the painter could spatter with an orange mixed with
a little of the base or tint to render it analogous with the blues. When the
lighting color changes to suggest the sunset, the warm gels (the orange ones)
in the li ghting instrument pick up the orange-spatter droplets on the Rat and
completely alter its visual surface temperature.
To achieve a smoothly textured surface, all spattering should be even and
fine. Figure 2S illustrates a Aat that has been scumbled and finely spattered.
To simulate a rougher surface, medium and heavy spatteri ng are applied in
uneven patterns. The degree of contrast in the scumble hues will dictate the
nature of the spattering employed.
50
Figure 25
Should scenery appear to be too bright or too stat ic under the li ght ing,
spattering is an excel lent toning device, particularly with transparent colors
(glazes/washes) or dyes.
A variation of conventional spattering is the spatter and drag, which can be
performed whether the scenery is vertical or horizontal. Fine spatter a small
section at a time, about four by four feet. Before the dropl ets dry, drag them
in one direction with a piece of muslin. A larger area can be covered using
the continental method, then dragging or pushing the droplets with a clean
dust mop or soft push broom. Because a definite linear pattern is created, this
technique works well to enhance wood graining where a linear look is desir-
able (see fig. 26).
51
Figure 26
Sponging
Sponging is used for duplicating plaster, stucco, and rough stones and per-
forming neccssary toning or touch-ups after the sct is installed. Work with a
large, natural sea sponge because of its unusual, interesting shape and irregu-
larly sized pores. Artificial sponges are handier where definite shapes or pat-
terns are needed. What is commonly desired through this technique is an
overall feeling of texture void of overly distinct characteristics.
Immerse the sponge in a bucket of color, squeeze out excess paint, and
gently pat the sponge against the surf."lce, continuously changing the position
of the sponge to avoid patterns (see fig. 27). Sponging makes use ofbase, ti nt,
and shade colors with a fairly even distribution of each over the enti re surface.
52
Figure 27
To avoid color contamination, use a different sponge for each color. For maxi-
mum texture and visual interest, sponge a scumbled surface for an interesting
alternative to, or replacement for, spattering (see fig. 28).
Sponging need not be restricted to texturing. Figure 29 shows a section
of painted wallpaper. The lay-in work is a light scumble with an arrangement
applied on top with sponges. Artificial, household sponges cut into specific
shapes create the pattern. Although somewhat time-consuming, this method
is very effective on smaller scenic units. Shaped sponges or any paint-retaining
shape that applies a painted pattern to the scenic surface is called stamping.
Applications can be free-form or in structured arrangements, and leaf-shaped
sponges can be employed for painting foliage (see part 3). With sponging and
stamping, the possibilities for imprinting objects and patterns on scenery are
endless (see part 2, section 9, "Stamping").
53
Figure 28
Figure 29
54
Stippling
Stippling is the act of pressing or dabbing something charged with paint
against the painting surf.1.ce. Ordinarily, stippling is done with either a feather
duster or a crumpled rag.
The feather-duster method is easy, and areas can be covered rather quickly.
A duster with turkey feathers works best, but if this is beyond budget, buy
cheap plastic-handled ones at the discount store. Dip only the feather tips into
the paint, squeeze off the excess, and press the feather t ips lightly against the
surface (see fig. 30). Lift and rotate the duster's position, and overlap previous
prints. The met hod is especiaUy convenient for conti nental texturing, though
avoiding repetitive patterns may be challenging for the beginner.
Fi gure30
55
To use a rag, crunch an 18 inch square of canvas or muslin into a loose ball
(do not roll it into a ball). Dip the ball into the paint bucket, and squeeze out
the excess using a dabbing motion. Gently apply the paint. Vary the position-
ing of the rag while keeping the angle of approach constant (see fig. 31).
Rag Rolling
Similar to stippling with a rag, this very attractive technique is done by
rolling the rag into a cylinder and rolling it against the scenery. Like sponging
and rag stippling, this technique is very hands-on and can be inconvenient for
large areas. Dip an 18 inch square of canvas, muslin, or burlap into a color.
Figure31
56
Squeeze out, form it into a loose cylinder, and roll it over t he painting surface
using the palms of the hands while varying the rolling direction (see fig. 32).
Repeat with other texturing colors and fresh pieces of f:'lbric. Rag rolling
ates a close, cluttered effect and can be used as a base texture. Depending on
how large the painting imprints turn out, a fine spattering of another hue may
be required as a toning device.
Figure 32
Rolling
As the term rolling implies, a paint roller is the tool used. Rollers are avail-
able in a variety of widths and shapes, while the roller covers come in several
degrees or nap. RoUer handles, whether wood, plastic, or metal, can
be screwed onto threaded extension poles or the standard push-broom handle.
I n addition, paint-roller trays and metal grids for skimming off excess paint
are available and essential for rolling (see fig. 33).
Rolling is an easy and efficient way to paint platform tops and ramps or any
large, flat area. The speed with which surfaces can be covered is unbeatable. But
one can also produce many effects by using a variety of roller widths and surface
naps and by varying the angle of stroke or nvisting the roller (see fig. 34).
57
Figure 33
TwiSTING the PAINT ROLLERS
Fig ure 34
58
Moreover, discernible or amorphous patterns of texture may be achieved
by wrapping wire or wire mesh tightly around roller covers in different con-
figurations. Also try cutting away sections of roller fur or covering areas with
painter's tape (sec fig. 35).
Figure 35
Flogging
Though used primarily for creating veining effects in marble and strata
in stonework, jlogging sometimes uses dyes to effect a stylized treatment for
foliage and nondescript backgrounds. It is a technique, however, that requires
energy to perform.
Secure several canvas or muslin strips approximately three feet long to a
wooden handle. This is called ajlogger. Soak the strips in a color, remove the
excess, and, holding the handle, "whip" the strands against the scenery. Vary
the force of the impacts (see fig. 36). By flogging a second time with water
continentally, a soft, bleeding effect will result. The flogger can also be used to
remove chalk snap lines or charcoal sketching that may be left when a painting
is complete. Hitting the strands against the dried painting surface, the flogger
will beat charcoal and chalk off the surt:'lce without pounding it in.
59
Figure 36
For heavily veined stonework (see part 2, section 8, tie three to
four, 36 inch lengths of muslin strips, crochet yarn, or soft twine in an arbi-
trary arrangement called a veining net. Hold onto the end of the veining with
one hand (usually not the dominant hand; this end will not be let go) and with
the other hand, toss the strands gently and randomly agai nst the surface. As
the paint is discharged, a variety of veining occurs (see fig. 37).
Puddling
Puddling, which must be performed continentally, is a wet-blend exercise
in which spanering of contrasting colors is discharged onto a base coat. The
base may be wet or dry. Further vari ety may be achieved by spattering the
60
Figure 37
base coat with water before or after the spattering of colors or by spattering
holding two brushes in the same hand while each brush is heavily charged
with its own color. Soft and bleeding pools of color will be produced (see fig.
38). Puddling is an especially effective technique to use for producing marble
(see part 2, section 8, "Marble"). The only drawback to puddling occurs when
painting framed scenery, such as a standard scenic Rat. Because a Rat is made
with a perimeter of wood (rails and stiles) and middle joining braces (toggles),
the canvas or muslin covering spans large areas between the wooden mem-
bers. When the Rat is lying face up on the Roor, these canvas expanses have a
tendency to sag. The weight of paint and water causes them to accumulate in
the areas, causing all liquid to Row to the center of the unsupported material.
Huge puddles-no pun intended-are created where liqUids merge. Not only
61
is the painting effect ruined but the accumulated paint and water but it will
take hours to dry. Ifframed scenery is to be puddled, pieces of plywood or 1
inch Styrofoam are placed under the Aat frame's negative areas to keep the
covering from saggi ng .
... ...,,.,....,..,,. .... ,-.. - .... ..
--. ;:.' .- ,.. . . .... t. ,. ..
. ,'0 _ o .,
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. '''' ,-i' .. ... 4"'.'
., .. -.0'11;.": ,':
,.' t' " ... . ' .... , ...... . - ;:
., . ' . .. . ...
.. '. '"'o!tl'

...
'.
"
.'
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,.
.'
."
..
,
"
... . e'... ..
..... - ..... A ...... .
, .. - .. ' "' . ' .. .;; /
-. t: \..e ,
,
'. .- '0 If # I'
. to-::' ..... .0 :-- .,. (' "
, ..... '-4.. ";,' .. .
, _"..... ........ .. ' ..... . .,.. .. I'
' JI ..... - r '.. .. . '. .. . .A.:'I. 4'
.,' -:-.. . ' 4 .. Oli... ,.. ." ",' .t ', .
... . ...... '!:.. '., .,,: .....;
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Figure 38
Dry Brll,rung
" ,

t! ..
. .
Dry brushing has many uses but is commonly done to give an impression
of wood. The brush, lightly charged with paint or dye, is skimmed across the
dry painting surface, thus the name drybrushing.1l1is involves using the entire
arm and wrist as one unit. The wrist should not bend, Imagine the brush to
be a plane gently landing-as we all wish would happen- and coasting down
the runway. Avoid the bumpy landing as this will produce heavy scuff marks
on the Aat.lluough an evenly pressured stroke, lines result; twisting the brush
slightly will provide interesting variations (see fig. 39). These actions can be
used to simulate straight wood grain. If more texture is desired, more contrast
in the hues is needed, and the paint should be thicker. Thick paint causes more
frict ion between the brush and surface, and the bristles will tend to drag.
62
Figure 39
Dry brushing with washes or dyes minimizes friction, is morc fluid, and
appears less coarsc than with thicker paint. When dry brushing over a moist
surface, a softcningofthe graining characteristics occurs, although dipping the
same brush repeatedly into the dry-brush color will contaminate the color.
Using the cut-bristle brush illustrated earlier in figure 8 (sec part 1, sec-
tion 2, "Brushes"), a form of dry brushing known as combing can be achieved.
Strokes may be one-directional or perpendicular to each other to produce a
woven, clothlike appearance (see fig. 40a). A suitable alternative to producing
dry brushing or combing on smaller scenic units is to substitute the cut-bristle
brush with a foam-rubber brush whose chisel-point end has been notched (see
fig. 4Gb).
63
Figure 40a
'I I,ll
A DISPOSAULE FOAM BRUSII
Figure40b
64
Though certainly not a brush stroke, one might elect to use agrainillg tool.
Small ones can be bought at any hardware or paint store and have become i r r ~
placeable in furniture-antiquing kits. A thick glaze the color of the intended
grain is liberally brushed over a dry background wood color. While the glaze is
still wet, the graining tool's handle is ti pped toward the user and slowly pulled
in a straight line. During the stroke, the tool's handle is rocked 90 degrees so
that it points away from the user by the end of the stroke. Larger graining tools
are available through specialty supply outlets; a suitable homemade one can
be fabricated using a large cylinder, such as a coffee can, with glued-on "grain
lines" made with Ethafoam (see fig. 41). The graining tool is a very quick
way to wood-grain large scenic areas. Grain variations are poss ible by control-
ling how much, if at all, the tool is rocked during the pull stroke.
Figure 41
Stenciling and Stamping
Stenciling can be listed as a method of texturing because it breaks up large
expanses of scenery by providing visual interest and a dimension of depth
through the nature of its patterns' colors. l he most frequent use for stenciling
is in the reproduction of wallpaper patterns and Roor mosaics, though any
repetiti ve entity, such as a brick wall, may successfully find its beginnings
65
with a stencil. The purpose of a stencil is to impart a pattern by forcing color
through the negative spaces of the design (the exact counterpart to stamp-
ing, which imparts the design through the imprint of its positive shape; see
"Sponging" technique section).
Traditionally, stenciling employed oiled stencil paper, which is still avail-
able in craft stores and some paint stores. It resembles a sturdy wax paper that
will not wrinkle and whose front and back are impervious to moisture. Easily
cut with scissors, the paper is surprisingly durable. Almost anything else can
serve as a stencil, such as sheet plastic, metal grillwork, plastic lace, or any art icle
whose negative spaces (cut-out areas) form a design. Excellent stencils can also
be made from any piece of paper laminated with plastic. Realistically, one may
have to be content with what is at hand. If only Bristol board or illustration
board is available, once the stencil pattern is cut out, the board must be treated
with shellac, enamel spray paint, acrylic glaze, or the like so as to seal the paper
and help repel moisture (see fig. 42). Paint may be rolled, stippled, dry brushed,
sprayed, sponged, or spattered through the holes according to the effects desired,
time permitting, and method of painting (vertical or continental).
When painting wallpaper, the stenciled pattern will be a color that con-
trasts with the background painting. It will be necessary to mix a base, tint,
and shade for the pattern. Separating the degrees of value brings a thickly
textured look to the pattern (e.g., flocking). 1he design is never painted solidly
Figure 42
66
through the stencil, as it would become "heavy" and distracting and thus need
further texturing or toning. An evidence of wallpaper is all that is necessary
(see part 2, section 9, "Wallpaper").
Spraying
Spraying is very useful for rendering clouds, duplicating fine spatter, and
in painting for a feeling of airiness or subtle gradation and blending of colors.
Stenciling and general toning and shading may easily and effectively be done
by spraying. One may usc electric air compressors that come in large and pow-
erful , wheel-around setups or smaller, handheld and self-contained models.
Both can be purchased at paint and hardware stores and can be set to produce
a range from a fine mist to a shower (sec fig. 43a). Pump sprayers (as used in
lawn and garden maintenance) work well but cannot be relied upon to provide
a consistent fine spray or mist (sec fig. 43b) . Aerosol sprayers, available at art-
ist-supply shops, feature a disposable, pressurized propellant and sprayer head
screwed to a handy removable jar that houses the paint or medium of choice
(sec fig. 43c). This sprayer is not intended for large jobs but works very well for
toning and duplicating graffiti on stage.
The commercial spray-can market has expanded hugely in product variety
over recent years. Once normally the container for enamel spray paints alone,
spray cans now feature water-based paints, dyes, clear glosses, acrylics, adhe-
sives, floral sprays, textured paint, stained glass paint, and on and on. Even the
spectrum of available paint colors has blossomed. The main drawbacks to the
pressurized sprays are their expense and health and environmental problems.
Health concerns over inhaling fumes and environmental concerns over escap-
ing propellants and pollutants deter many away from the products. These real
concerns aside, one must be cautious in chOOSing which spray paint to usc,
part icularly glossy enamel. It dries to a hard, dense fin ish, which is di fficult to
paint over with anything but more enamel . Most water-based paints bead up
when applied over it. Regardless of the medium or the appl icator, spraying is
most effectively applied finely in mist form, and layers are built up if a heavi-
ness, or opacity, is required. The amount of paint applied by spraying is deceiv-
ing, however, and it is wise to perform it continentally whenever possible to
avoid sagging and dripping.
The preceding techniques are fundamental approaches to scene painting
and will be abandoned, modified, or even renamed by the individual painter
as he or she moves on to more advanced work. Only through experience and
practice can one develop a keen awareness of color and subtlety of stroke.
67
(a) COMPRESSOR &: SELF-CONTAINED PoRTABLE
Figure 43a, b, c
(e) AEROSOL SPRA YER
Container
r"
COLOR
Experimentation is an ongoing practice as one acquires skill and ingenuity
while fostering individual style.
Brush Care
Just as the diligent painter must patiently refine a technique, so must the
painting utensils be encouraged to last. Before quitting work, take care to
thoroughly clean all brushes and tools. Never leave a brush soaking, as the
wood will eventually swell, subsequently crack and rot, and resul t in a 1005-
68
ened ferrule. There is also the likelihood the bristles will become permanently
bent or curled. Should the ferrule become loose through normal
tear, try securing it to the brush handle by wrapping them together tightly
with clear packing tape.
Wash brushes in warm water with a gentle soap (dish liquid soap works
weU) until there is no paint clogged where the bristles connect to the ferrule.
Water should run clear when the brush is held handle up under running water.
Shake out all excess water, and shape the bristles. If bristles have become a bit
unruly, apply a li ttle dish detergent, and reshape them. The soap will harden but
easily wash out. If a brush was not properly cleaned and has become stiff, try
soaking it in a mixture of warm water and vinegar. This may soften the bri stles.
Store all brushes handle up (see fig. 44). Many years of satisfactory service can
result from the proper treatment of all brushes and scene-painting aides.
Figure 44
69
Part 2
Basic Lessons
All scenery must be textured or toned in some way to counteract the Aat-
tening effect and glare of stage lights. And while scenery should also provide
visual interest, it must, as well, furnish information unobtrusively in regard to
the locale, era, or economic level around which the play revolves.
Though it is not this writer's intention to expound on the purposes or require-
ments of scenery. the manner in which the scene painting is handled will make a
definite statement either in support of or against the play's framework. The scenic
designer and the play's director must as carefully as possible select and agree upon
those visual elements that best support the action as envisaged by the playwright.
Eventually, specifically in regard to coloration, implied texture, and revelation
of form, finishing the life-size renderings of these visual elements williargely
become the province and responsibility of the scene painter. And the painter's job
is not an easy one, sometimes befitting more the work of a magician: wood turns
to stone, f.1.bric becomes wood, and flat surfaces magically protrude or recede.
l he goal of part 2 is to illuminate the wizardry of scene painting and illus-
trate how the eye can be fooled when a two-dimensional surface turns into a
three-dimensional illusion.
7. The Three-Dimensional Illusion and
the Light Source
The fundamental principle in creating a three-dimensional illusion is that
a light source must illuminate the three-dimensional object or arrangement of
varied surf,1.ce planes. Thi s light source, depending on its location and prox-
71
imity to the object or arrangement, casts degrees of brightness or shade and
shadow. The angle of a light source has a bearing on the degree to which a
three-dimensional object is revealed. Painters and architects are aware that
subjects appear the most real and lifelike if the light source, be it the sun or
artificially produced, comes from both vertical and horizontal pl acements at
45 degrees, which is the basis of the McCandless theory of lighting design
(see fig. 45). This concept means that most light sources will be placed slightly
above and to the side of the object that the scene painter will render and that
the sides of the object facing the light source will have brighter casts than
those sides not facing the light source.
Figure 45
Highlights and Lowlights
To understand the pri nciples of light source and overlapping pl anes, look
at the raised, or protruding, panel shown in figure 46, A and B. 'The smaller
rectangle is labeled a in view A, which is a side elevation. ]n view B, a is on top
of and protrudes from the larger rectangle b, which represents the background
72
A
B
c
,.,
(i) '" HIGHLIGHT (ii) - LOWLIGHT (iii ) '" SHADOW
Figure 46
area. If, as in vicw B, the light (perhaps an electric wall fixture) emanates from
the top right-hand corner and slightly to the front, as indicated by the arrow,
the edges of a f.'lcing the light source (the top and right)arc the brightest and,
therefore, pick up a highlight (i), Those edges facing away from the light source
arc darker and receive a lowlight (ii). lhe left and bottom lowlight edges cast
shadows (iii) of the proportionate thickness of a onto the surface of b. I f a recessed
panel is used, figure 46, C, illustrates the changes in highlight (i), lowlight (ji),
and shadow (iii), with the direction of the light source the same as figure 46, B.
Note that whether an object is recessed or protruding, a shadow always c c o m p ~
nics a low/ighl and is beside Ihe /owlighl's edge Ibal isjflrlher from lhe light source.
The illusion of three-dimensional pieces can be reproduced quite success-
fully on a two-dimensional surt:"lce through appropriate scene-painting tech-
niques. Until attempting to render curved, angled, or reflecting surt:"lces, the
principles and placements of highlights, lowlights, and shadows arc relatively
simple oncs.
Placement of a light source is often a tricky problem. It is very unlikely
that a room or sctting will be designed without at least one light source (see
fig. 47, which depicts a room with protruding panels). When that light source
is assigned, the distribution of highlights, 10wUghts, and shadows is an easier
and more straightforward task than dealing with a setting lacking one. Unless
a designated light source is part of an interior setting (e.g., a fire place, lamp,
or window), the light should be designed so as to appear to emanate from
center stage. The highlighted sides of objects will differ: an object stage right,
73
Figure 47
The Sollrce fl . S) 1$ cm1na1jo from ceDI!:!"
such as a protruding panel, has its top and right edges highlighted, while a
stage-left panel has its highlighting on the top and left edges. Also, horizon-
tal highlights and lowlights reverse at approximately six feet high and above.
Having the light source come from below when an object is placed high on
a wall reinforces the realistic attempt at suggesting that a ceiling exists that
would prevent the emanation of tight from a higher source. This means that
those objects above six feet from the floor need to be painted as if the light
were coming from below rather than above. These highlights and lowlights,
both vertical and horizontal, occur in an interior setting where the light source
has been designated as emanatiTlgfrom center stage.
Usually, a stage setting has several light sources, some equal, some varying
in intensity. The scenic designer may need to be consulted in order to assign a
dominant or "key" light source. (If the designer provides detail painting eleva-
tions andlor a colored rendering of the set that stipulates highlights and shad-
ows, the painter would follow those indications.) Although secondary light
sources may be included on stage, the beginning scene painter should not con-
fuse the issue; he or she should assign one light source that convincingly ren-
ders the object(s). As an example, imagine that the designer calls for a window
and a roaring fireplace at opposite ends of the setting, with the three-dimen-
sional painting illusion located upstage center. The painter decides which of
the two light sources (the window or the fireplace) is dominant and uses that
source in creating the three-dimensional illusion. As the ability of the scene
74
painter grows, subtleties and nuances will creep into his or her work t hat will
allow for more sophisticated and realistic treatments of objects affected by
multidirectional light sources.
The colors used for highlights and lowlights are simply a tint and shade,
respectively, as derived from the base color for the object. The t im may con-
ta in an additive color reRecting the nature of the light source (e.g., blue for
moonlight or an orange yellow cast from a lampshade) as needed to enhance
temperature or mood.
Shadows, Glazes/Washes
'lhe shadow color, unlike the tint and shade colors, should be transparent
and allow the surface underneath to show through. Because of its non-opaque
nature, such a color is called a glaze or a wash. Either term is appropriate and
interchangeable. The result and purpose of either arc identical.
A shadQW wash is made by darkening the lowlight color and thinning it
to a transparency. Many times, black is also used to create a shadow wash. In
instances where the color temperature of a wash is to be evident, use either
a blue-black or brown-black thinned to the desired consistency. The shadow
wash should be tested on an extra surface that has been painted with the base
color. Be sure the test surface is of the same material as the scenic surface. The
degree to which a wash is thinned depends on the effect required. When paint
is thinned enough for the underpainting to be in evidence but not clearly so,
the wash is translucent. A t ranslucency allows one to see vague, filmy shapes
through it. Washes used to create shadows must be transparent in nature. A
transparency acts like colored clear glass. Objects on the other side of the
transparency can be seen clearly, albeit bathed by the color of the transparency.
Therefore, a translucent wash must be further thinned so as to arrive at a trans-
parent state. Because the wash is tinted water (as in the case of water-based
paints), it will be soaked up almost immediately by the previous dry coats
of paints upon which it is applied. lhe danger of applying a shadow wash,
regardless of its root medium, is that overlapping strokes will create lines of
darker value. That is, each time a wash is applied over itself, irs darkness will
double and, finally, an opaque, dark smudge will exist where the appearance
of a shadow should be. Therefore, when very wide shadows must be applied, a
painter needs to either use a brush whose width approximates the width of the
shadow's band or use extra caution to place bands of wash directly alongside
and not overlapping one another. Some painters prefer using dye, aniline or
otherwise, as a shadow wash because of its inherent transparent nature.
75
Lining
Lining is the aspect of detail painting that adds shape, contour, and thick-
ness to painted objects. Tt may be done freehand or with a straightedge as a
guide in the same way one would use a pencil and drafting triangle to outline
or illustrate component parts. Although more advanced painting often neces-
sitates discarding a lining guide and working freehanded, most other forms
of scene-painting lining will make use of some type of guide, whether it be a
triangle, French curve, template, stencil, or straightedge.
The tools required for lining are liner brushes (or filches) of varying widths
commonly ranging from 1,4 in. to Ph in., pai nter's straightedge, carpenter's
compass, measuring tapes, charcoal and chalk, a bow line or snap line, and,
occasionally, a plumb line (see fig. 48) . The tapes, snap lines, and chalk/charcoal
arc used for the measuring, placement, and initial sketching of the object.
Figure 48
76
Stc<:1 Tape
Carpenter's
Compass
50' S t ~ TDpe
Plumb Line
Snap Line
Straightedge
Wooden
Folding Rule
Bow Line
Liner Brushes
Using the Straightedge
For the geometric painting of straight lines and angles, the liner brush
and straightedge are used for the application of detail lines. The straightedge is
substituted with other templates and such as the needs ari se. The liner brush's
bristles form a very definite chisel point. Holding the point horizontally while
painting with a horizontal stroke results in a thin line. Changing the brush to
a vertical chisel point produces a markedly f.mer line, and the amount of paint
in the bri stles is exhausted more qUickly. Sweeping the arm and hand as a unit
(not unlike a dry-brushing stroke) and keeping the chisel point at one constant
angle without turning the wrist effect attractive variations in thickness and
are very suitable for script lettering, sign painting, and objects with irregular
surfaces (see fig. 49) .
,/
Figure 49
The straightedge should have a handle attached to its center. Normally
made of pine for lightweight ease in handling, its bottom edges have channel
grooves to catch excess paint and prevent blotting against the painting surf.'lce
(see fig. 50, a).
If the painter is right-handed, holding the handle of the straightedge in
the left hand while making sure that its top edge is unobstructed by the fingers
allows for the free passage of the brush. Lining should be a rather graceful
movement of the entire arm from shoulder to wrist. Keep the wrist firm. Hold-
77
ing the brush lightly benvcen the thumb and forefinger while resting the brush
across the edge of the middle finger for balance, let the chisel point of the bristle
rest parallel to the surface of the straightedge (see fig. 50, b). To paint vertical
lines, adjust the procedure 90 degrees, using the edge of the straightedge closest
to the brush hand. Practice painting downward and upward. Some beginning
painters may find it helpful to fi rst master strokes from the bottom up, so as to
minimize the possible dripping of an overloaded brush (see fig. 50, c).
a
c
Figure 50
Up
"
Down
1
b
Keep the handle of the brush at slightly less than a right angle to t he
scenery. That is, gently angle the handle end of the brush in the direction the
brush is to move (see fig. 51a). The brush bristle should lead the stroke with
the end of its chisel point. 1he extent to which the brush is angled and/or the
pressure put upon it by the painter has a direct bearing on how thin or thick
the painted line becomes. Now glide the brush, nonstop, along the straight-
edge allowing the tips of the bristles to touch the painting surf..ce. Become
accustomed to workjng the brush effectively from left to right and from right
to left. This wilJ ensure an accurate starting and stopping of the painted line.
A good way to practice a line that needs to have a crisp beginning and end is
to work away from one end (e.g., the left corner, when working left to right)
and stop the stroke before reaching its completion (right corner). Now place
the brush at the intended completed end (right corner), slightly angle the brush
78
handle toward the original starting point (left corner), and stroke the brush in
the opposite direction (right to left; see fig. 51b). This allows the painter to hit
the beginning and end points of the line without overrunning.
A little practice is necessary to exert even pressure along the entire run of
the brush. When strokes of even pressure are applied, lines of uniform thickness
result. Conversely, uneven pressure results in lines of uneven thickness. When
Top VI EW
... Iill the end oflbe brush 10 the LdI
I
,
-l
Figure 51a
Top VIEW
When painling 10 lbe B.i&bI
... lil1 1he eoo of lhe brush 10 1he B.i&h1
Figure 5I b
79
having run out of paint on a long. straight line, recharge the brush, and overlap
the end of the previous stroke to assure fluidity of direction and pressure.
Now the painter is ready to tackle the procedures for painting what may
be considered core examples of three-dimensional work. From the follow-
ing examples, techniques and steps may be augmented or omitted to produce
innumerous variations, all of which are impossible to cover here.
The painting lessons are divided into three categories: stonework (bricks,
rough stones, cut stones, marble), wallpaper, and woodwork (rendering meth-
ods, wai nscoting, and recessed and protruding panels).
8. Stonework
Bricks
From the very start, the important thing to remember about bricks is to
iJlustrate some bricks more clearly than others. To iUustrate every brick equally
on a building or wall provides too busy or distracting an image. An overall
impression of bricks is all that is necessary, with some areas far more dis-
tinct than others. For instance, in painting an aged, red-brick wall, the painter
will want to stay away from the vibrant and dominant reds yet still capture
some sense of warmth. To accomplish this, the lay-in colors will be "browned-
down" by adding amounts of burnt umber (blue is substituted for the brown if
a cooler effect is desired). Although bricks are commercially availabl e in colors
ranging from deep gray to sparkling white, the following exampl e attempts
to replicate a tradit ional, aged wall, a structure made of those bri cks that now
have become known as "reclaimed" because they originate from leveled build-
ings and houses. The lay-in colors of red, deep purple, and orange are now
analogous as they all contain a touch of burnt umber and will be used to create
both defini te and vague areas of brick.
Step 1. Lay- in (Fig. 52)
80
This lesson only shows a relatively small portion of a brick wall; on larger
expanses, select and roughly sketch in with charcoal those areas of the
wall where bricks should be the most evident. A common practice is to
fade in the darkest areas (purple) toward the top and side edges of the fl at,
thus leaving a nice glow of richer bricks somewhere near the center and
lower center of the painting surface. Add areas of red and small contrast-
ing blotches of orange here and there. As the three-dimensional illusion
Figure 52
of the protruding bricks is largely communicated by the red bricks, make
the red area larger than either of the purple or orange. Accordingly, a tint and
shade are made only for the red, not the purple and orange. The specific
arrangement of the three lay-in colors is not regulated by realism or art,
and their proportionate areas vary on any two given examples. Use purple
to lay in the nonessential areas at the top of the wall. Considering t hat all
the ingredients could eventually create black, overdoing t he scumble can
get t hings very muddy in a hurry. There should be areas on the flat that are
only red, only orange, and only purple in this beginning step. The edges
of these colors arc where the scumbling occurs. Gently scumble t he edges
of the three colors without overworking. An occasional Rick of the brush
from the heart of one color into another may be done, but these strokes
should be limited, or muddiness will result.
Step 2. Spatter ( Fig. 53)
When the previous step has dried, a fine to medium spatter is applied
using all three base colors. Be careful not to spatter too much orange,
particularly in the purple areas, as this attracts focus by the extreme con-
trast and thus defeats the purpose of the purple color, which is ro denote
faded-away areas.
81
Figure 53
Step 3. Mortar (Fig. 54)
In a sense, what has been created to this point is one very large brick! To
make the brick wall, begin by doing horizontal lining to delineate the
bricks by chalking or snapping the rows of bricks, keeping the widths
of the rows uniform and level. Use a plywood or cardboard rectangle
the size of the intended brick to eliminate a lot of measuring. Paint
the cement lines, or mortar, by applying the mortar color, which is a
medium gray containing an addit ive of burnt umber for warmth. 7he
mortar lines should be about * in. wide because a shadow from the pro-
truding brick will eventually overlap part of the mortar but not all of it.
When working on the dark arcas (the purple) of a larger example, lessen
the pressure of the liner brush, to the point of dry brushing. This creates
a f.'lding away of the mortar color into the unobtrusive brick sections.
Apply the vertical mortar lines, and phase out appropriate strokes in the
purple areas.
Step 4. Brick Lining (High- and Lowlighting; Fig. 55)
82
As the bricks should protrude from the surface of the mortar, it is neces-
sary to lend a dimension of thickness to the bricks. Think of the brick as a
Figure 54
Figure 55
83
protruding panel . Mix a tint and shade of the base red. Mixingwhite with
a little orange and then adding some base color to it creates a nice tint, or
highlight color. the shade can be arrived at by adding to a bit of the base
red some burnt umber and purple. For practical purposes of instruction,
again assume the light source to be coming from the same direction as in
the illustration of the protruding panel: above and to the right. Therefore,
line the top and right edges of the bricks with the tint for the highlight,
while the opposite edges are lined with the shade for the lowlight. The
highlights and /owlights each should overlap the edges of the brick, not be placed
a/ongside it. Do not highlight and lowlight every brick, but do highlight an
occasional brick in the dark area. Randomly vary the thickness of high-
light and lowlight lines, as the intention is to suggest an aged wall that
has character and whose edges and corners of several of the bricks have
become chipped and abraded.
Step 5. Brick Dry Brush (Fig. 56)
Masons and bricklayers are artisans whose crafts date back millennia. As
all bricks are never the same color, artisans will disperse and mingle vari-
ous brick tones in esthetically pleasing patterns. To affect this, using a 2
Figure 56
84
in. brush or a fantail, lightly dry brush a few random bricks singularly
with wash consistencies of the base red, orange, and purple. Some sem-
blance of the textural spatter should be seen through the wash. Use only
one dry brush color on any given brick.
Step 6. Shadow Wash (Fig. 57)
As the bricks are like protruding panels, add cast shadows that accom-
pany the edges of the shade (lowlight) lines that face away from the light
source. These shadow wash lines should slightly overlap the shade lines
and extend over onto the mortar without covering the entire width of the
mortar lines. As an addit ional option, some shadow wash may be applied
to the faces of some bricks to suggest their uneven surfaces and used to
completely darken a few bricks.
Figure 57
Step 7. Final Toning (Fig. 58)
Lightly spatter with purple any mortar [jnes t hat sharply contrast with an
underlying purple-based area. Follow this with a final light spattering of
the entire surface with shadow wash to lend texture to the highlight lines
and mortar lines.
85
Figure 58
Alternative Methods for BrieRs
As is prevalent in technical theater, there arc usually several means by
which to achieve a goal, and methods of scene painting are no except ion. For
the following two alternatives, think of painting one huge cement slab onto
which will be implanted the bricks.
1. The laying in of the mortar color is the first step. Base the surface with
a gray that has been toned with either blue or brown for temperature. When
dry, the mortar is spattered with shadow wash or a proximity tint and shade
of the mortar color to lend texture to the cement. When dry, place down 1h in.
wide painter's tape in the pattern the mortar will assume (sec fig. 59). Next,
spatter, seumble, roll, spray, or dry brush on the brick colors. Depending on
the intended appearance of the bricks, almost any method(s) of application
will work. Further texture as desired, and then remove the tape (see fig. 60).
Finish with steps 4 through 7 above.
2. Perhaps the most popular method of painting bricks and preferred
by painters particularly when large areas are to be covered is the painting of
bricks using a stencil (see figs. 61a and 61b). This method is most easily per-
formed continentally, though may be successfully done vertically. Apply the
86
Figure 59
Figure 60
87
Fig ure 61a
88
paint through spattering, spraying, sponging, or rolling. Using a thick shag
paint roller and applying varying degrees of pressure will result in interesting
textural variations. Individual bricks are selected for highlighting, lowlight-
ing, and dry brushing. For the next steps, refer to steps 4 through 7 above.
For a very stylized ("heightened" or cartoonli ke) treatment, paint the
cement first, and then follow up with brick shapes cut from synthetic sponges
and stamp on the bricks (see fig. 62). Finish the illusion as befits the style of
the production.
Figure 62
Rough Stones
The term rough stones refers to those stones that have been removed from
the ground and are used in their original and irregular sizes and shapes to
build walls, houses, welJs, and other structures. Both a brush and natural
sponge will be used to create them.
Step 1. Mortar Base (Fig. 63)
Mix a mortar color, and cover the entire surface. When dry, spatter with
a tint and shade of the mortar color.
89


,

. .
Figure 63
Step 2. Stone Lay-In (Fig. 64)
Draw the stones with chalk or charcoal pencil. Using two base colors for
visual interest, lay in all stones with a brush.
Step 3. Stone Detail (Fig. 65)
90
Randomly sponge with a temperature color. Keeping in mind the direction
ofthe light source, sponge on the highllghts and lowlights with the tint and
shade, respectively. Alternate the positioning of the sponge, and vary the
shape and size of the tint and shade applications, thereby reinforcing the
irregularity of each stone. As it is difficult using a sponge to create a crisp
perimeters for the stones, it may be necessary to clean up the ti nt and shade
edges with a liner brush, being careful not to paint lines of uniform width.

Figure 64
Step 4. Shadow Wash (Fig. 66)
Usi ng a liner brush, follow with the shadow wash, and accentuate thick-
nesses and shapes of stones with shadows cast on the mortar. Finally,
spatter the entire work with shadow wash. Refrain from medium or heavy
spattering, as this will only flatten t he stones' appearance.
Cut Stones
Cut stones are those stones frequently found on royal buildings, monu-
ments, banks, churches, and other impressive structures. They differ from
rough stones in that they have been shaped by masons or mechanically cut.
Each stone has chiseled edges. Consider a cross-sectional view of a cut stonc.
91
Figure 65
Note the obvious bevel that occurs on the four sides and its sloping distance
from the flat face of the stone to the mortar (see fig. 67). Cut stones arc most
commonly made of granite, limestone, or marble, which come in a variety of
colors. For this demonstration, a reddish-brown granite will be painted.
Step 1. Scumble Lay-In
92
Mix up a base of burnt sienna. From this base, mix a tint and shade. (As
burnt sienna is a reddish-brown, combining it with white alone can lead
to a pink tint. To offset this, add a little orange or yellow to the sienna-
and-white mixture to create the tint.) To slightly offset the warmth of the
Figure 66
brown and for visual interest , mix a small quantity of mint green, made
analogous by adding a little base color to it. Scumble in only the siennas,
leaving some areas brighter and more prominent than others.
Step 2 . Wet Spatter (Optional; Fig. 68)
While the scumbling of step 1 is still wet, do a medium spatter with the
base, tint, and shade and sparingly wit h the mint green. The wet scum-
ble mingles wi th the spatter droplets, and a slight puddling of the colors
occurs. If the scumble has dried, place the surf.'lce continentally, spatter
with some water, and follow with the above spatter colors. Be particularly
93
FroO! view
Face orlhe Slone
Mortar
lsomelric
Figure 67
Figure 68
94
careful if painting vertically. As dripping is not desirable, this step may
have to be avoided altogether. In this event, skip to the next step, and
spatter finely. An optional flogging may be introduced here to achieve a
veined look to the granite (see below) .
Step 3. Dry Spa,, (Fig. 69)
When step 2 has dried, fine spatter lightly with all four colors. A medium
spatter of the shade can be done on the darker areas. This dry spattering as
a follow-up to the wet spattering of step 2 is done to duplicate the muted,
yet coarse, textural appearance of granite. This step may be avoided if a
smoother appearance is called for.
Figure 69
Step 4. Mortar (Fig. 70)
Using a deep brown-black as the mortar color, thinly line in the individual
stones (sec fig. 70). Note the width of the mortar is considerably narrower
than that used for bricks. A lighter mortar color can be used, although
with dark granites and marbles, a dark mortar is advised. A light mortar
with dark stones allows the mOrt ar to be dominant and appear to jump
to the foreground, thereby counteracting the illusion of the protruding,
chisel-edged stones.
Step 5. Highlight and Lowlight (Figs. 71 and 72)
Note on the diagram of the cut stone (see fig. 67) that the inner rectangle
on the face of the stones is indented the same distance from the mortar on
all four sides. This indentation should approximate the width of the bristle
95
Figure 70
span on a -% inch liner brush. 1t is advisable to measure this indentation
and mark it with chalked reference dots on areas of the painting surface.
Or, a template made from cardboard that fits into the corner created by
the joining of vertical and horizontal mortar lines may be used to strike
reference dots (see fig. 71). Determine the light source and, using the tint
color, highlight the indented, perpendicular edges of the ('lce of the stone.
Repeat with the lowlighting on the opposite edges using the shade color
(see fig. 72) .
Step 6. Glazes (Washes; Fig. 73)
96
Between the highlight and mortar lines, apply a transparent tin! glaze
(wash) made by thinning the tint color. Mixing the tint glaze can be tricky.
The last thing wanted here is a tint glaze that, when dry, turns opaque. It
is always better to have a tint glaze that is mixed too weak. Try the glaze
out on a test area painted with burnt sienna. Though it may appear more
like clear water when brushed on, as it dries, a film occurs. This tint glaze
should dry to a t ransparency like the shadow glaze.
To apply the tint glaze, turn the chisel point of the liner brush to
a 45 degree angle when painting outward from the beginning corner.
,
j
Figure 71
Figure 72
,rr EMIPL.A 110 ... marking the inside detail on the cut slone
L
1
r
.J L
Mortar
Lines
,
J
r

L
j
I
1 r
97
Figure 73
Stop the stroke before reaching the end corner, pivot the brush to t he
opposite 45 degree angle, place the brush at the end corner, and work
out from it. Apply the shadow glaze on the opposite bevels of each stone.
It is the meeting of the two different washes at the diagonally opposed
corners that really gives the stone its strikingly beveled appea rance. Be
careful so as not to overlap the morta r lines with the tint glaze. Using
a shadow wash, paint in a wide shadow between the lowl ight lines and
mortar lines. The wash may overlap bot h the lowlight and mortar lines.
Additional applications of the tint glaze and shadow wash may intensify
the illusion but also destroy it if one or both of the washes begins to turn
opaque.
Step 7. Engraving (Optional) and Toning (Fig. 74)
98
If engraving is needed, simply take the t int and shade colors and with
the chisel point of a narrow liner brush adhere to the pri nciples of high-
lights and lowlights as dictated by t he light source to produce the carved,
recessed grooves (see fig. 74). Finish with a fine spattering of shadow wash
to lend texture to the highlight lines.
Figure 74
Marble
Marble can be found in a wide and spectacular range of color. Of all forms
of stonework, it is by far the most exotically elegant, and its opulence speaks
of money and power. While some may visualize marble as a shiny off-white
rock, variations of green, ebony, pink, azure, and brown have been used for
centuri es to enhance architecture and provide attractive and alluring decor.
For example, the study of pink marble may reveal shades of brown, blue, and
purple as enchant ing pools or vei ns within the stone.
To keep such a range of possible colors analogous, first mix some white with
a little burnt sienna or burnt umber depending on how rosy the marble is to look.
The outcome should be an off-white possessing a degree of warmth. Using this
as a common denominator, mix with red to create the desired base, and from
this make a fairly light tim with white and drops of orange and a somewhat dark
shade with brown and some purple. To the side, neutralize some brown with a
little of the base pink, and, likewise, mix a Iinle base pink with some purple.
What should result are a base of pinkish red, its tint and shade fairly removed
away in hue and temperature colors of brown and purple. 1 n addition, keep some
99
of the original off-white, and make a dark-brown shadow wash. Once again,
these particular colors are not regulated. One need only study the particular
marble to be produced or experiment to substitute appropriate colors as neces-
sary. Marble is most successfully rendered when painted continentally. Remember,
when painting marble continentally on framed scenery, those areas benveen the
framing boards must be backed, or filled in from the rear, to prevent the canvas
from sagging and causing the gathering of pools of paint and water.
Step 1. Lay-in
~ i k l y lay in the area with the pinkish red base. With a lay-in brush or
a narrow roller, apply irregular striations of tint, shade, brown and purple.
Do not continue to blend.
Step 2. Water Spatter or Spray
Immediately follow with a fine spattering, or spraying (misting), of water.
A mottled effect wiU result. Do not overdo.
Step 3. Color Spatter
Puddle the colors further by spattering sparingly on top of the water with
all colors. Vary the spatter from heavy to fine, but do not cover the entire
surt:'lce equally with every color. A judiciOUS spatter again with water may
be needed, perhaps slashing across the painting surface with each snap.
NOTE: While all of t he above are drying, cut four to five pieces of
heavy twine, yarn, or thin muslin strips to approXimately 36 inches. T ie
the ends and middles of the lengths arbitrarily together to resemble a
loosely woven net. Some long ends should be left untied and hanging free.
This device is a veining net and is used particularly when large areas have
to resemble marble. When step 3 is dry or slightly tacky, dip the net into
water to soften it. OPTION: Add a little bronze (metallic) powder to the
veining color(s). If added sparingly, t he effect can be quite opulent.
Step 4. Veining (Fig. 75)
100
Next comes the veining (see fig. 75). 111is step may be performed horizon-
tally or vertically. Dip the dampened veining net into t he shade, squeeze
out the excess color, and toss or flog the net gently onto the painted sur-
face. The strands will discha rge paint as they strike the surface and pro-
duce rhe veining common to marble. Repeat once or twice, and proceed
to other colors as desired. Be certain to slightly alter the angle of Ragging,
Fi gure 75
;
/
but be careful not to create veining lines that fight, or oppose, one another.
It is best to produce a unifying, predominant angle for all of the veining,
rather than winding up with a mishmash of crisscrossing lines. 1he resul-
tant veining should never be the same twice.
On smaller scenic units, substitute the veining net with a feather or
small brush. Be careful not [0 fall into repetitive veining parterns. An
optional fine spattering or spraying with water wi ll soften t he veining.
Step 5. Detail (Fig. 76)
Thin some of the tint and shade down a little so the colors glide off the
brush. The dimensional lines should not be too heavy in appearance (sec
fig. 76), Usc the shadow wash in the usual manner.
NOTE:: Rich marble and fine woodwork arc often given a subtle gloss
to increase their luxuriance. To achieve this gloss glaze, a transparent glaze
of a glossy nature, is applied.
Virtually every paint medium has a clear matte or glossy product
available (except dry pigments, for which size water may be used as a
handy gloss glaze). Most products are water soluble to allow for the con-
trol of gloss desired. However, as all gloss glazes will darken the scene
painting, experiment with an extra painted surface before glazing to get
101
Figure 76
an idea of the resultant finish. Consequently, areas requiring a gloss glaze
may have to be painted with lighter values of color to allow for the darken-
ing when glazed.
Step 6. Gloss Glaze (Fig. 77, A, B)
102
Apply the gloss glaze. Be sure to give the painting just a hint of luster.
Too much glare will destroy any attempts at dimension detailing. ]ft he
finished, preglossed marbling appears too bright, a pinch of color may be
added to the gloss glaze as a toning device. Accordingly, the finished col-
ors of the marble can be drastically altered by adding colors to the glaze.
]f, for example, a pink marble appears too rich in value, adding some
brown to the gloss glaze will subdue the quality of the pink and lend an
appearance of aging to the stonework, B (sec fig. 77, B). (Adding color to
a finishing gloss glaze for woodwork can also be an effective altering or
toning step.) Be careful, however, when brushing on the glaze to avoid an
appearance of streaking, unless such an effect is desirable. Tilting the Rat
by picking up different corners will allow the glaze to streak or puddle and
create variations in the extent of glossiness.
The dripping and streaking of glazes or washes is not restricted to
marble and stonework. Called a "Bergman Bath" after its inventor, scene
painter Robert Bergman, this technique may be integrated into the paint-
ing stages of various exercises, including wallpaper, bricks, and stonework.
Adding amounts of silver metallic powder lend more of a sheen to the
Figure 77
glaze solution, and allowing it to run down the painting surf:'lce produces
an illusion of dampness and trickling moisture, so suitable for dungeons,
dank caverns, and mildewed walls.
9. Wallpaper
Painting Considerations
Unless in an intimate t heater setting where the audience is quite close to
the action and realistic accuracy is stressed, real wallpaper is rarely used on
stage settings. Its use is avoided largely because of the following comideratiom,
without any particular importance to the order:
Artistic
1. The scenic designer must choose from those patterns available. Also,
the colors of wallpaper are predetermined, and an appropriate, commercially-
available pattern may not come in colors matching those predetermined on
the designer's palette. Some designers may wish to create their own wallpaper
designs, as the ir only limitations regarding style and color may be t heir own
imaginations.
2. Many wallpapers exhibit a slightly finished sheen. This sheen primarily
allows for cleaning with a damp sponge should spills or minor soiling occur.
103
But the resultant sheen causes a reRection that when viewed from off to one
side can literally obscure the design and its colors. As the audience may see
several walls from an angle, such a sheen can be a visual nuisance. Attempting
to dull this sheen through overlay washes wi11likely succeed in only making
the wallpaper appear dingy, which mayor may not be the intention. Unless
otherwise preplanned, painted wallpaper-as rendered with most scenic
paints-will dry to a matte quality, and its finished appearance wiJI be expres-
sive no matter where an audience member may sit.
Budgetary
1. Wallpaper can be quite expensive, often far exceeding the cost of paint.
2. Wallpaper will not attach well to canvas-and-frame scenery. It is far
better to cover "hard" Rats (e.g., those Rats covered by skin plywood rat her
than muslin or canvas) with wallpaper as the surface will be rigid and more
like an actual walL Building hard Rats may pose considerabl e budgetary, scene
shifting, and storage implications for some theater companies. Conversely,
almost any surface can be used when the ilJusion of wallpaper is painted on.
3. As many theater companies-particularly universities, smaller profes-
sional groups, and most amateur groups- rely on the reuse of stock scenery,
those Rats covered with wallpaper must be stripped and sometimes recovered.
1he additional cost could be prohibitive or put economic constraints on other
production elements. Painted-on wallpaper designs can be painted over, as
simple as that.
Expertise
Hanging wallpaper is a far different task t han painting. Although certain
corners can be cut or fudged through painting illusions, slapping real wallpa-
per into and around corners, windows, and doors with attempts at alignment
accuracy can stretch even the most serene of temperaments. (Wall papering a
room with a spouse, some contend, may initiate a quick trip to divorce court.)
Duplicating wallpaper through painting is a rel atively simple procedure, and
almost any painting helpers can be taught to master the steps.
Time
When one factors in the sealant and other surface-preparation [ime
needed to prepare the scenic surface for the wallpaper and then attaching the
paper itself, many painters could have already finis hed painting the illusion.
In light of the above considerations, it behooves many an organization to
elect the painted illusion over the real thing.
104
Pounce Method
Few wallpaper patterns are random in nature (or perhaps they would not
be called patterns). ll)ere is commonly a rhyme or reason to their design that
creates not only an individual but a collective interest. Although the individual
design may be striking or evocative, it is often also the combinations created
by the repetitive placement of the pattern that lends [0 its overall visual state-
ment. To assure symmetry of pattern, the use of a stencil or similar device
is compulsory when wallpaper is painted on a setting. At one time, a poutlce
wheel, pounce bag, and paper were the tools used to transfer wallpaper patterns
to the painted surface. A design was drawn out on the paper, and the pounce
wheel was used to make perforations along the lines of the design. This stencil
of sorts was then placed on the painting surface, and the pounce bag full of
ground charcoal was pounded on the perforated lines. Lifting off the paper
revealed a dotted replica of the wallpaper design (see fig. 78) . It was then hand
painted. The procedure is an arduous one that requires steady hands and volu-
minous quantiti es of patience.
,':;''';
, ~ ...
Figure 78
105
Stenciling
More recently, the art of stenciling has become more sophisticated. To
describe the procedure simply, the paint is now commonly applied directly
onto tbe scenery through the stencil's negative spaces, which form the shape
of the wallpaper design.
Designing the Negative Stencil
Countless variations of single and combination stencils can be employed
for scene painting. For research and quick access, it is wise to stock the paint
shop wi th wallpaper catalogues and to keep an extra copy for reuse or reference
of each stencil constructed. A fe w hints may prove worthwhile when selecting
(or for the deSigner, designing) a stencil pattern.
1. Never choose too large or too small a pattern. Either is annoying.
Dependent, of course, on the size of the theater and audience proximity, the
small pattern wiU general ly read like indiscernible mush, and the large stenci l
will appear large and overbearing and will, therefore, take focus.
2. Be sure the stencil is not terribly busy. This carries the same conse-
quence as an overly large stencil. l , however, an intricate pattern is the prefer-
ence, try creating the pattern in overlay form. That is, break the stencil down
into two or three stencils that when placed one on top of the other will com-
plete the design. Do the initial shape in one color, and use analogous colors for
the subsequent stencil intricacies.
3. Make the pattern durable. It might be used a few hundred times on one
setting. Between all cutout sections are the bridges, or ties, that hold t he stencil
together. Making these ties too narrow may result in the stencil falling apart.
Leave at least a 1/4 in. width for the ties. Accordingly, be careful that there are
enough ties and that no long or floppy sections exist. Figure 79 illustrates a
weU-designed stencil, A, versus one that does not have enough ties, B.
Making the Negative Stencil
Stenci ls can be cut out with mat knives. Should several copi es of the sten-
cil be required, sandwich and clamp sheets of stencil paper between two pieces
o ~ in. plywood. Trace the original stenci l onto the top piece of plywood, and
cut out the holes with a power saber saw. For those painters with access to a
more thoroughly equipped scene shop, a Cutawl machine is unsurpassable for
cutting out complex negative shapes (see fig. 80). The resultant multicopies
can then be placed on continentally arranged scenery, and the many repeating
patterns can be Simultaneously applied.
106
A
v
B
,
<
(

">
/ I
?
I
Figure 79
Figure 80
107
NOTE: Be sure to make a few extra stenci ls. When a set is painted verti-
cally in its assembled form, the extra stencils may be cut in half or in sections
for painting the pattern into and around corners of the walls.
When the painting is to be done vertically, and only one stencil is used at
a time, it may prove handy if tbe stencil is framed. Framing not only main-
tains rigidity but also proves a convenient way to pick up the stencil and hold
it when in use.
To frame a stencil. The average individual stencil design will cover a gross
area of approximately 10 inches x 12-14 inches. Cut four pieces of:J.4 inch x :J.4
inch pine to the lengths required by the dimensions of the stencil. Remember
to allow in the calculations for the width of the wood. Arrange the pieces as
shown in figure 813. Place the stencil facedown onto the wood pieces, and sta-
ple through the paper into the wood using 'A inch staples (fig. 81b). Carefully
nail the frame together with I1f.z inch finishing nails. ] f the stencil is not made
of stencil paper or paper that has been laminated with plastic, seal the stencil
front and back against moisture absorption with shel lac or enamel spray paint.
Note that the centering guidelines that have been notched into the top, bottom, and
side edges of the stencil (see also figllre 42) mllst be visible inside the frame. 1hese
notches will be aligned with the horizontal and vertical chalk lines normally
snapped onto the painting surface to serve as guides for the placement and
positioning of the stencil.
Before applying the stencil, the background should be textured to provide
an interesting contrast to the stencil. The background may be lightly scum-
bled, sponged, stippled, or combed. However, the background texture should
be done with washes or opaque colors close together ill value and hue. The purpose
of the background is [0 contrast and enhance the stencil without detracting
from it. HaVing prepared the background, decide the direction or layout of
the overall pattern.
Applying the Stencil
Step 1. Guidelines (Fig. 82)
108
Choose how the stencil is to be placed, that is, side by side, offset, in
vertical columns, in diagonal columns, or other ways. Although this dem-
onstration focuses on only a few stencil applications rather than an entire
wall, use a chalk snap line to strike vertical and horizontal gUidelines (see
fig. 82). These will assure the alignment of the stencil's perimeter vertical
and horizontal notches.
Figure Sla
Figure SIb
109
Figure 82
Step 2. Stencil Base (Fig. 83)
The stencil base color may be appl ied in any number of ways. Dabbing
the ends of a brush rather forcefully in a stippling manner will pound the
paint through the holes quite nicely. It may be surprising how many times
the stencil can be painted through and moved before having to recharge
the brush. Work on the brighter, lower background areas of the scen-
ery first, and gradually fade out the stencil pattern when approaching the
upper reaches of the scenic unit and its darker background (see fig. 83). A
pattern applied opaquely in the top areas draws the eye upward.
Step 3. Stencil Contrast (Fig. 84)
110
Apply the stenci l tint and shade colors using the same or contrasting
method employed for the base color. Use the tint and shade lightly so as
Figure 83
to not totally cover the base color. Vary the placements of the tint and
shade colors to avoid static repetition and to create stencil texture (see
fig. 84).
Step 4 . Final Tone (Optional; Figs. 85 and 86)
Finish with a light application of one of the background colors over the
finished stenciling by combing, fine spatter, using a cut roller, or other
method. This not only provides further texture but serves as a toning
device for too dominant a pattern. Producing wallpaper that is to have a
tapestry appearance is relatively easy. After the stencil has been applied
with the required colors, drag a combing brush vertically over the pattern
with various washes (see fig. 85). A patterned paint roller, such as one
wrapped with several rubber bands, may also be used (see fig. 86).
111
Figure 84
Pattern Arrangements
As mentioned earlier, the repetitive placement of the wallpaper pattern
can also ('lctor into its design and overall collective interest. 1l1e four standard
arrangements are diaper, scale, ogee, and vertical stripes (see fig. 87, a through
d, respectively). In addition, singular stencils may be placed in sequences
of repetition, inversion, opposition, or alternation (see fig. 87, e through h,
respectively). Each arrangement has its own significance, and one may be
more appropriate to another when supporting architectural periods.
Spattering or Spraying
A quick and easy way to create striped wallpaper is with spattering or
spraying, done either vertically or continentally. Make a template: Nail at 6
inch intervals and perpendicular to a 6 foot piece of 1 inch x 3 inch pine, 6
112
Figure 85
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/f::.::.
,
f' P
r:-
I'/,

Figure 86
113
. DIAPER
( ~
( ~ ( ~ ( ~
(' ( ~ ( ''>!'')(' ,
~ REPETITION
Fi gure 87
WALLPAPER PATTERN ARRANGEMI:.WfS
b SCALE cOOEE
r INVERSION I . OPPOSITION
d VERTICAL
"" ""
h ALTERNATION
inch wide x 8 foot pieces ofl,4 inch plywood (see fig. 88, a). Having completed
the background paiming, lay the template on the continental scenery, or in the
case of vertical scenery, rest the 1 inch x 3 inch piece on the top of the flat and
allow the strips to hang down. Spatter or spray with the base, tint, and shade
wallpaper colors. Remove the template, and move to [he next section of scen-
ery. Further, optional treatments might be the application of a second different
template over the background or applied stripes, framing of the stripes with a
wash or opaque color, among others (see fig. 88, b).
Stamping a Pattern
Alternatively, using a stencil may be substituted by "stamping" the paint
onto the scenery. Synthetic sponges, cut into shapes, are pressed onto the
scenery to cast an imprint; or shapes of sponge or thick carpet are glued to a
board with handles, dipped into pan of color, and stamped against the scenery
(sec fig. 89) . 'This latter method is ext remely effective for fast application. The
sponge and carpet can be cut with scissors, mat knives, or a band saw.
Remember that unless designed or specified otherwise, all painted areas
on the stage will need some degree of paimed or applied texturing to absorb
stage lighting. Wallpaper is no exception. Whether stenciled or stamped, t he
design pattern must be treated with contrasting tones, be they merely tints and
shades, [0 create texture.
114
o
"
"
"
<J
a
Figure 89
b
Figure 88
)
115
10. Woodwork
Graining
Before attempting to paint any type of woodwork, research the exact wood
to be reproduced. Study its graining patterns and changes in color. Soft woods
are less expensive than hard woods, and its t rees (pine, poplar, cedar, spruce)
tend to be tall and straight. Wood grains are linear and free flowing. Hard
woods arc slower-growi ng trees (such as, oak, cherry, walnut, and mahogany)
and often gnarled and twisting in nature, whose growth rings and consequently
grain lines are close together and oftcn qui te int ricate. Hard wood is dense and
morc challenging to work with but, due to its tighter graining, will not split or
splinter as easily as softer woods. Hard woods are commonly associated with
fine furniture and paneled interiors that bespcak the economic affiuence of the
owners. Softer woods frequently carry a rustic connotation, a more bucolic and
frugal charm. Soft woods tend to be '1.[ more textural in nature. Although the
exampl es in the following painting lessons are of a wide-grained nature (such
as poplar or pine), variations in color, blending, and graini ng can be suited to
the particular characteristics of the type of wood desired.
The following demonstrations are divided into three categories: rendering
methods (descriptions of the three common methods of reproducing a wood
effect), wainscoting (the most basic of all interior treatments for decor), and
paneling (in which multi leveled decor is illustrated).
Rendering Methods
Regardl ess of the complexity of the assignment , reproducing woodwork on
the stage maytakc the form of any onc or more of the following three approaches:
(1) the wash method, (2) opaque method, or (3) dry-brush method. Although it
is common to use a combi nation of methods on anyone painting project, divid-
ing and illustrating the techniques into three separate approaches will simplifY
the procedures for the begi nning painter and possibly encourage the adoption
of an individual format that has proven comfortable and workable.
Wash Method
Step 1. Neutral Base (Fig. 90)
116
Base in the entire woodwork area with a light background color appropri-
ate to the temperature of the wood to be produced. When dry, use a black
Figure 90
indelible marker to delineate the divisions of boards (see fig. 90) . Boards
do not have to be of uniform width.
Step 2. Graini ng (Figs. 91 and 92)
Regardless of the type of graining (wood) to be replicated, there will be no
obvious symmetry or balance to the lines. In figure 91, a and b illustrate
how and why graining lines appear as they do. The extent to which grain
lines are linear or loop back in the opposite direction has to do not only
with the type of tree and how straight, crooked, or gnarled it is but also
the manner in which it is cut at the sawmill. In a process called quarter-
sawing, the lumber is produced by first quartering the log and then sawing
perpendicular to the growth rings (fig. 91, a). Boards are produced that are
117
Gro"'"
Rings
(a) Q UARTERSAWING
(b) PLA1NSAW1NG
Figure 91 a, b
118
relatively narrow in width, but the grains are fairly straight. There can be
considerable waste through this sawing method. The most common and
economical of cuts, plain-sawn, occurs when a whole or half-round log
is passed through the saw blade, and the growth rings are cut across. The
grain contains considerably more variation as the growth rings are more
prominent. The graining parterns will resemble elliptical loops, or cups
(fig. 91, b) .
A cluster ofloops or cups is referred to as a heart grain. The replica-
tion of heart grains through painting should not receive a hasty attention
to detail, as there are general characteristics ( ~ N o s and Yeses"; see figure
91c) that should be studied if the wood is to appear realistic and cred-
ible. The tapering characteristics of t he grain are controlled by the liner
brush's chisel point. the ferrule of the brush should not be turned but kept at a
comtant angle. Add the appropriate graining (based upon research and/or
commercially available swatches) with a combing brush and liner brush,
using a fairly dark wash (see fig. 92). Note that some boards are grained
solely through combing, while other graining patterns are in combina-
tion with the liner brush or with the liner alone. As the ultimate goal of
realistic scene painting is to capture the essence of an object, rather than
total-and, perhaps, distracting-photographic duplication, take care not
to "overgrain" the wood to the point of busyness.
( c ) .:. WOOD GRAINING .;.
W:Grain
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do noI follow
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XES: Grain
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is irreplu
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Figure 91 c
119
Figure 92
Optional Step. Dry Brush with Background Color ( Fig. 93)
Should the grain lines appear too dark at this stage or certain linear wood
characteristics are required, one might elect to dry brush over the grain-
ing lines with a wash of the beginning light background color. This stroke
should be fluid and work from one end of the board to the other, and the
assistance of a straightedge is encouraged. An alternative to dry brushing
would be to use the spaner-and-drag technique (see below, step 4.)
Step 3. Washes (Fig. 94)
120
As befining the type of wood being replicated, brush on appropriate
washes of color in the same direction as the graining, and lightly blend
Figure 93
with water. The graining should show through. If the graini ng appears
too prevalent, repeat applications of wash{es}.
Step 4. Spatter and Drag (Fig. 95)
Finely spatter with the shadow wash, and drag immediately in the d i r e ~
tion of the graining. Do not overly spatter and drag, as this step can
muddy the wood.
Step 5. Highlight and Lowlight (Fig. 96)
Add highlights and lowlights to the edges of each board to clarify the
arrangement and lend a thin beveling.
121
Figure 94
Step 6. Gloss Glaze (Fig. 97)
Finish with a gloss gl aze to deepen the tones and add richness.
NOTE: Painters may prefer reversing steps 2 and 3, as the blend-
ing will provide a more varied foundation for interesting and nonre-
petitive graining patterns. However, the graining wash will now have
to be weaker in strength as it will sit on top of the color washes. And,
although reversing steps 2 and 3 may frec up the style of the painter, such
an approach may be more suitable to the creation of a woody "look" than
a realistic one.
Opaqlle Method
This second rendering method will be illustrated by creating aged barn
wood because of its many subtle colors and coarse texture. Close inspection of
the unpainted barn wood reveals both warm and cool tones, however slight,
122
Figure 95
t hat have resulted from the exposure of the wood's natural moisture patterns
to weathering.
Mix up a base of medium gray and a corresponding tint and shade. For
variety and temperature, also mix a reddish brown and a gray blue, using the
base color as a common denominator additive.
Step 1. Base Dab and Streak (Fig. 98)
Base in the entire area quickly and heavily with the base gray. While the
base is still wet, dab and streak the tint, shade, brown, and blue in the
direction of the boards (see fig. 98).
Step 2. Wet Blend (Fig. 99)
With a wide lay-in brush partially charged with water, blend with the
board di rection while pushing with some force against the surface.
123
Figure 96
Step 3. Inking and Graining (Fig. 100)
After step 2 has dried, ink in with a narrow, black indelible marker the
divisions separating the individual boards. With a shadow wash, spar-
ingly add some graining lines. lhe effects of weathering will have greatly
diminished a lot of graining contrast. (The sidings on barns were con-
structed of the softer woods, such as poplar, pine, and spruce; the graining
is free-flowing and loose but, like the rest of the barn, has faded.lhe grain
should not be very contrasting.)
Step 4. Texture
Dry brush sparingly with the tint, base, and shade colors.
124
Figure 97
Step 5. Spatter and Drag (Fig. 101)
Fi ne spatter with the shade and drag most areas while leaving what will
appear to be nail and worm holes.
Step 6. Highlight and Lowlight (Fig. 102)
Using the tint and shade colors, line in the highlights and lowlights to
distinguish edges of boards, and shadow wash for cracks and splits. (Do
not apply a gloss glaze, as it would work against the natural and exposed
appeal of this type of wood.)
1he use of opaque colors can provide a rich appea rance but also one
that may seem visualJy "heavy." Certain colors carry more visual weight
125
Figure 98
than others. Grays and earth tones-particularly browns-do not con-
front the observer with the same degree of visual excitement as many of
the other warm and cool tones. The grays and earth tones are reserved in
nature and suit well those settings steeped in formal and staid tradition.
Using browns and grays in opaque form, especially when combined in a
wet state, creates a far-heavier impression than the same colors utilized as
washes over a predried base color.
Dry-Brush Method
An advantage this method has over the previous two is that its procedufC
may be followed as available time permits. There isn't t he Tush to complete wet
126
Figure 99
blending or the dragging of colors before they dry. Because dry brushing is
largely associated with wood and texture, t his relatively simple third method is
well suited to illustrate coarse, exposed wood. Moreover, in an attempt to cap-
ture nature's raw beauty, the following example makes use of rather romantic
temperature colors of a complementary nature. As the color of a stage light will
pick up and accentuate its like color in the painting, treating this wood with a
blue wash allows the wood to appear cool when lit under moonlight {typically,
blue} conditions.1l1e orange wash, conversely, turns the wood warm when lit by
a warm-colored light for a scene during the day. A section of cut-out scenery is
being painted for this lesson, and although the scenery is still two-dimensional,
the peri meter shape will reinforce the nature of the painting technique.
127
I
Figure 100
Step 1. Base and Cool Dry Brush or Comb (Fig. 103)
Base t he entire unit with a beige or gray color, and all ow to dry. Then dry
brush or comb a gray blue following the directions of the boards.
Step 2. Warm Texture
Fol low with the gray orange. Work in sections, and do not completely
cover the gray blue. Keep the gray orange predominantly but not abso-
lutely near those edges facing the light source.
Step 3. Tint and Shade (Fig. 104)
128
After determini ng the light source, apply a light, warm gray ti nt and a deep
brown- or purple-gray shade to add dimension. Do not use a straightedge.
Figure 101
These li nes should be freehand and have va rying t hicknesses to capture
the nature of the roughly hewn profile cutout.
Step 4. Shadow Wash (Figs. 105 and 106)
Paint on the shadow wash to indicate the overlapping construction, and
finish with a fine-to-medium spattering of shadow wash to give the high-
lights texture (see fig. 105).
It is often necessary to portray wooden units (moldings, door and
window units, railings) that have been painted with a decorator color.
They may be color-coordinated and complement the wallpaper or offset
dark walls by providing a lighter tri m. However, though covered with a
particular color, such architectural features are li kely constructed of wood.
129
130
Figure 102
In such cases where the woodwork has to appear as if painted over, first
base paint the wood with the chosen color. Now create a sense of the mate-
rial, that is, suggest that an architectural feature is made of wood, without
heavily illustrating its obvious characteristics. The audience members will
likely have made their own association. They know a door is commonly
made of wood, so it won't take going overboard to convince them.
Mix tim, shade, and an (optional) temperature color fairly close in
value to the wood's base color. Dry brush or comb with all three over the
base color. Use the tint and shade with subtlety to reinforce any actual
three-dimensional facets (e.g., recessed door panels) according to the
dominant light source. Employing washes will create a soft look, while
Figure 103 Figure 104
Figure 105
131
dry bushing with opaques will give the unit more texture. Do not attempt
graining lines, as they have supposedly been painted over (see fig. 106).
Optionally, finish with a gentle gloss glaze.
Figure 106
Wainscoting
Wainscoting refers to the wood paneling on an interior setting that is
located on the lower sections of walls and comprises a chair rail molding,
middle section, and baseboard molding at the bottom (see fig. 107).
Notice that both the chair rail and baseboard are applied onto the surface
of the paneled area, and their grains run predominately in a horizontal direc-
132
Figure 107
CHAIR RAI L
Tongue
&
Groo\'e
BASEBOARD
tion. Whi le the wainscoting, chair raU, and baseboard may assume a highly
decorative form, their initial purpose is to protect the wall from the gouging
and chipping caused by chair backs and legs. Wainscoting may be quite opu-
lent in its design, but as illustrations of more intricate paneling are soon to
follow, this painting series will showcase the traditional tongue-and-groove
type. The tongue-and-groove form of wainscoting with its verrical graining
was a popular and modest style of paneling employed as a staple of interior
decor dating to the seventeenth century. Its clean lines and sturdy workman-
ship reflect a simplicity and lack of pretension that graced town halls, church
basements, saloons, and simple parlors.
Step 1. Base Blend and Ink (Fi g, 108)
On the side vertical edges of the painting surface, place marks to indi-
cate the widths and positions of the chair rail, tongue- and-groove, and
baseboard sections. Base and blend all areas according to grain direction,
With a felt tip marker, ink in the borders of the chair rail and baseboard,
and delineate the individual tongue-and-groove boards.
Step 2, Graining (Fig. 109)
Apply the shadow-wash graining.
133
Figure 108 Figure 109
Figure 110 Figure 111
134
Step 3. Texture (Fig. 110)
Dry brush or comb with washes of base, tim, and shade.
Step 4. Horizontal Lining (Fig. 111)
Referring [0 the cross-sectional view in figure 107, line the horizomal
highlights and lowliglm of the chair rail and baseboard.
Step 5. Tong ue- and- Groove Lining ( Fig. 112)
Determine the light source. Apply the tongue-and-groove highlight and
lowlight lines. (The edges of these boa rds have a very slight beveled, or
milled, edge, thus creating a recessed groove between the boards. There-
fore, use a liner brush with a very crisp chisel point.)
Step 6. Spatter and Drag (Optional) and Cast Shadows (Fig. 113)
Optionally, apply a fine spatter and drag with the shadow wash (the spat-
ter and drag may occur after step 3, if preferred). Apply the cast shadows
caused by the horizontal moldings and their facets. 'There are no vertical
shadow wash lines.
Figure 112 Figure 113
135
Step 7. Gloss Glaze (Optional)
Brush on a weak gloss glaze if desired.
Non:: It is essential that all paneling, moldings, and wainscoting arc
applied onto the surf.'lce of any given wall. Because one should always paint
what is farthest awayfirst (e.g., stucco, wallpaper), any wood treatments must
be perjOrmedafter the other background areas if the wall are painted.
Recessed and Protruding Panels
Creating paneling more intricate than the conservative tongue-and-
groove wainscoting is in act uality no more difficult than painting cut stones.
Where the assignment begins to take on more complexity is when curved
or multi-angled surfaces must be rendered (see part 3, "Advanced Lessons,"
Moldings"). A review of the painting exercises thus far will reveal
projects of simple geometric lines that were strictly horizontal or vertical in
nature and met at 90 degree corners. The only true deviation has been the
cut stone where rather wide beveled surfaces came into play. Because such
surfaces did not directly confront the light source, attempts to render them
utilized washes of tints and shades that produced medium-range tints and
shades, or half-tones. In essence, middle grounds between the tint and base
or shade and base were achieved by singular or repeated applications of the
transparent washes.
Painting some 90 degree-oriented paneling of a more intricate nature may
also make use of washes simply made from the tint and shade colors. The
recessed and protruding panels in figure 114 illustrate highlight (1), lowlight
(2), and shadow wash (3). The procedures used were a combination of the wash
and opaque methods. Note the distinct variations in thickness of the tint,
shade, wash, and shadow wash lines so as to enhance the illusions of depth
and protrusion. Also, the innermost panels have been given added interest and
distinct ion through the use of diagonal blending.
Additional Examples
Additional examples of woodwork-lanice (fig. 115), clapboard siding
(fig. 116), and board and batten (fig. 117)-are fundamental treatments found
in innumerable settings depicting wooden exteriors of houses, cottages, and
rural structures.
136
,
,
Figure 114
Figure 115
137
Figure 116
Figure 117
138
Part 3
Advanced Lessons
Pan 1 of this hook discussed the materials and tools of the scene painter
and primary methods of texturing scenery. Part 2 dealt more specifically with
basic demonstrations on painting stonework, wallpaper, and woodwork. Part
3 introduces more advanced work, with painting cornices, draperies, foliage,
reflecrive metallic objects, scale transfers, perspective vistas, drops and scrims;
and it will take a freer and bolder approach to scene painting than parts 1 and
2. lhc emphasis in part 3 is away from geometrically oriented and right-angle
adjoining of highlight and lowlight lines and toward a more sophisticated
employment of tapering detail lines, halftones, and flash colors. At times, the
straightedge will be all but thrown away, and the artist and brush will be free
to explore on their own.
11. Cornice Moldings
Moldings serve both functional and aesthetic needs. Generally thought
of as a fancy trim at the tops of walls or around panels and picture frames,
moldings can refer to any strip of wood, plaster, stone, and the like that is used
for architectural finishing or ornamentation. So, a strip of wood, for instance,
can be classified as a molding whether it be straight-faced or shaped. As a
functional feature, moldings can assume the form of a jamb (or casing) around
windows, doors, and fireplaces to seal out drafts. A baseboard can also help
insulate and cover up uneven ends of Aoorboards. Placed as a chair rail, mold-
ing can prevent chair backs from marring wall surfaces, while placing it higher
can serve as a picture rail, from which frames may be hung (fig. 118).
139
CORNICE
PICTURE RAIL
@ @
CHAIR RAIL
~
o ~
~
BASEBOARD
F=
Figure 118
It is interesting when sitting in a hospital examination room to look at
any molding that may be there. WhiJe waiting for the doctor, see if any mold-
ing possesses a decorative attribute. Probably not, as the purpose of any vis-
ible molding wiJi likely be onc of function. So, in a stage setting, onc of
the first barometers the audience has is the manner in which the molding is
treated. I s it excl usively or primarily functional, or does it possess decorative
clements? The degree to whic h the molding becomes decorative has a direct
relationship to the economic stat us of the people living or working there.
Decorative molding may be minimalist in design or intricate. It may even
be composed of nothing but a series of Rat planes arranged in a step-down
format. Most decorative moldings incorporate at least one curve into their
structure, whether convex or concave; and all moldings with curves will be
variations of four different shapes: (1) protruding half-round, (2) protruding
quarter-round, (3) receding half-round, or (4) receding quarter-round (fig.
119, a through e). Even complex curves are nothing more than a variety of
these shapes used in sequences.
140
protruding protruding receding receding
half round quarter-round half-round quarter-round
(bead) (cove)
t

[:
r'


a b c d
e
Figure 119
Roman Ogee and Cove
In order to properly duplicate a particular shape, one must thoroughly
understand its relationships of planes and curves. It may be necessary to cut
into an actual molding or draw a cross-sectional view of it. The Roman ogee is
perhaps as widely used for decorative cornices as any other design and is by far
the most recognizable (fig. 120, a) . It is an example of a corniu molding, which
is located where a wall meets the ceiling. In actuality this popular molding is
a combination of three primary shapes: the vertical plane (flat), S-curve (quar-
ter-round recessive followed by a quarter-round protruding), and cove (quar-
ter-round receding). Further delineation is provided to isolate the
and an arrow to indicate the light source. (At the very bottom of the molding
in the following lesson, a dentil-like a projection of spaced-apart teeth-has
been attached for added decorati on.)
141
Roman Ogee wI Cove
a
VERTICAL PLANE
I
I
I
I
I
I
Figure 120
" I
"
"
'i
lINDERC\ITS
b
s
s
5

. r
s
'. r

As is the case with painting almost anything for the theater, different
methods or approaches may be used. To paint this first molding example, we
will use the opaque method and six colors are mixed:
1. tint wash
2. tint
3. base, or local color
4. half-tone, or middle shade
5. shade
6. shadow wash
These numbers will also apply to their placements on the molding as indi-
cated in figure 120, b. To enhance the completed illusion of the following
demonstration, a profile of the molding shape has been attached to the edge
of the painting surface.
Step 1. Inki ng (Fig. 121)
142
Extend ink lines, using indelible black marker, from the attached pro-
file across the painting surface to show the horizontal delineation of its
facets.
Figure 121
Step 2. Lay-I n (Fig. 122)
The painting is a rather simple blending procedure, provided the colors
have not been mixed too far apart in hue. Use a straightedge when blend-
ing and, if possible, a separate brush for each color, though this is not
essential. Start from the top of the molding, and work down in horizontal
bands. The first section is the top vertical plane, which is done with the
base color (#3) . One should wait for the plane to dry before continuing.
The next color-shade, #5-denotes the beginning of the S curve. Note
that it is placed against the vertical base color but is not blended with it as
they should depict the crisp undercut where the top vertical band and S
curve meet. The shade is put on liberally, by way of a sharp line at its top
and a slightly irregular one at its bottom.
Step 3. Add and Blend (F;g. 123)
Liberally add a band of the medium shade (#4) just below but not touch-
ing the bottom of the shade band. Now blend with ShOft, 45 degree
strokes (li ke "feathering" them together) the edges of the two bands,
and finish with horizontal strokes as needed. At this point, what should
143
Figure 122
Figure 123
144
have resulted is a jOined band of two colors, a color gradation, which has
uncontaminated versions of each hue at its top and bottom extremities.
Note that the bottom of the middle shade band is irregular and still wet.
Continue, according to the numbered diagram, the remainder of the S
curve.
Step 4. Blend (May Not Be Necessary)
With a clean brush slightly moist with water, horizontally blend the S-
curve section with the aid of a straightedge. Be careful to keep the strokes
horizontal and not use any diagonal ones. What yOll are doing through
the blending is creating a series of gentle half and quarter tones. The
blending should resemble a gradation as much as possible without evident
striations.
Step 5. Bottom Blend (Fig. 124)
Following the reference diagram, complete the remainder of the mold-
ing, carefully blending the cove section. Use appropriate tint and shade to
delineate the dentil.
Figure 124
145
Step 6. Dry Brush with Tint Wash (Fig. 125)
When the painting is dry, use a straightedge to gently and judiciously
dry brush the tint wash on the top vertical band. Facilitate with water, if
necessary, if any of the dry brushing appears too textural. This application
of the wash will visually pull the pl ane forward, as it, in actuality, would
jut out the farthest of any other molding facet toward the observer. Add
a little tint wash to the bulge of the S curve, that is, the point where its
two quarter-round components meet. Also paint a small tint wash line at
the bottom of the cove, and lightly brush some on the protruding dent il
blocks. Be careful not to add too much tint wash to the S curve, cove, and
dentil as the tint will make them appear to jut too far forward.
Figure 125
Step 7. Shadow Wash (Figs. 126, 127, and 128)
146
Now, time to break what has up to now been a rule of scene painting: a
shadow will always accompany a lowlight and be placed beside the Iowlight's
edge that is forther from the light source. When one looks at the molding's
cross-section diagram and notes the di rection of the light source, it only
makes sense that a wide shadow will be thrown from the top vertical plane
onto the S curve. However, doing so will have a tendency to flatten the
S. Likewise, casting a shadow from where the middle vertical plane over-
hangs onto t he cove will flatten the cove's illusion. Use the shadow wash
only where indicated on the diagram, remembering to reinforce the dentil
(see fig. 126). A simple rule that might apply to the use of cast shadows
when painting curvatures is: allow protrudillgfocets to cast shadows Ollto flat
areas, but avoid castillg shadows Ollto curved surfaces.
Figure 126
One may duplicate this same molding using the wash method. The
entire molding area is painted with the base color and allowed to dry, fol-
lowed by the ink lines. The middle shade color (#4) may be disregarded
for this example. At the top of the S curve, lay in a band of shade. {2yickly
come back with water, and blend the bottom of the band into the base
color. Repeat the procedure in the opposite direction at the bottom of the
S curve (see fig. 127). It may take some practice before this looks as clean
as one would like. Using a straightedge will help regulate the blending.
Many painters agree this method is fa r easier to do than its opaque coun-
terpart, particularly when performed continentally. When using the wash
method on vertical scenery, it is often difficult to blend upward, or against
the flow of gravity. I f possible, lay the scenery on its side, so that the mold-
ing is runni ng vertically. This will allow bl endi ng from left to right and
right to left.
147
Figure 127
148
Another alternative is to paint the molding with the dry brush
method, which is particularly useful when a textural look is needed. This
begins as did the wash method with the laying in of t he base, followed
by inking lines. From here, either opaque or wash versions of the original
colors may be used. The colors are applied in the order as specified on the
diagram. Use a straightedge for assistance as, despite the textural feel,
there should be a crisp orderliness to the exercise (see fig. 128).
Of the t hree alternative approaches, the wash method would be used
when painting molding that has evident wood graining or is made of mar-
ble (sec fig. 129; a color version is in the gallery). r or wood, perform all of
the initial color toning and graining first, and then proceed to the use of
washes to create the molding's shape.
Painting a molding out of marble where the compelling characteris-
tics of the stone must be in evidence requires the painter paint the marble
as if it were a flat slab lacking a light source and, consequently, without
any evidence of depth or protrusion. Allow the paint to dry, and do not
gloss glaze. Using a tint and shade of the dominant color in the marble,
thin them to wash transparencies. If necessary, make a cross-sectional
Figure 128
Figure 129
149
sketch of the cross-section of the molding, and determine the li ght source.
Remember that to approach opacity with a wash, apply additional coats.
When working both the tint and shade washes, have an extra, clean brush
ready and charged with water in order to blend areas of the washes into
the background painting.
Non:: If a gloss glaze must be used on any molding, keep it weak.
Any reflections resulting from overt glossi ness will most surely destroy
the illusions of protrusion and recession created.
The molding depicted in figure 130 makes use of a large concave (or
cove) pattern with a half-round section toward the bottom edge. The same
colors used for the Roman agee were used here. The widths and place-
ments of the color bands produced the alternative shape.
Figure 130
Reversing the Light Source
Although cornice moldings are traditionally located at the tops of wall
sections where the wall and ceiling meet, it is not al ways possible-due to
srage-lighting concerns-to put ceilings on stage settings. In most rooms
with ceilings, the light sources emanate from below unless, of course, there
is a skylight or some form of indirect ~ c o v e Hghting. Therefore, real istically,
light source(s) will be shooting upward, not downward as in the preceding
150
examples. The agee and large cove moldings in figure 131 have been painted as
if the Ught source was coming from below. The chair rails painted below each
of the cornices would normally be located below the six-foot level on a setting
and therefore adhere to the basic principle of interior light-source placement
and are painted accordingly to reflect their placement as being below the source
ofillumination. When painting faux moldings on a setting whose action takes
place both at night and during the day, it may be easiest to render the molding
as ifl it from above. Conversely, if most of the play takes place at night, paint
cornices as iflit from below.
Figure 131
12. Panels and Posts
This section showcases the painting of multifaceted wooden decor, using
mostly tbinned down colors and washes. Of secondary focus is any attempt
to replicate a specific type of wood, which can be achieved primarily through
specific color choices, graining characteristics, and the subsequent inclusion of
additional painting steps. As such, for these examples we will use colors asso-
ciated with golden oak without busying the illusion with attempts at a strict
adherence to grain duplication. The colors employed are
151
1. base-opaque (orange added to raw sienna)
2. "pseudo-graining" wash (burnt sienna)
3. highlight wash (base + yellow + white)
4. flash wash (highlight + orange + white)
5. middle shade wash (burnt sienna + purple)
6. deep shade wash (burnt umber)
7. shadow wash (burnt umber + purple + black)
Note the front view drawing of the panel and post, as accompanied by
their cross-sections (fig. 132, a and b). While the poSt, or more accurately
bas-relief baluster, comprises a series of rounded protrusions and recessions,
the panel is somewhat simpler by comparison. It resembles a cut stone sur-
rounded by a protruding half-round molding, which is further distinguished
by a peripheral groove. The two lower motifs arc slightly protruding pyramids,
gently recessed from the surrounding wooden surface. The first step is to rep-
licate the facets of the front-view drawing.

b
Figure 132
Step 1. Base and Ink (Fig. 133)
Base in the entire area. After it dries, pencil in all facets, and veri fy with
a thin, black indelible marker.
Step 2. Graining and Wood "Character" Wash (Fig. 134)
152
Brush clean water over the area(s) to be worked. Using a cut-bristle brush
or a lay-in brush, stroke the burnt sienna wash in the intended grain dircc-
Figure 133
1
Figure 134
153
tion. Do nOt twist the brush or get overly fancy, but the amount of grain-
ing wash should be applied in varying amounts, that is, some areas heavier
than others. Do not overly mix, but let it work against the background
water. While the graining wash is still wet or tacky, hold the edge of a
small block of foam rubber perpendicular to the direction of the grain-
ing wash, and skip it quickly over the painting surface. This will affect an
appearance of aged shellac and/or a cross-cut appearance made by the
saw blade when the wood was milled. Experiment with the various prints
that are possible with the foam rubber. As the post and corner pyramids
do not contain the broad expanses as found on the panel, avoid using the
foam-rubber step on them.
Step 3. H alf- Round Molding Highlig ht Wash (Fig. 135)
154
One may begin with any of the four sides. For the purpose of inst ruction,
let us begin with the left-hand vertical piece. The light source will be
Figure 135
emanating from the top right. As we will learn further on when paint-
ing a reflective object, or that object possessing a surf..-tce sheen, placing a
highlight (or lowlight) at the very edge of a protrusion- as in the case of
a brick- has a tendency to make it appear raised but also denotes a raised
flat surface. The round moldi ng in this exercise is just that: rounded. Its
cross-sectional view bears this our, as no parr of its protrusion is flat. So,
in order to make the molding seem round, place a vertical highlight line
slightly in from the molding's outer edge. Go back immediately with brush
containing clean water, and lighrly soften the edges of t he highlight line
by overlapping it with the brush. Proceed wit h the remaining three sides.
Step 4. Half- Round Molding Middle Shade Wash (Fig. 136)
Following the same procedure as with the highlight wash in step 3, add
the middle shade (burnt sienna + purple) wash on the parts of the half-
round moldings facing away from the li ght source.
Figure 136
155
Step 5. "Cut Stone" Washes (Figs. 137 and 138)
156
High- and lowlight washes will wrap around the beveled sections of the
wooden panel much as they did in the stone version. The difference here lies
in a decision concerning the strength and specific angle of the light source.
To truly give this panel a convincing sense of protrusion, the two beveled
sides facing the light source-the top and right bevels-must be painted
as if one is being hit a litde more direcdy than the other (see fig. 137). In
other words, if the light is hitting the top bevel a bit more direcdy (closer to
90 degrees) than the right bevel, the top bevel will appear as the brighter of
the two. Using the highlight wash, paint in the top bevel, and facilitate its
coverage with an extra brush containing clear water (Option: use the edge
of the foam-rubber block here to match the overall wood characteristics.)
Diluting a wash with water will gready lessen its strength. Now use the
highlight wash on the right bevel, using more water than was used on the
Figure 137
top bevel. The right bevel should still have enough of a gentle glow as to
distinguish it from the central flat surf."lce of the panel's cut-stone shape
(see fig. 138). Note that there must be a discernible difference in the two
highlight washes where they join each other at the top-right beveled cor-
ner. Proceed accordingly using the middle shade wash and water on the left
and bottom bevels. The bottom bevel, as directly opposite from the top and
brightest bevel, wiU receive the darkest cast. Once again, the foam-rubber
sponge may used for pattern consistency, and the bottom-left beveled cor-
ner wiU indicate a difference in value of the two shade washes.
Step 6. Cut Stone Indented and Half-Round Peripheral Edges (Fig. 139)
Using the highlight and middle shade washes without additional water,
crisply paint on the inner cut-stone raised section and the recessed groove
that surrounds the half-round molding.
Figure 138
157
Figure 139
Step 7. Flashes and Deep Shade (Fig. 140)
Facilitating with water if needed, add sciect ive strokes of the flash wash
(#4) in the center of some highlight lines. l hese flashes can be quite dra-
matic, so do not overuse. Mixed with some water, the flash can also be
used, if necessary, to further brighten the top bevel. Use the deep shade
in contrast to the flash color. When all has dried, try using some of the
highlight wash and water on the shaded sides of the panel f.'lcets. This will
lend a sense of reflection, or sheen, to the wooden surf.'lce (see section 13,
"Reflective Metallic
Step 8. Cast Shadows (Fig. 141)
158
Using the shadow wash, cast shadows from the inner cut-stone rectangle
onto the left and bottom bevels. Also, paint in shadows as cast from the
half-round moldings onto the top and right bevels.
Figure 140
Step 9. Cutting Lines
Carefully, using a very thin, black marker, delineate the perimeters of the
half-round molding. These lines are referred to as cu//ing lines. 1bey will
dean and cri sp up the exercise, if performed lightly. Avoid making the
lines too heavy, as a coloring-book appearance will result.
Completed Example. Post and Pyramids (Fig. 142)
The bas-relief post and pyramids are completed. (A color version of fig.
142 is in the gallery.) Note. however, that the post has been painted to
indicate more of a shiny finish. This difrerence will serve as a segue to the
next topic.
159
Figure 141
Figure 142
160
13. Reflective Metallic Obj ects
Metallic objects may seem difficult to render because of their reflective
quality. This need not be the case, for creating the illusion of a shiny surf.'lce
is relatively simple and can be quite fun to do. And, the objects do not have to
appear to be made of metal but rather any shiny materiaL The word metallic is
used as it applies to typical scenic needs, such as an ornate picture frame, can-
delabra, gilded architect ural piece, that are commonly either made of metal or
covered with lamina, as in gold leaf. The key is to capture the essence of reflec-
tion or sheen, stopping short in the pursuit of total (distracting) conviction.
The one pitfall in painting a shiny object (other than a mirror or other flat sur-
face) is allowing the attempts at reflection to overwhelm the revelation of the
object's form. It is helpful to think of the overall procedure as being divided
into two stages: first, render the object so that it looks three-dimensional, and,
second, create the essence of reflection or sheen.
To draw a further distinction, there is a difference between reflection and
sheen. A painter may likely be call ed upon more often to the paint an obj ect as
being shiny rather than reflective. A shiny surf.'lce glimmers and reflects lighl.
A reflecting surf.'lce (mirror-like) will refl ect more light and also images. Take
the old example of the shiny apple, the one in which a four-pane window is
reflected on it. Technically, because the object (the window) is reflected on the
apple's shiny skin, the apple should rightfully be labeled "the reflecting apple,"
not the shiny one. So being reflective, as in reflecting what surrounds one,
is really a step beyond shiny, which only reflects light. Therefore, when one
must truly paint an object as being reflective, three overall stages come into
play: make it look 3-D, give it a shine, and then reflect somet hing on it. It is
much easier to stop short of the third step, because painting reflections can be
replete with infinite variables. What color is the object being reflected? Is it
dark or light in tone? To what degree will its shape be distorted? How close is
the object to the reflecting surface? I s the object being reflected also reflective?
And on and on almost to the point where principles of light and shadow are
all but thrown out the window. The painter will discover a hazard in miscon-
struing this type of painting for which there is really only one rule: that there
arc no rules. 111e painter could, to a certain degree, become befuddled in an
arena where the placements of tints, flashes, and shades can be juxtaposed to
the point of becoming almost absurd usages of light and shadow. Better to
untangle the visual puzzle, and discard what is extraneous and what, in the
end, obfuscates form and character by way of overembellishment and subse-
quent visual distraction.
161
In painting reflective metallic object s, the scene painter should take a cue
from the cartoonist. That is, be bold in technique: slash on staccato bursts
of flash colors and shade; keep experimenting until the essence of a shiny
surface is captured. Viable research is literally at one's fingertips. Because
of advancements in color scanning, newspapers and magazines have become
great places to study photographs of new cars on slick pavement, chromed
appliances, gra nite counter tops, windows, mirror-clad buildi ngs, cellular
phones, lipstick containers, and the list is endless. Another good source is
the packaging for a variety of toys, such as ones featuring metallic robots,
high-tech elect ronic games, and many others. Study how configurations of
line, simply and magically, yet far beyond the window on the apple, create a
shiny or reflecrive illusion.
Painting shiny/reflective objects will be broken down into two different
procedures: the graphic-arts approach and the scene-paint ing approach. The
graphic-arts approach is labeled as such because graphic art ists tend to work
on a much-smaller scale than their scene-pai nting counterparts and create
many of their illusions using airbrushing techniques. And whi le the effects of
airbrushing can be achieved on a larger scale through adept spraying, the size
of shiny and reflecting objects for t he stage tend to a smaller size on which
accurate spraying could be unwieldy. As an airbrush- and spraying- are fre-
quently used to create a misty gradation of colors, one can approximate t he
graphic-arts approach through the careful wet blending of colors, like that
process done for the graded wet blend. The scene-painting approach is con-
siderably easier to perform as it, like foliage, relies more on a wet-upon-dry
procedure, rather than a bl ending of wet colors.
For the upcoming lessons, bronze powders may be added to the paint
colors. Prepare the powders to a paste consistency by combining them with
a little alcohol and a double-strength binder. A clear vinyl binder is the best
to use as it least affects the clarity and brilliance of the powders, as compared
with other binders that may dull or change the initial colors. Little by little.
add more water until the desired wash consistency is attained. (Ifused alone.
the powders should be brought to the consistency of working paint. When
used as a glaze or mixed with paint, a wash consistency is best.) Add the
prepared bronze-powder solution a very little at a time to the already mixed
paints. It may be added to all of the colors, but very little powder solution is
needed. Tryout the mixture on a spare painting surface. 'The metaUic powders
should float to the surf.--tce as the painting dries without obscuring the (olor of
the paint. Adjust the ratio of bronze powder to paint, if necessary. or avoid its
addition altoget her.
162
The painting objects found in the following two lessons can be produced
using any f.'lmily of colors, such as, yellows for gold and brass, grays for silver,
brown-oranges for copper. As there is an often blurred distinction between
shiny and reflective using any grouping of colors, whether blues, greens, u r ~
pies, or reds, the following generic list of opaque colors should be made to
render any object, metal or not, that possesses a sheen.
1. base color
2. middle shade
3. deep shade
4. tint
5. flash light
6. off-white (white with slight addition of t int)
7. shadow wash (no bronze powder)
Graphic-Arts Approach (Mostly Wet-upon-Wet)
The drawing of the rectangular ingot in figure 143 will illustrate this
approach. It has a predominantly flat, reflective surface with angled corners
and surrounded enti rely by an edge that has a stepped-down groove. Through
observation, one can discover that a feature common to capturing the essence
of a reflecting surface involves nothing more than an illusion of an horizon
line that is silhouetted somewhat, as ifby a setting sun. The shape of the hori-
o INGOT 0
Figure 143
163
zan line may be almost straight or gently curved, as this would be determined
not only by the degree of flatness of the reAecting surf:'lce but also by the shape
of the object, or "hori zon
n
that is being reAected.
Step 1. Ink Perimeter (Fig. 144)
Prepare a template of the object, and transfer it to the painting surt:'lce
by inking in its perimeter shape. Choose a light source (top right, in this
case), as it will come into play to a degree when the grooved perimeter
edge is indicated.
Step 2. Wet Blending the "Sky" (Fig. 145)
l he "sky" will occupy one-half to three-fifths of the surt:'lce area. Using
the middle shade, paint in a top band of the ingot. Leave the bottom of
this band quite wet and somewhat irregular. Immediately proceed with
the base color, applying it slightly below the bottom of the middle-shade
band. Assuring that the bottom of this base color band is wet, feather!
blend the two bands together. This procedure is like that used when wet
blending the cornice-molding colors using the opaque method. Bring a
daub of base color up to an upper portion of the still-wet middle shade.
- - ~
Fi gure 144 Figure 145
Step 3. Complete t he Sky (Fig. 146)
164
Just below the bottom edge of the base color band, generously apply a
t int band, blending its top edge with the bottom of the base-color band.
Finish the "sky" at the horizon by adding in, then blending, a band of
flash light. What should resul t is a gradation of colors working from the
middle shade down to the flash light. /II/ow the flash-light band to dry
before proceeding to the horizon line. The gradation of the sky can be misty
and visually fluid, or there may be some hints at striations of color, pro-
vided the striations are very subtle and mostly blended. If a striated look
is intended, attempt to give a unifying line motif, such as a gentle curve,
to the striations.
Step 4. H orizon (Fig. 147)
Once the flash-light band has dried, create the horizon line using the
deep shade color. The ends of the horizon can curve up or down, while
the overall line should have a slight irregularity. (If the sky features stria-
tions, the line of the horizon should pick up their motif.) Also note that
the horizon might possess a double silhouette line. This can suggest the
irregularity of the unknown shape being reflected. As with the sky proce-
dure, be sure to leave the bottom of the deep shade band wet.
l ~ _ ~
Figure 146 Figure 147
Step 5. "Ground" (Fig. 148)
Continue the color-band-and-blending procedure using in order: the
middle shade, base, and tint. As with the top of the sky, bring a little of
the base and middle shade into the still-wet tint area. Do not overdo this
intermingling of colors, as the result should not be busy.
165
Step 6. Edging (Fig. 149)
To suggest the grooved perimeter edging, use the tint and flash light on
the top and right areas where the groove f.,ces the light source. Do the
same with darker colors on the left and bottom edges.
Figure 148 Figure 149
Figure 150
Steps 7 and 8. Contrasts and Off-White (Fig.1S0)
166
The contrast step, if done minimally and selectively, will enhance t he
appearance of reflection. Juxtapose a few strokes of highlights onto t he
left and bottom grooved edges and some low lights onto the top and right
edges. Add a few soft blotches of opposing colors to the flat surface areas
of the ingot. Then, use small dabs and lines of the off-white sparingly to
point up bright areas. As the off-white can be quite potent, it is best to use
it only where there already exists some of the flash light, rather than as
an opposing color to the darker areas. (See also the color version of figure
150 in the gallery.)
Step 9. Shadow Wash (Optional)
The only reason to incorporate this step is to remove the plane of the ingot
from its surrounding area, as ifi[ were protruding.
Scene-Painting Approach (Mostly Wet-upon-Dry)
This approach takes a somewhat less-literal interpretation of shiny and
reflective surfaces. And while its graphic-arts counterpart is dependent more
on the wet blending of colors, here we will rely on bolder contrasts that are
largely achieved through staccato and energetic sweeps of the brush. The firs t
intention is to give the object a three-dimensional/ook.
Step 1. Sketch and Ink (Fig. 151)
Sketch, then ink in the object. It is important that all detail facets be
inked in so that they lightly show through the base-paint application.
(This object was first drawn on brown paper and then transferred by char-
coal using the pounce method, although the painting area can be gridded
and transferred to scale by freehand draWing. It must still be ink-verified
in order to begin painting.)
Step 2. Base Lay-In (Fig. 152)
Slightly thin down the base color to allow the inking to show through,
and base in the entire object.
Step 3. Highlight (Tint; Fig. 153)
Be sure to thoroughly understand the shapes of the object before proceed-
ing. Determine a light source. (For continuity of instruction, the light
source is assigned as emanating from top right.) Select the protruding
surf.'lce edges of the object that face the light source, and quickly paint
on the tint on the appropriate sides of the ra ised edges (sec fig. 153).
Strokes and lines should not be of uniform length or width but should
taper or blossom accordingly as a curve is approached or worked away
from, respectively. Note that placements of the tint, as when painting the
167
Figure 151 Figure 152
shiny wooden post (see fig. 142), are not necessarily located at the object's
edge but often indented from it. And, because of their refl ective quaUty,
shiny objects may exhibit a variety of tones that stop and start abruptly,
leave gaps between sweeps ofline, or produce dots and dashes of brilliant
highlight next to deepest shade.
Step 4. Middle Shade (Fig. 154)
With the mi ddle shade, color those areas sloping away from the light
source.
Step 5. Flash Light and Deep Shade (Fig. 155)
The flash-light color may now be applied to heighten thc brilliance of the
light source. With quick, graceful sweeps, apply the flash on top of por-
tions of the tint areas. Do not regulate the sizes of these strokes. Follow
by enriching the shaded areas with the deep shade.
Steps 6 and 7. Reflective Contrasts and Accent s (Fig. 156)
168
These next steps move the object further into an illusion of super sheen or
reflect ion. Using t he tint, flash, middle shade, deep shade, and base colors,
oppose the dictations called for with a top-right light source, and place
Figure 153 Figure 154
Figure 155 Figure 156
169
some of these colors in the areas that would usually be opposite. Note, for
example, the effect of simply placing opposing dots on the lower, barber
pole-shaped area of the object in figure 156. Do no! overdo this step with
detailed images of reflection. Lastly, use a small, round brush or fingert ip
dipped in the off-white, and apply selective bright accents to the higher
points. As the brightest color is always the most potent and has a tendency
to "pop," use it sparingly. This can be opposed with small dots of the deep
shade. (See also the color version of figure 156 in the gallery.)
Step 8. Shadow Wash (Optional)
The object itself, due to its shiny nature, will not normally show within
its shape evidence of shadows cast .. Therefore, only cast shadows of t he
object onto the background paint ing. (Although optional, applying a very
finely spatter with shadow wash antiques the finish.)
Individual talents and personal preferences vary from painter to
painter. Some have a flair for painting fol iage, others for drapery or mar-
ble. But by and large, the most difficult surface to render for the average
painter is the reflective surface. The painter needs to tell him- or herself
simply, "Just do it!" Don't overanalyze the job, and, like many an actor
learns, there is a time to "get out of your head." Each reflective objecr one
paints may have drastically different placements of color, caused simply
by variations in the surface shapes and contours. There is no fundamental
rule to follow when painting these surfaces, except perhaps the rule com-
mon to all forms of scene painting: Do not overwork the job. Developing
the skill to effectively paint reflect ive surf.'lces may take some time, and
ongoing observation of real and painted shiny objects is essential for SllC-
cess. But eventually, the invested time will payoff, and the painter knows
the point at which t he painting begins to work.
14. Draperies
Painting drapery can be somewhat challenging because the bold wet-
blending strokes involved normally cannot be duplicated with the safety and
security of the painter's straightedge as a guide. Painting drapery requires t he
rendering of irregular surface contours-gende folds and artistically gathered
pleats-that must appear soft and inviting, not stiff, austere, and rigid.
As scene painting is an overlapping process, progressing from the back-
ground to the foreground, painted draperies are some of the last things added
170
to the interior setting. Consequently, if draperies are to cover a French door
or window through which is seen a yard or hillside, the drapery is the last to
be painted because it overlays all exterior views and window panes. Painting
draperies, as opposed to hanging real ones, creates its own dilemma r e g r d ~
ing style. If working on a truly realistic show, it behooves tbe designer to use
real draperies and/or place painted draperies far enough upstage so as to be
convincing from a distance. Painted draperies in proximity to the front of the
stage asks the audience to suspend their disbelief regarding the drapes when
all else on the stage may be realistic. For more "magical" genres like musicals
or opera, a suspension of disbelief is not required, and t he draperies can be as
fancifu l or stylized as the rest of the production.
As is the case in painting woodwork, moldings, and numerous other
objects, wash, opaque, or combination methods may be used to paint drap-
eries, depending on the extent and richness of background areas that must
be overlapped or opaquely covered. The following lesson uses drapery colors
thinned a little (not quite a wash, still basically opaque) to aid in blending and
allow the initial inking to show through. The fringe colors remain opaque.
(Bronze powders may be added to the fringe colors.) The use of a "flash" color
translates as a tint made for a tint. In the following list of colors, #3 is a tint of
#1, #4 is a tintof#3, and #9 is a tint of#8.
1. drapery base color
2. drapery shade
3. drapery tint
4. drapery flash
5. fringe base
6. fringe texture
7. fringe shade
8. fringe tint
9. fri nge flash
10. off-white
11. shadow wash
Step I. Ch,]k ,nd Ve<iry (Fig. 157)
Sketch in with chalk the overall shape and arrangement of the drapery, and
verify with pencil (see fig. 157). As some of the following painting steps
can use varying degrees of water for blending, avoid inking the folds and
pleats, as their outlines may permeate the watered-down paints and create
a cartooned, or coloring book, look to the exercise. Figure 157 is meant to
171
Figure 157
suggest one piece of fabric that has been gathered and hung at two points
called hubs. Featured is a large, hanging center swag. which sags typically
like a valance. To each side hang vertical folds. The basic arrangement of
these vertical folds is the way many draperies fall . Providing the drapery
with some tassels and fringe not only add to its luxurious appearance but
also help reinforce the shapes of its vertically hanging folds.
Step 2. Lay In Base (Fig. 158)
172
NOT E: Step 2 may work better for some painters and than others. Begin-
ning by coating the area with water may create more problems than
intended. One might wish to follO'W an initial application of base color
with water. Whichever the procedure, it is necessary to have a bucket of
clean water handy to facilitate some instances of color integration.
Begin by lightly coating the large horizontal swag area with water.
Mask off any prepainted background areas as needed to avoid accidental
running and drips. Lay in some drapery-base color (see fig. 158). Cover a
protruding fold and a recessing one. As the drapery may be broken down
into a series of folds and recessions, it might prove advantageous to base
in the entire horizontal swag at once. The use of water with the colors is
Figure 158
essentially working with washes, and the arsenal of colors will increase.
For example, an opaque color is more vibrant and rich than its wash coun-
terpart. Therefore, laying on a wash of the base, allowing it to dry, and
then applying to it the opaque base will result in two different values of
the same color, simply because one was watered down (i.e., uwashed o u t ~
more than the other. When one appreciates this possibility with all colors
used in a project, the painter's palette expands considerably.
Step 3. Dcape,y Shade (Fig. 159)
Follow immediately with the drapery shade and paint in the background,
or recessed, folds. This color is not so much a traditional shade as a fairly
dark, rich color somewhat loosely associated with the base color. The
shade will blend a little with the wet base but the idea is not to overwork
any blending. Use water, if needed, to facilitate.
Steps 4 and 5. Highlight and Cast Shadows (Fig. 160)
While the base color is still moist and tacky, brush on the drapery-tint
color on those sections of the protruding folds that face the light source.
173
Figure 159
Fi gure 160
174
Blend some strokes more thoroughly into the base color than others, and
f.1.cilitate the blending with a little water. Cast shadows from protrud-
ing folds downward onto the folds below. Remember to shape a shadow
according to both the fold that caused it and the shape of what it strikes.
Step 6. Base, Shade, and HighLghts of Vertical Folds (Fig. 161)
Apply a Httle water, and strike in the drapery base color on protruding and
receding folds of the vertical folds in the same manner as the hori zontal
swag was performed. Add the shade in the recessed areas between t he
folds. Apply highlights, and blend accordingly. Vary the width of st rokes,
as this free-hanging, vertical counterpart to the swag should not appear
tubular or rigid.
Figure 161
Step 7. Drapery Flash (Fig. 162)
Once all drapery sections have dried, certain areas will receive the flash.
Choose these areas as t hey relate to the light source, and add a little water.
Boldly but not overwhelming, brush on the flash, blending furt her with
water if the appearance is too intense. The flash, when added judiciously,
lives up to its name and even provides a sense of sheen to the fabric.
175
Figure 162
Step 8. Fringe and Tassel Base (Fig. 163)
Lay in the base color on the fringe and tassel. Note the tapering of the fringe
where it gathers up at the right and left ends of the horizontal swag.
Step 9. Fringe and Tassel Texture (Fig. 164)
Using a liner brush's crisp chisel point, jot in f.1.irly uneven clusters while
being careful not to cover up too much of the base color. The stroke uses
the wrist in quick, downward flicks. 1he fringe is made up of individually
pleated threads, all of which hang straight down. Therefore, the strokes
should notfoll at an angle but as close as possible to true vertical. With this step
and step 10, the strokes should extend slightly below the bottom edges of
the base-color band of the fringe and tassel.
Step 10. Fringe and Tassel Shade and Highlights (Fig. 165)
176
Working in uneven clusters, paint on the fringe and tassel shades. To a
certain degree, keep in mind the light source, but do not be dictated by it.
Having the shade strokes on the fringe areas closest to the light source is
desirable, as are some highlight stroke on sides away from the light. Uni-
form shading and highHghting flatten out the folded look of the drapery
and make the fringe appear stiff.
Figure 163
Figure 164
177
Figure 165
NOTE: This partial juxtaposing of dark paint into lighter areas and
vice versa carries the same purpose when painring reflect ive metallic
objects: to lend a shiny appearance to the tassels and fringe (see section
13, "Reflective Metallic Objects") .
Step 11. Flash and Off-White Accents (Fig. 166)
Use the fringe flash mostly on areas containing the tint to heighten their
sheen. A few strokes with flash in darker sections are encouraged. Further,
selectively highlight some flash areas with the off-white. The brighter the
color, such as, flash to off-white, the less it is used. Applying toO much of
either color or too much of both colors at the same time quickly destroys
their intended effect. Keep the use of these two colors to an absolute mini-
mum, and be discerning as to the areas enhanced.
Step 12. Shadow Wash (Fig. 167)
178
Complete the draperies by using the shadow wash to paint shadows cast
from the tassels and fringe .
Figure 166
Figure 167
179
To give a nap or surface texture to the drapery material, gently scumble
the strokes during steps 3 and 4 with a wide liner or f.'lntail brush. For pat-
terned material, avoid using a stencil in its entirety because it will only flat-
ten out the fabric. Use only pieces of a stencil (perhaps an extra one that has
been cut up), and apply the brocade design in sections with washes. Should
the use of a stencil be impractical because of the tightness or intricacies of
the folds, use a small detail brush with varied washes to capture the essence
of the fabric's print (see fig. 168; a color version is in the gallery).
Figure 168
15. Foliage
Because foliage is a product of nature and not made by humans, it is very
difficult to render convincingly. TIle big question is, "Should one even try?"
Probably not, as there is nothing more dist racting to an audience than some-
thing on the stage that is supposed to be alive, other than the actor. Animals
steal focus. How about a tree that looks real? Can't one imagine the audience
wondering, "How in the world do they keep that tree alive in here?" Fortu-
nately, the audience is forgiving-but only up to a point. They will accept some-
thing in pretense as being real simply because they know it is not. Patrons go to
180
the theater to sec and hear an actor pretend in the hopes they will vicariously
be affected by the plight of the character. The moment something on the stage
becomes too real, distraction creeps in. If, for one moment, the audience feels
the actor-person is suffering instead of the character he or she is playing, con-
cern and discomfort spread like wild fire, and the play, as they say, is done.
What is the alternative? Only present plays that take place indoors? Board
up the windows in the set so the trees outside are not seen? Certainly not.
However, the old saying "Only God can make a tree" is a creed that should
be followed by the wise designer when creating the scenery for a realistic play.
Nonrealistic plays, vis-a-vis foliage, can indicate countless, even other-worldly,
manifestations of foliage and are a piece of cake to create as compared to a
realistic portrayal. It is often more convincing on the stage to show the eJfocts
of foliage on the locale rather than the foliage itself. The use oflighting pro-
jections and leaf gobos-perforated metal plates that light passes through (see
fig. 169)-can be used to simulate sunlight and moonlight passing through
foliage that can be, from the audience's perspective, out of sight lines. Couple
this dappling oflight with the sound of birds, frogs, and crickets, and an envi-
ronment is suggested far more successfully than it can be duplicated .
:. GOBOS .:.
Figure 169
181
Should the appearance of realistic trees be necessary, t hey should be
assigned, much like drapery, to an area far upstage, or they can be diffused
through a visual filter. The use of scrims and cut drops are tremendously help-
ful in creating a wooded scene, as they effect a haze before the more distant
trees, add to the illusion of depth, and thus render the painted fol iage more
convincing (see section 19, "Drops and Scrims"). Despite, however, the aid of
a diffusing layer of gauze, one should first learn how to paint the essence of
foliage and trees efficiently in a realistic manner. This skill, even if never used
in a realistic setting, will better equip the painter with a starting point from
which to embellish foliage characteristics and alter the procedure so as to be
proficient at nonrealistic treatments.
Painting foliage employs any number of earth colors and brush strokes,
depending on the type of tree to be reproduced. Varying shades of green, in
addition to purple, come into play to lend layers to the overlapping blocks of
green. Once a verdant tree is successfully painted, simply change its colors to
reds and oranges to render that same tree for an autumn scene. Several tree-
bark colors arc also used. Devote some time to researching the characteristics
of different trees. Study outdoor magazines, children's books, calendars, ani-
mated Walt Disney movies, and real foliage.
These are the colors to be used for the following lesson, though not neces-
sarily in numerical order:
1. purple wash (translucent)
2. dark green
3. middle green {predominant leaf color}
4. light green
5. flash light green
6. bark base color
7. bark temperature color
8. bark shade
9. bark tint
10. bark flash
11. bark reflection wash (or cool tint)
12. shadow wash
Each painting step involves a wet-on-dry approach and so is performed
only aftera previous step has dried. Painting foliage requi res a freedom of stroke.
This freedom will come only with confidence, which is born from practice.
Even painters whose forte is foliage may have to "get into the rhythm" of
182
painting first. Because foliage demands freedom of stroke, it is chall enging
to paint well without limbering up and going through some brush warm-ups,
such as, reacquainting oneself with the varied strokes possible by using flat,
side, and end prints, and doing some flicking strokes to create tapering. 'These
variations in the profile shapes can convey quite effectively the essence ofleaf
shapes (see fig. 170).
Figure 170
Trees of all types can be duplicated by varying the leaf and bark colors,
angle of the brush print, the positioning and shape of leaves, and the charac-
teristics of the trunk and branches. Always experiment with a technique on a
spare surface before attacking the actual painting surface.
Step 1. Sketch and Ink (Fig. 171)
The background painting {colors for the background are not listed above}
has been laid in using a graded wet blend that approaches its lightest hue
at the chosen horizon. Sketch and ink in the tree(s), and label with chalk
the foliage areas (Le., background foliage, middle foliage, and the like).
Note that islands ofleaves are created rather than an amorphous scatter-
ing. These islands appear to gently hang and to varying degrees overlap
one another, and any distant trees should be painted using only the purple
and the dark green thinned to translucent washes.
183
184
'\
Figure 171
Noti ce there has not been an attempt to render the entire treetop. l11c
area to be painted was isolated, based on the relative size of t he pai nting
surface. Attempting to capture the entire tree on such a relatively small
area would dwarf its effect, tighten its airiness, and clutter the painting
stroke. Because of the enormity of trees in relation to human size, a tree's
full scope is rarely depicted on the stage unless the entire tree is seen in
the distance.
Non :: All objects in the outdoors, regardless of their acrual surface
colors, gradually assume a purplish gray overtone as they appear closer to
the horizon. They become fainter and fainter, and so a wash is often used
to achieve an illusion of objects in the distance. 1he wash allows a glow of
sky to show through. Using an opaque color for faraway objects-depend-
ing on the richness of the color-looks heavy and pulls the distant object
toward the foreground, thus negating the iUusion of distance.
Step 2. Purple Wash (Fig. 172)
With a wide liner, fantail, or lay-in brush (depending on the relative size
of the tree to be painted), use splashes of the purple wash to lay in the
background foliage located on the f.'lr side of the tree. Tree branches are not
painted in this step. Allow to dry. Permit bits of sky and background foliage
to show through during this and the following steps as you work toward the
foreground of the tree. Blocking out too much sky lends a heaviness to the
tree and renders it cluttered and artificial. Too little color is f.'lr better than
too much. Do not overwork the amount or shapes of leaves, bur note a few
float on their own and are not connected to an island or clump ofleaves.
Figure 172
Step 3. Dark Green Background (Fig. 173)
Apply blotches of background foliage with the dark green. As wit h the
purple wash, tree branches are disregarded; be careful not to paint over
185
Figure 173
them but also don't be overly concerned if you do in areas. If you have
trouble seeing the ink lines, re-ink now and/or slightly thin down the
dark green color. As with the purple, a few dark green may be
seen.
Step 4. Bark Lay-In
Lay in the trunk base color, letting the branches overlap the green and
purple masses.
Step 5. Bark Temperat ure ( Fig. 174)
186
Dry brush the bark temperature color on all areas of the limbs and trunk.
This step is done very quickly, with strokes being quite bold.
Figure 174
Step 6. Bark Highlights and Lowlights (Fig. 175)
After choosing a light source (l ikely the sun), use a medium-loaded liner
brush to paint on irregular trunk-branch highl ights and lowlights, often
drifting into a dry brush stroke. Note the varying widths of application.
Step 7. Middle Green (Fig. 176)
Lay in the middle green color, in some areas overlapping the previous
green and again leaving bits of sky to show through. Use middle green the
most, as it represents the basic leaf color. Be sure to cover sections of the
branches and trunk with this green. Dabbing at t he surface with the sides
and end of the brush while changing direction with the wrist produces a
nice vari ety of leaf contours.
187
Figure 175
Step 8. Light Green
188
Dab the light green on various clumps of middle green while slightly cov-
ering more of the branches and here and there on the t runk. Keep t he
light green toward the tOp half of the middle green dusters in an effort to
reinforce the (sun)light coming from above and to one side.
NOTE: Reinforcing the light source (in most cases the sun) on foli-
age is not a straightforward task because of the high degree of ambient,
or reflected, light outdoors. One can, however, shift the majority of light
green and flash-light greens toward a particular side of the tree. High-
lights and lowlights on the branches and trunk greatly assist in establish-
ing the direction of the light source.
Figure 176
Steps 9 and 10. Leaf Flashes, Sprigs, Bark Flash Tint, Cool Highlight,
and Cast Shadows ( Fig. 177)
Flick on leafy accents with the Rash-light green. Be selective, as this color
should be used sparingly. Each stroke is done very quickly. With a small
brush, use the bark base, shade, and tint to create sprigs emanating from
the trunk and branch areas. These three colors are nor necessarily used on
the same sprig but, rather, to paim a sprig a singular color located in shaded
or brighter lit areas of the tree. Add the bark flash tint to the t runk and
branch areas to suggest sunlight dappling certain areas. On some shaded
areas of the bark, sparingly dry brush on some cool tint wash to indicate
the ambient, or reflected, light prevalent outdoors. Lastly, and optionally,
add shadow wash to any bark areas di rectly affected by an overhanging
dump ofleaves (see fig. 177; a color version is in the gallery) .
189
Figure 177
Alternative Methods for Foliage
Foliage with recognizable leaves can be painted by stamping. Cut several
leaves of a specific design Ollt of synthetic sponges. Follow the painting steps
outlined above. When applying the middle green (step 7), use the stamp spar-
ingly on the edges of its masses of color. As the foliage tones lighten toward
the foreground, use the stamp more frequently while turning its positioning
for variation. Occasionally, do a partial print so the leaves will not look as if
they are pressed against an invisible glass shield (see fig. 178).
Adding Rowers to trees and shrubs can also involve using a stamp. The
painting of recognizable blossoms will take place when the application of the
middle green and latter stages of overlap occur (see fig. 179). For a more styl-
ized or ethereal leafy appearance, spraying foliage with a template can be very
effective (see fig. 180). Flip the template over, and vary its position for each
spraying; also, change paint colors (see fig. 181).
190
Figure 178
16. Clouds, Mountains, and Water
Along with painting foliage, the scene painter may frequently be called
upon to paint exterior views that contain clouds, mountains, lakes, and othcr
large bodies of water. While none of these is particularly difficult to render,
keep in mind that the painter would be following specific pictures or images
provided by the scenic designer (sec section 17, "Scale Transfers"), After all,
the scene paintcr is one who realizes an image furn ished to him or her but does
not initially create the image. Therefore, the painter is always follOWing a com-
pleted example and must , therefore, elect the procedures by which to replicate
the example to a specified size.
191
Figure 179
Figure 180
192
Figure 181
Clouds
Regardless of their nature or the weather they may portend, clouds
appear other-worldly. Whether cumulus, cirrus, stratus, or nimbus and
regardless of thei r color, clouds should never have a texture imposed upon
them. And although brush strokes can be used carefully to stretch the edges
of wind-blown clouds, spraying on the paints is the quickest and generally
most successful way to render clouds on a large scale. 1he spraying can be
very frce-form and wispy or hard-edged and stylized as seen in figure 182.
When not using a sprayer to create clouds, it is generally best to work wet-upon-
wet. 'That is, the sky color should be wet when the cloud (olors are applied. Very wet
scumbling, performed continentally, can work nicely to create the edgi ng
of cloud banks. 1f clouds can only be painted in a vertica l position, mix the
clouds' peripheral colors in tones t hat are not far removed in hue from any
background sky color. Such a closeness in hue will help soften the appear-
ance of clouds against the sky by cutti ng down on the extent of color contrast
(see fig. 183). ]f too sharp a distinction still exists between cloud and sky,
perform a final fine spraying or spattering of the predominant sky color over
the clouds.
193
Figure 182
Fi gure 183
194
Cornice molding made of marble
Panels and post
Reflective metallic object
(graphic-arts approach)
Reflect ive metall ic object
(scene- painting approach)
Drapery
Foliage
Mountains under moonlight
Perspective vista
Mountain and water exercise. Scenic artist and photographer, David Court
Perspective exercise. Scenic artist and photographer, David Court
Painter's e1evafion, for a production of Midie, by Marc-
Antoine Charpent ier, at Opera Ateli er, Toronto. Designer, Gerard Gaud. Image
courtesy of Toronto Reference Library; used with permission of Opera Atelier
and Gerard Gaud
Paimer's elevation, Drop," for Iphigillie til Tauride, by Christopher Willibald
Gluck, atOperaAtelier, Toronto. Designer, Gerard Gaud. Imagecourtesyofforomo
Reference Library; used with permi ssion of Opera Atelier and Gerard Gaud
Paimer's elevation, Tree Drops," for Armide, by Jean Baptiste Lully, at
Opera Atel ier, Toromo. Designer, Gerard Gaud. lmagecourtesyofToroll to Refer-
ence Library; used with permission of Opera Atelier and Gerard Gaud
Painter's elevation, "Desert Drop," for Armide, by Jean Baptiste Lully, at Opera
Atelier, Toronto. Designer, Gerard Gaud. Image courtesy of Toronto Reference
Library; used with permission of Opera Atelier and Gerard Gauci
Painter's eleva-
tion, "Fountain
Flat," for Acfifon,
by Marc-Antoine
Char pentier,
at Opera Ate-
li er, Toronto.
Designer, Gerard
Gaud. Image
courtesy of
Toronto Refer-
ence Library; used
with permi ssion of
Opera Atelier and
Gerard Gaud
Painter's elevation, "Queen of the Night 's Pagoda," for '!he Magic Flute, by Wolf-
gang Amadeus Mozart, at Opera Atelier Toronto. Designer, Gerard Gauci. Image
courtesy of Toronto Reference Library; used with permission of Opera Atelier and
Gerard Gaud
Derai l of cut-drop, "Qyeen
ofrhe Night's Pagoda," fo r
7ht Magi( Flult, by Wolf-
gang Amadeus Mozart, at
Opera Atelier, Toronto.
Designer, Gerard Gaud;
scenic ar tists, Elizabeth
Bailey and David Rayfi eld;
photographer, Richard
Mongiat. Image used wit h
permission of O pera Ate-
lier, Gerard Gaud, and
Ri chard Mongiat
Foliage border
for Pinit, by Jean
Bapti ste Lully,
at Opera Atelier,
Toronto. Designer,
Gerard Gaud;
scenic artists,
J ules Tonus and
Richard Mongiat;
photographer, Jules
Tonus. Image used
with permission
of Opera Atelier,
Gerard Gaud, and
Richard Mongiat
Continental paintingof (;urta in drop for Coronation r.ifPoppea, byClaudio Monreverdi,
at Opera Atelier, Toronto. Designer, Gerard Gauci; s(;enk anists, Jul es Tonus and
Rkhard Mongiat; photographer,Jules Tonus. Image used with permission of Opera
Atelier, Gerard Gauci, and Richard Mongiat
Detail of (;urtain drop for Coronation of
Poppen, by Claudio Monteverdi, at Opera
Atelier, Toronto. Designer, Gerard Gauci;
scenic arti sts, Jules Tonus and Richard
Mongiat; photographer,Jules Tonus.
Image used with permission of Opera Ate-
lier, Gerard Gauci, and Ri chard Mongiat
Detail ofbaroqueshow leg for Pygmalion, by j ean Phil ippe Rameau, atOperaAte1ier,
Toronto. Designer, Gerard Gaud; scenic ar ti sts, jules Tonus and Richard Mongiat;
photographer, jules Tonus. Image used with permission of Opera Atelier, Gerard
Gauci, and Richard Mongiat
Pyramid temple for The Magic Flu/e, by Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart, at Opera
Atelier, Toronto. Designer, Gerard Gaud; scenic artists, jules Tonus and Richard
Mongiat; photographer, jules Tonus. Image used with permi ssion of Opera Atelier,
Gerard Gauci, and Richard Mongiat
Marriage trophy flat for Pirsle, by Jean Baptiste Lully. at Opera Atelier, Toronto.
Designer, Gerard Gauci; scenic art ist , Richard Mongiat; photographer,Jules Tonus.
Image used wit h permission of Opera Atel ier, Gerard Gauci, and Ri chard Mongiat
Canopy fl at for Pirsic, by Jean Bapti ste
Lully, at Opera Atelier, Toronto.
Designer, Gerard Gaud; scenic artist,
Elizabeth Bailey; photographer, Richard
Mongiat. Image used with permission
of O pera Atelier, Gerard Gaud, and
Richard Mongiat
Detail of temple interior for 1he Magic Flute, by Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart, at
Opera Atelier, Toronto. Designer, Gerard Gauci; scenic artists, Jules Tonus and
Richard Mongiat; photographer,Jules Tonus. Image used wit h permission of Opera
Atelier, Gerard Gaud, and Richard Mongiat
Wings and borders for '!he Way if the World, by William Congreve, at University
of Windsor. Designer, William Pinnell; scenic arti sts, David Court and Craig
Guthrie; photographer, Nora Munro
Act 3 cutout for '!he Way if the World, by William Congreve, at University of Wind-
sor. Designer, William Pinnell; scenic art ists, David Court and Craig Guthrie; pho-
tographer, Nora Munro
Mountains
Due to their gargantuan size, mountains are almost exclusively pictured
as if being seen from miles away. Certain factors result from this lack of
proximity:
Finite detail is nonexistent although, unless obscured by clouds or lack
of daylight, distinct shapes are evident.
l he bottoms of mountains are rarely seen. Almost always they are over-
lapped by a series of foreground layers, that is, lower mountains, foot-
hills, tree lines, and the like.
Colors are muted and often assume a grayish-purple tone the farther
away the mountain is.
There is an abundance of reflected (ambient) light. 1hat is, while the
effects of the sun-bright or clouded over-are evident so as to reveal
shape, the dark side of the mountain is Ut almost as consistently with
daylight that is atmospherically reflected.
Although [he mountains would be painted in the exact shape and con-
figurat ion as indicated on the example provided by the designer, the follow-
ing arrangement is not mandated but indicates a generic procedure by which
snow-covered mountains may be rendered simply and convincingly.
Step 1. Mountain Profile (Fig. 184)
After the sky is completed and dry, the mountain is plotted. Note that the
sky color has been extended well below the profile ridge. The profile ridge
of the mountain is painted on with its base color.
Step2. Fill-In and Blend (Fig. 185)
Continue painting downward with the base color to the desired mass of
the mountain that is to be seen the most clearly. At the bottom of this
mass, blend the base into the background color. This is achieved by either
watering down the base so it fuses with the dry background or by blend-
ing the base with some wet background color. The lower section of the
mountain disappears as if in a mist. When this dries, subsequent fore-
ground layering can be applied.
Step 3. Sun and Snow (Fig. 186)
Choose the direction from which the sun lights the mountain. Using the
snow color, etch in those faces of the mountain facing the light source.
195
Figure 184
Figure 185
196
Figure 186
Note how the irregularity of t hese areas creates the three-dimensional
characteristics of the mountain. While the snow color can be applied
opaquely near the ridges of the profiles, allow the paint to assume a dry-
brush application as it works downward. This will provide a nice rocky
and textural look. Also note that the direction of the stroke on a facet is
consistent, thereby supporting the slope of the rock.
Step 4. Refl ectively Lit Snow (Fig. 187)
The sides of the mountain not faCing the sun are also painted as if snow-
covered. A cooled-down version of the snow is mixed (e.g., a white treated
with blue + a little mountain base color). This color is applied only in a
dry-brush state. Not only is texture important here but the reRected snow
should not totally cover the mountain's base color.
Although not all mountains will be snow-covered, the procedure of
indicating the effects of both direct and indirect light sources remains
consistent. The variables are in the shape characteristics of the mountain
and its colors, the color and degree of brightness of t he light source (the
sun), and the level from which it originates:
197
Figure 187
sunrise'" low angle with bright lemon-yeUow cast
midday'" 45 degree angle with white/yeUow cast
sunset", low angle or silhouette with orange cast
Painting mountains as iflit by moonlight poses little variation in proce-
dure other than, as it occurs at night, the painring is more monochromatic
in nature. Often, the moon is seen with its immediately surrounding sky
enhanced by its glow (see fig. 188; a color version is in the gallery).
Water
On realistic sets, water (lakes and oceans) is painted as if in a placid state.
Rough seas and waves are dynamic and ever-changing and are relegated to those
stage sets that depart from strict realism. Choppy seas may be seen on realistic
drops, but traditionally the water is peppered with whitecaps and portrayed far
enough in the distance so that the supposed movement of the water is not dis-
cernable. Also, the shore and any suggestion of its breaking waves are commonly
obscured by foreground overlaps of raised beach, cliff edges, and SO forth .
Assuming the color of the body of water is not altered by industriallcak-
age and contamination, the colors of oceans, lakes, and ponds are affected
198
Figure 188
by their reflections of the color of the sky. An ocean only looks blue or blue-
green when the sky is clear. Cloudy skies create gray-looking water. When
painting water, three f.'lctors arc consistent, albeit to varying individual
degrees:
1. The color of the sky is incorporated in the water's base color.
2. There is some evidence of reflection, ranging from almost nonexistent
to mirrorlike.
3. A surface activity (or lack of, in the case of ice) is alluded to.
The following procedure demonstrates the painting of a large pond that
gently reflects some background characteristics and that possesses some degree
of surface movement in an otherwise-serene setting.
199
Step 1. Base-in the Water (Fig. 189)
Wherever the water is to occur on the painting, paint in that area with the
predominant sky color. If the area of the water is large, and the sky pos-
sesses an obvious color gradation, make sure this gradation occurs in the
opposite direction in the water area.
Figure 189
Step 2. Paint the Background (Fig. 190)
After the water has dried, paint in the background, including t he far shore
of the pond.
Step 3. Refl ect the Background (Fig. 191)
200
From some of t he predominant color of what is behind the lake, make a
wash. Paint in the approximate shape of the background, being careful
to paint the shape in a mirror, or reversed, image. With water, blend the
bottom peripheral edge of the reflected image downward. The extent to
which this edge is blended downward or left unblended helps determine
the surface activity of the water. ]f the reflected image is blended little, if
any, the water's surf.'lce appears glass-like. Conversely, blurring and dif-
fUSing the reflection's precise definition allude to more surf.'lce activity.
Figure 190
Figure 191
201
Optional Step. LinearTreatment
Thin some sky color to a transparent wash, and, using a straightedge,
finely dry brush the wash horizontally. Do not overdo this optional step
as it is intended to merely suggest a horizontal movement to the water.
Step 4. Shore Definition and Surface C haracteristics (Fig. 192)
Mix white with a little sky color. Using a fine brush, create irregular hori-
zontallines and gentle jags. This will give the water's surface some move-
ment characteristics resembling ripples. To sharpen the shoreline, darken
the ripple color a bit with more sky color, and cut in some very thin rippl e
lines where the water meets the shore.
By limiting color gradations as reflected from the sky, which elimi-
nates all but the vaguest illusion of background reflect ions, or by increas-
ing the horizontal brushing of washes on the water's surface, one can eas-
ily create the impression of water that has frozen over (see fig. 193). Thick
icc may tend to have a linear textural quality, which can be either vertical
or horizontal in appearance.
Adding the moon over water can be painstaking but is weU worth the
trouble. A night sky is painted with a distinct glow surrounding the moon.
The water is based in with a dark bl ue-gray, using a slight gradation from
lighter at the horizon to a deepening of hue toward the bottom. 1he moon's
rays hitting the \vater involve painting numerous dashes, which conveys the
moonlight striking the waves. 1hls illusion, as seen in figure 194, was particu-
larly successful in that the shape of the moon was a cutout hole backed with
dyed material. The moon was lit at an angle from behind; the paint used for
the moonlight on the \vaves \vas off-white and lit from the bottom front with
blue lights. The moon acrually glowed as did its reflection on the water.
17. Scale Transfers
A scale transfer is a process by which any drawing, painting, or photo-
graph is proportionately enlarged or reduced and reproduced with accurate
spatial fidelity onto another surface. I n the theater, where scale is usually larger
than life, the original picture or scene is most often transferred to a larger
scale, such as would occur on a scrim, drop, or large expanse of hard scenery.
The act of enlarging remains constant regardl ess of the scope of increase. To
inflate a 3 inch x 5 inch image to cover a warrior's shield is no different in prin-
ciple than enlarging the same drawing to cover an enormous tapestry.
202
Figure 192
Figure 193
203
Figure 194. Salt-
Water Moon, by
David French;
actor, Mi ke Shara;
directed, designed,
and pai nted by
Wi lliam PinnelL
Painter's Elevation
A rendering of the scenic area to be painted, or a painters elevation, is
customarily prepared by the scenic designer and is drawn and painted to scale,
traditionally 1h inch'" 1 foot 0 inch. That is, each Y.! inch on the painter's eleva-
tion translates to exactly 1 foot 0 inch on the actual scenery. Commonly the
painter's elevation is covered with clear plastic, such as acetate. ll)is overlay
protects the designer's work by repelling dirt, moisture, and paint droplets. It
has proven very convenient to laminate several colored laser-print copies of the
elevation.1l1e only drawback with this convenience is the laser copier can alter
the specific colors the designer originally chose. 1n stich instances, access to
the original is necessary when the paint colors are mixed.
204
Gridding
Assuming the painter's elevation is to a \.l inch scale, it thcn becomes neces-
sary to grid the elevation by covering it with 1h inch squares. (Some designers may
provide a pregriddcd elevation.) As one works with either the original elevation
as covered with plastic or a laminated laser copy, using a thin, black marker spe-
cifically designed for marking transparencies and glossy photographs works the
best to strike the grid lines.1he plastic sheet or laminate repels pencil and regular
ink lines, and the painter will not want the grid to smear or rub off. Spaced 16
inch apart, lines are inked parallel ro the vertical and horizontal center li nes until
the entire elevation is squared off (see fig. 195). A 1,1 inch x 1h inch square on the
elevation equals a 1 foot 0 inch x 1 foot 0 inch square on the scenic surface.
Figure 195
205
Opaque and Overhead Projectors
A speedy and reliable alternative to the grid method of scale transfer is
to project the drawing onto the scenery using an opaque projector. Figure 196
shows a traditional opaque projector alongside its more modern counterpart.
While the modern version is lighter and more easily portable, it can only
throw smaller images relatively short distances, as its wattage and subsequent
illumination are weaker than the older machine. (The projectors are used only
to project images onto scenery that is painted vertically, i.e., standing up.) The
painter's elevation or other design to be replicated is placed in the projector.
The projector is placed at the distance from the scenery at which the image
is projected to scale onto the scenery. Ensure that the plane of the projected
image is parallel to the plane of the projection surface, that is, the scenery. This
alignment will help prevent any keystoning, or image distortion, that results
when a projection strikes a surface from an angle (see fig. 197) .
:. OPAQUE PROJECTORS .:.
TRADITIONAL MODERN
Figure 196
On large pieces of scenery, such as a full-stage drop attached to a paint
frame, the projector and/or the scenery may have to be moved a few times
because the projected image covers just part of an area at a t ime. The design
or portions thereof are then chalked onto the scenery. One drawback to this
206
Figure 197
T o PREVENT
KEYSTONING THE PLANE
OF TI lE PROJECTOR (\tic Ie",)
SHOULD BE PU.CED PARALlEl. TO
TI lE PROJECllON SURFACE (\tic sccr>ay)
KEyS]"ONING DISTORTIONS
Image projCC\Cd Ilighlly
from lbe 'ide
Image proJCC\Cd shglllly
from belo ....
method may lie in the availability of an opaque projector. Once a commonplace
machine in schools and various multimedia businesses, it is now somewhat of
a dinosaur and has been replaced by more sophisticated projectors. To time-
conscious scene painters, the opaque projector will never become obsolete, but
the machines are getting more difficult to find. If one can be acquired, never
part with it!
Overhead prqjectors are still readily avai lable and may be used as a substi-
tute to the opaque onc. However, the painting elevation must first bc lascr
copied and thcn madc into a transparcncy. Thc colors will wash out a littlc as
the light passcs through the transparency, but as long as therc is enough of an
enlarged image to outline on the scenery, it will work.
As a great deal of scenery is painted continentally, sections of the design
can projected onto brown paper and pounced onto the scenery. For varying rea-
sons, however, the use of a projector may be impossible. Therefore, scene paint-
ers must hone their freehand drawing talents, and becoming adept at transfer-
ring a design to the painting surface by gridding is absolutely essential.
207
Step 1. Gridding. or Squaring (Fig. 198)
Mark off 1 foot intervals on all four sides of the larger surface, again using
the center vertical and horizontal points on the larger surface as initial
reference guides. With a chalked snap line or bow line, grid the larger sur-
face. (I f much of the sketch contains an expanse of sky, lay in all of the sky
colors first, then grid over it when dry. In this case, notice that prior to the
gridding, the flat has been painted with the background sky colors.) 7he
grid lines on this example are darkened more than usual for visual clarity.
Figure 198
Step 2. Sketch and Ink (Fig. 199)
208
The design is sketched with charcoal sticks or chalk so that mistakes can
be dusted or flogged off. The sketch is verified either with pencil or ink
marker.
Figure 199
Step 3. Painting (Fig. 200)
Lay in the specified areas; complete the detail painting. To make the scene
appear hazy and distant, the sky base color is very finely spattered over the
entire surface.
18. Perspective and the Vista
Perspective
Although perspect ive vistas can be transferred and drawn by using the
gri d method of transfer, knowledge of the basic princi ples of perspective is
imperative. Perspective is the art of rendering an object on a two-dimensional
209
Figure 200
plane-say, a sheet of paper--in such a way as to give the impression that the
object is three-dimensional; an appearance of depth or protrusion is created
that increases or decreases in size according to its relative positioning between
the observer and the far-off horizon. Perhaps the simplest and most rudimen-
ta ry example of the effect of perspective is to envision a set of railroad tracks .
'The observer stands between the tracks. Because the two rails are parallel to
one another and are on flat ground, as they move away from the observer, they
appear to converge at a spot on the hori zon, which, phenomenally, will always
occur at the eye level of the observer. 1his point at which the rails converge is
called the vanishing point (v.p.), as the rails literally vanish over the horizon.
Anyone can scratch the horizon line across a pi ece of paper, draw the crud-
est of converging ra ilroad tracks, and achieve some degree of an ilJusion of
distance and depth on a two-dimensional plane. The t wo initial lines, here
210
symbolized by railroad tracks, must, however, in real life have a parallel rela-
tionship in order to converge at the same vanishing point.
All lines that arc parallel to Rat ground and placed above eye level (the
horizon line) slope down to the vanishing point, while all lines below eve level
will slope up to it (see fig. 201, a). 1hese parallel lines, such as those indicating
the top and bottom of a building, will meet at the horizon line and establish
their own vanishing point. The tops and bottoms of doors and windows, if also
parallel with the flat ground or floor on which the building rests also converge
at this same vanishing point (see fig. 201, b).
a
Horizon Line:
(eye: leve:l)
b
Vanishing Point
(v.p.)
Figure 201
Moreover, two buildings placed on opposite sides of a street bur facing and
parallel to one anot her share the same vanishing point (see fig. 202). The height
of the horizon as drawn on paper or canvas may be artificially raised or lowered
211
Figure 202
for artistic reasons, perhaps to place the observer in a position of subservience or
superiority. As mentioned earlier, in real life, the horizon always coincides with
the eye level of the observer. A test of this phenomenon can be tried out at the
beach. Lie flat on the sand with chin resting on hands, and stare out at where
the water meets the sky. The horizon will be at eye level. Sit up, stand, climb a
tree or lifeguard tower, and the horizon will still be at eye level!
Scene painters must be aware of these principles and trust in them. Locating
a vanishing point from which to scribe and eventually paint defining and detail
lines not only assure the rendering of convincing illusions but speed up the layout
and painting process far more than relying on a grid-transfer method. During
the Renaissance, when the science of perspective diminution and foreshorten-
ing were markedly advanced and refined, perspective vistas were elaborated to
sometimes include three or more vanishing points. Often, points were located
far off the picture plane, or parameters of view. To reproduce such a sophisticated
illusion involving distant vanishing points when scene painting, one would have
to rely on the grid method of transfer, as locating such removed vanishing points
on a large scale might be next to impossible.lhere simply may not be space in
the paint shop to locate the points, let alone accurately align with them.
212
Vanishing Points
However, very convincing examples of distance and diminishing pro-
portion can be illustrated when only one vanishing point is used. The works
ofCanaletto (Giovanni Antonio Canal, 1697-1768), to name but one artist,
can serve as inspiration for those who might fear one-point perspectives will
appear static and lacking in interest. Canaletto's drawings took on startling
complexities because of his use of overlapping objects. Often, his vanishing
points seem nonexistent for they were most often either eclipsed by foreground
and middle-ground features that virtually block clean views of the horizon or
occur severely off to one side of the center line, as illustrated in the simplified
perspectives seen in figure 203.
Figure 203
213
The one-vanishing-point-pcrspcctivc illusion that is created solely 011 a jlat
mrfoce containing no actual dimensional relief appears the most convincingly
whcn thc obscrver's vicw is directly in front of the middle ofthc picture. 1n
a typical theater, not many members of the audience will have seats in the
centcr of the auditorium, and it is true that viewing a painted three-dimen-
sional from an angle oft- to one side or another of the central line of sight
tends to lessen the illusionary effect of perspective. Perhaps the designer
should create a three-poi nt-perspective illusion? 1his way, all seating sec-
tions might get an equal shot at being convinced. But convinced of what?
All the audience really needs to (momentarily) be convinced about is that
they are observing a series of events located somewhere, in some ti meframe
in which the rea/here-and-now has been suspended. And so, again, scenery
should never strive for tot al realism. For, in a truly realistic perspective vista,
should not the branches of crees sway? Should not there be some distant activ-
ity at the end of enormous palace courtyards? In actuality, ycs; in theater,
no. Robert Edmund Jones labeled sccnery "an environmcnt of the act ion."
In an attempt to satisfy every audicncc mcmber's conceivable scrutiny of the
scenery, the deSigner (and painter) will have ovcrstcpped the bounds of sce-
nic propriety and given thc setting extensive dimensions of importance and
focus. A working sink with running water on the set impresses or matters
littlc to an audience because the sink fits within the prosaic scope of daily
lives. Feature what is not banal or commonplace, and it is a venture into the
arena of hopes, dreams, magic, and wonder. Perhaps Anton Chekhov stated
his views of writing and the play most aptly in '!he Seagull, when Trigorin
states, "Life should not be portrayed as it is, nor as it ought to be. But as it
appears in our
Consequently, to avoid an art istic temptation to achieve convincing real-
ism, which in turn may lead to scenic distraction, it is quite common to see
the perspective vista rendered in a semi-realistic form, perhaps viewed as if
through a slight haze or mist. Tintype sepia washes, bleeding strokes of dye,
and muted scratchings of pen-and-ink lines may all be uscd in an attempt to
capture the distinct ive and styl ish elegance of a historical period and thus
achieve a romantic-and removed-ambience.
Usually, the laying out of the vista onto the painting surfacc takes longer
than the phases of actually painting it. The first step is to grid out a copy of the
designer's rendering or elevation.
214
Step 1. Grid the Renderi ng, Elevation, or Sketch (Fig. 204)
Customarily, 1 foot )( 1 foot squares arc drawn to a scale of1f.z inch = 1 foot
o inch. (Note that, in this example, the entire sur:'lce was based earlier
with a sky color and that the clouds were completed and once again, the
grid lilUS appear darker than normal for visual darity.)
Figure 204
Step 2. Locate the Rendering's Vanishing Point ( Fig. 205)
Next, locate the vanishing point (sec fig. 205). To do this, align a drafting
tri angle or other straight edge with any major building facet that appears
to slope upward as it moves into the distance. Draw in a light ink line,
extending it as far as needed. Next, choose on the same building a m,yor
line that appears to get lower as it travels away from the observer, and
extend it with a marker. Where t he two extended lines meet and cross is
the vanishing point. This intersection also indicates the picture's horizon
line should it not already be in view. In one-point perspective, usually
all other buildings on the street arc extended to converge at this same
spot. Again, this assumes a vista that (1) features a street that is perfectly
horizontal in nature (i.e., no hills or slopes) and (2) features a majority of
buildings whose tops are parallel with their bottoms.
215
Figure 205
Step 3. Grid Out the Painting Surface, and Locate the Vanishing Point
(F;g.206)
Grid the painting surface with lines made from a charcoal stick or, prefer-
ably, ones snapped on with blue chalk using a standard carpenter's snap
line (or a bowline, as seen in figure 48, charged with blue chalk may also
be used, but a snap line is quicker). After having located the v. p. on the
painting surface (see fig. 206), back the area of the surface on soft scenery
with a piece of wood that will not shift. A nail will be driven into the scen-
ery at this v.p. On hard scenery, drive a nail through the wooden painting
surface. Do not drive the nail in all the way, but leave about an inch stick-
ing out from the face of the painting surface. As most of the perspective
lines will converge at the nail, its protrusion will come in handy.
Step 4. Locating t he Rendering's Major Perspective Lines (Fig. 207)
216
On the rendering or elevation, extend as many perspective reference lines
as needed (see fig. 207}. Note that the lines will emanate outward from
the vanishing point and extend until they conveniently cross vertical or
horizontal grid lines. The points at which the elongated lines intersect
with a grid line receive a hash mark and may be measured on the ren-
Figure 206
Figure 207
217
deri ng. These same intersections are transferred to the painting surf..-.ce's
respective grid lines where each is noted with a hash mark.
Step 5. Transferring the Major Perspective Li nes ( Fig. 208)
Once all of the hash marks are transferred to the painting surface's grid
lines, it is ti me to draw in the major perspective lines. Loop the end of
the chalk-charged snap line over the protruding nail (step 3 above), which
denotes the vanishing point, extend and tighten the other end of the snap
line to overlap the grid reference poi nts, and snap the chalk line. Continue
this procedure to snap in all of the major perspective lines (see fig. 208).
All lines can, of course, be dusted off should mistakes occur.
NOTE: When painting scenery that cannot have wooden supports, use
either a chalked bowline or another person to help with the snap line.
Figure 208
Step 6. Sketch and 1nk (Fig. 209)
Sketch and then ink in all details.
Step 7. Painting (Figs. 210, 211, and 212)
218
As the vibrancy of colors tends to progressively fade as objects become
more distant, painting a perspective vista or any exterior scene with deep,
rich colors only destroys the illusion of distance. Pale tones, pastels, and
I

219
dyes are frequently used for outdoor scenes. To maintain the period flavor
associated with this particular vista, only sepia washes of varying hues are
used. Fi rst, lay in all areas with the pale color (see fig. 210).
Non: : When working exclusively with washes and dyes, one must
remember that areas and features can only be made darker. To correct
mistakes later, one must use a different medium, that is, opaque colors
for covering purposes, or bleach for highlighting. Therefore, care must
be taken to prevent painting the designated lighter areas with the darker
dyes. A good rule to follow is to always begin with the palest wash or dye
and work progressively through the values to the darkest ones.
Apply the middle tone (sec fig. 211), and proceed to the darkest (see
fig. 212).
Figure 211
Step 8. Highlight and Shadow Wash (Fig. 213)
220
Finish spari ngly with opaque and translucent highlight washes to com-
plete architectural details. Cast shadows. (See also the color version of fig.
213 in the gallery.)
Non:: Do not be reticent to effect textures by the appropriate
method(s) of choice using a color mixed between the mi ddle and darkest
tones as the texturing color.
Figure 212
Figure 213
221
19. Drops and Scrims
Many amateur and educational theaters are forced by budgetary restraints
to reuse a scenic drop or a repertoire of scenic drops year after year. Iflucky, the
same drop won't be needed in shows mounted back-to-back. But even the most
magical of painted illusions lose their alJure, and with frequency and overuse
become an inside joke, if not downright boring. The time will come to either
pack it in mothballs or try to paim over it. Most drops are not left to hang
between uses but are rolled for more compact storage. In order to allow the drop
to be rolled, it likely is painted with dyes or washes of color, as opaque paints
can clog the fabric weave and prevent the drop from roll ing without cracking.
Attempting to "erase" previously dyed backdrops is a futile endeavor. Even the
most vigorous cleaning and mild bleaching wiU fail to erase the majority of
details and colors. Floating images wiU remain, as if a ghost of what once was.
So, the obvious follow-up for the dyed backdrop is to paint over it with opaque
colors. Even then, some of the more tenacious dyes might ghost through the
dried paint. If a drop was first painted with opaque paints, it was likely stored
hanging or lying Rat; all subsequent designs must be repeatedly layered with
opaque colors, and the reused drop will eventually weigh as much as a three-
story building.
But for those fortunate enough to attack brand new drops, a basic step
must be taken to prepare the fresh fabric for dyeing or painting. I nexpe-
rienced painters may become frustrated by the uncontrollable bleeding of
dyes and washes that occurs and spreads throughout the weave of the drop.
Although designers sometimes call for such a bleeding of color, such an
effect is always a preplanned notion involVing a well-monitored technique.
Painters can encourage the spreading of color by wetting the drop wit h water
before, during, and after the applications of the actual colors. Regardless of
the painting technique employed, however, all new scenic drops should be
glazed with a primer ofliqllid starch. 1his will not only prevent the running
of colors but also provide a tightly stretched and fi rm surface on which to
paint.
Laying Out
Lay Ollt the drop 011 the floor. Sweep clear the paint-shop Roor, and place
lengths of gray bogus paper over an area a bit larger than the drop itself.
Overlap the side edges of the lengths of paper as they are being positioned,
222
and tape the ends to the Roar to avoi d the paper from shifting. Then, on the
paper, snap a chalk line indicating where the top of the drop is to be placed.
Parallel to this line, snap a second line at a distance from the first line that
equals the height of the drop. This second tine serves as a guide for the o t ~
tom of the drop. Placing a large right t ri angle (painter's Roar triangle) or
reliable scenery jack at the left end of the top line, extend the perpendicular
edge until it crosses the bottom parallel line (see fig. 214). Mark the top and
bottom lines at these points, remove the perpendicular guide(s), and snap a
line to connect t he top and bottom guidelines. This third line indicates the
left end of the drop as seen from the front. Measure from this third line along
the top and bottom lines the same distance as the length of the drop, and
make hash marks. Connect these two points by snap line, and the guide-
lines for the placement of the drop are complete. Check the accuracy of the
box by measuring from corner to corner. The distance between the lower-left
and upper-right corners should equal the distance between the upper-left and
lower-right corners. Place the drop on the gray paper, adjust to match the
snap lines and, at intervals of 6 to 9 inches, tack through the hems into the
paint-shop Roar. If the Roar is not made of wood, construct a wooden frame
the exact size of the drop.
Figure 214
Make the frame. Use lengths of 1 inch x 3 inch pine scarf-jointed or butted
together with keystones to form the four long-running lengths required and
place on the Roar as ifbuilding a large scenic Rat. Use a standard corner-block
assembly to attach the four 90 degree corners, but substitute the corner block
nails with screws for easy disassembling and storage of the frame (see fig. 215).
Tack the drop to the face of the wood by first aligning the perimeter of the
drop with the outer edges of the frame .
223
I
t
---
Figure 215
Starch Priming
""'"
int()
.-
NOTE: This .... n construction a,rcatly
/'C:SIffl\bles that "r a ceil i,,!! nat. I)ra" ing
IS silo .. " must b n i ~ t() race "" .. ".
The: rrame ",II 'cst on key>tones ttnd
comoer blocl<.
Make the starch primer. Mix 1 pound of gloss laundry starch (i t dries to a
clear matte) into a ~ gallon of cold water. the starch must thoroughly dissolve.
1l1en stir this mixture a little at a time into 2Y.! to 3 gallons ofboiJing water.
Allow to cool. (To assess the amount of liquid starch needed, 1 gallon of the
primer effectively treats 100 to 144 square feet.)
Apply the starch primer. Strain the starch primer into a sprayer. Use a Hud-
son or large-capacity garden sprayer.]n addition, one will need a soft-bristled
push broom and another person to help. Starting at a top corner of the drop,
work in bands 4 to 5 feet wide across the length. One person operates the
sprayer (on a medium setting); the second person follows with t he broom and
gently spreads the starch evenly O'IJer the fabric. Try not [0 push the starch into
the fabric, as this may cause the solution to pass through the material and be
absorbed into the paper. Ot may also cause the paper to stick to the rear of
the drop. Ordering a premade or building a drop from heavy-weight muslin
minimizes any mishaps.) Continue working in horizontal bands until the drop
is completed. A uniform drying time for the entire surface is necessary to
ensure the even tightening of the fabric. lne amount of drying time required
is proportionate to the temperature and humidity of the work area. A warm,
dry atmosphere provides the optimum condition.
Depending on the manner in which the drop is to be painted, it is possible
to add a little color to the starch primer so as to arrive at the lightest background
color specified on the painter's elevation. AU subsequent steps of applying color,
whether a dye or paint, should follow the tenet of overlapping scene painting:
paint first what is in the distance, and work toward the foreground. If possible,
apply the base coat and then background colors, and blend (e.g., sky, combing,
textural pattern) before the gridding and charcoal sketching are performed.
224
Although the drop may be gridded with continuous, overlapping lines,
some paimers may find it easier to sketch in the design if merely the poims
where the vertical and horizontal grid lines cross arc indicated rather than the
complete lengths of lines (sec fig. 216). For quick reference, code by number or
letter all vertical and horizontal grid lines on both the painter's elevation and
the drop. The charcoal sketching can then be achieved by free-banding the
shapes, using the grid lines for reference, using scaled templates transferred by
the pounce method, or setting up a projector in order to shine images onto the
drop for sketching.
- - - ...
- -
- -.
-
- -
G

3

/'
P
Figure 216
Storing Drops
Whether for storage, transport, or scenery shifts, all scenic drops wiU, at
one time or another, have to be rolled, folded, or tripped. It is quite rare that
a drop is painted on the stage floor or paint frame, rigged into position, and
then either left there for eternity or destroyed when the production has closed.
Most drops arc painted in a separate area and rolled or folded, sometimes being
stored for days before making it to the theater. Stages lacking fly lofts necessi-
tate the rigging of roll drops or traverse tracks to operate the drops during scene
shifts or to simply clear them for scenery setups and technical rehearsals. Lim-
ited storage facilities may cause drops to be improperly folded and bound with
string. (Experienced technical directors either roll the drop around a wooden
batten and wrap it in brown paper or plastic if stored in a linear space, or they
properly fold and place the drop in a piece of polyethylene for protection.)
Flexible Glue
Although painting with dyes will allow drops to be rolled or folded, using
the correct type o/scenic paint is essential to allow for these types 0/ handling. Casein
paints arc perhaps the most preferred for painting backdrops. Their colors arc
vivid, will dry without not iceable paling or dulling, and may be thinned witb-
225
out sacrificing much covering power. Al most all other forms of scenic paint,
from latex to vinyl to the old dry pigments, rely on binding agents, which
will prohibit or greatly resist the malleable use of soft scenery. 11)e only even
remote substit ute for the benefits of liquid casein paint is the use ofjlexibleg/ue,
but even this has limited pliability and is meant to be mixed with powdered
paints. Casein paint may stU] be found in powdered form (not as readily avail-
able as it was thi rty years ago), and this may be liquefied with flexible glue, as
per the following standard recipe.
Prepare theg/ue. In a large double-boiler-type arrangement, soak 8 pounds
of flexible glue in 2 quarts of water for 1 hour. (This will soften and slightly
expand the slab or slabs of glue.) On a medium-low setting, heat and stir unt il
dissolved. This will produce the liquid flexible glue.
Make the working size. Mix 1 part liquid flexible glue with 8 parts hot
water. This binder should be used to liquefy the dry colors (both powdered
casein and tradit ional powder pigments, among others) .
Painting the Drop
The below steps may be followed whether the drop is to be painted conti-
nentally or vertically.
Step 1. Background
If applicable, lay in the farthest background colors, patterns, or textures
(sky, distant landscapes, and the like).
Step 2. Sketch
Chalk in all reference gridding and space notations for the scale transfer,
and cartoon all detail work. Use pounce patterns, templates, and projec-
tions as necessary.
Step 3. Inking
Ink in all detail lines; this may take a form anywhere from indelible mark-
ers and dyes to water-soluble colors that deliberately bleed when coming
in contact with another liquid.
Step 4. Mask Off Areas and Details (Optional, Dependent on
the Design)
226
This step is necessa ry if certain areas of the drop are to remain color-free
(see below, the second method for applying paraffin in "Translucencies").
Step 5. Base Colors (Plus Dimensional Colors as Related to the Design)
Apply the base colors assigned to specified areas. 11lese colors, even if
intended to dry in opaque form, are traditionally thinned down so as to
be as workable as possible for a variety of techniques: puddling, dribbling,
gradations, general wet blending, and the like. Sections of the drop may
be sprayed with water to facilitate a desired effect. Also, at this time,
dimensional colors (highlights, low lights, deep shades, and flashes) can
be integrated into the base-coloring technique. The extent to which these
colors are added or avoided depends on the nature of the painting effects
required by the designer.
Step 6. Texturing (as Necessary, If Applicable)
Tones above and below the value of the base colors, temperature colors,
and texturi ng are performed with paints in wash and/or opaque consis-
tencies. The texturing may involve masking off certain areas, using sten-
cils, sponge stamps, and other methods.
Step 7. Highlight and LowJjght
T ints and shades are applied for highlighting and lowlighting; they may
be of wash or opaque consistencies. Shade washes will darken and contour
efficiently, whereas bright tints or fl ashes may need to be reinforced by
using considerably bright opaque colors. Bronze powders may be added
now. as appropriate to the design.
Step 8. Final Toning (If Required)
A scenic drop on a stage with a 35 foot wide )( 20 foot high proscenium
opening covers approximately 700 square feet of vertical and horizontal
space. Regardless of its size, one can be sure that, in juxtaposition with
the size of an actor, the drop will attract a lot of attention. Lighting can
help create mood and direct focus to the action, but as a precaution, some
degree of final texturing on the drop is often desirable and essential to
simply tone down the painting and allow the focus to be on the perform-
ers. The toning may assume forms of dribbling, spattering, or spraying of
dyes or paint washes.
Translucencies
Some drops may contain t ranslucent sections as a part of thei r deSign.
Directly upstage of the drop may be hung a neutral backdrop. or cyclorama.
227
When lights arc focused on the neutral drop, a glow bleeds through des-
ignated areas of the painted drop. Marquees, signs, lighted wi ndows, and
foliage aTe just a few examples in which a translucency can be effecti vely
used.
There are nvo reliable ways to create a translucency. After the drop has
been starched, and the inking of detail work is complete:
1. Paint the translucent area with a chosen color of dye. For example, if
the translucency is to suggest a lighted interior as seen through a window, the
window panes may be treated with a light-lemon-yellow dye. After the dye has
dried, the areas surrounding the window-pane translucency (e.g., mullions,
sash) are painted with opaque colors. One must be careful, however, not to
spiU any opaques on the dyed window panes.
2. This second met hod may prove to be more workable. Lay in the trans-
lucent sections with dyes, and after drying, cover the dyed, that is, translucent,
areas by brushing on hot paraffin wax with a utili ty brush. (A convenient con-
tainer for the wax may be an old electric coffeepot or a crock pot, as both have
hidden heating elcments. A long extension cord will keep the paraffin heated
and liquefied and allow the painter to walk to any area on the drop and brush
on the hot wax.) After the wax has hardened, paint the drop as planned. As
the dried paraffin is impervious to paints, there is no risk of ruining dyed sec-
tions by spiUing paint upon them. Upon completion of the painting, the wax
is scraped off with a putty knife (see fig. 217).
Regardless of which of the above methods is performed, drops requiring
translucent treatment usually need back-painting. As the neutral drop placed
behind the translucent drop is lit, many of the opaque areas-likely painted
with thinned-down colors-will allow varying degrees of light to ghost
through, thereby weakening the strength of the translucent illusion. So, as
a final step, the translucent drop is flipped over, and the backs of the opaque
sections arc coated with a dark color, as darker colors absorb more light than
lighter ones.
For back-painting either drops or framed scenery, a rubber-based paint
(e.g., latex) should be used. It will stay on the back surface of the material and
will not soak through to the front of the scenery. However, the back-paint must
be applied quickly and should not be worked into the surface. Some perme-
ation to the front surf. .. ce may result if the back-painting is done too forcefully;
this destroys the illusion from the front. Although the starch primer initially
applied to drops also helps prevent the bleeding through of the back-painting
color, care should be taken not to overwork this step.
228
USING HOT PARAFFIN
TO MASK OFF
TRANSLUCENT AREAS
Cut Drops and Scrims
Figure 217
A cut drop is a drop that has had certain negative space areas of its design
removed in order to allow for a partial transparency or translucency. Areas to
be cut out are outlined with dye-preferably aniline-that has been mixed
with alcohol (the alcohol penetrates the starch primer coat, and the inking
shows through on the back of the drop). After the front surf..ce painting is
completed, the drop is turned over, and the designated openings are cut out.
For best results, dyed pieces of shark's-tooth scrim are attached to the back
of the cutout sections with flexible glue (see fig. 218). 1he scrim, a close, rect-
angular weave; acts as support for the drop while permitting transparencies to
occur through the negative spaces. Bobbinet scrim, scenic netting, or cheese-
cloth may be used as a substitute, but all are inferior in strength and cannot
229
SHARKSTOOTH SCRIM
Figure 218
compare to the opaqueltransparent capabilities of shark's-tooth. Cut drops are
ideal for an overlapping scenic effect and creating illusions of distance.
A variation on the cut drop occurs when the entire drop or portion ofit is
glued to a full-size, prepainted scrim. The prepainted cut drop is laid facedown
on the floor, all edges arc squared, and the perimeter of the drop is sparingly
stapled to the floor. The scrim is t hen laid facedown over the cut drop, aligned,
and tacked into place. Flexible glue is applied through the scrim along the
cutout edges of the drop. Extra portions of the glue should be applied to any
perimeter edges of t he cut drop to form a firm adhesion to t he scrim. Alter-
nat ively, cut drops or sections thereof may be applied to the face of the scrim.
In t his situation, waxed paper is first lain down so the scrim will not later
stick to the floor. The scrim is placed faceup upon the waxed paper and stapled
or tacked down to prevent shifting. The cut drop or sections of the drop arc
arranged on top of the scrim. When all positioning is correct, the outside
edges of all cut drop areas arc traced with marker onto the scrim. Sections of
the drop arc removed, flexible glue is brushed within the inked outlines on the
scrim, and the drop sections are pressed into place, being careful to align with
all ink lines. An alternative to fully-sized cut drops or scrims is the use of sec-
tions of canvas or muslin, which when combined with pieces of scrim add up
to numerous possi bilities for use as border and profile pieces (see fig. 219).
230
Figure 219
BORDER
&
PROFILE PI ECES
When painting or dyeing a scrim, one may notice that due to the opcn-
weave construction, scrims may have tendency to stretch a bit when attacked
with a charcoal stick or paintbrush. Perhaps the dearest way to layout a design
on a scrim is to first grid, sketch, m/dink the verified design on the floor paper.
The scrim, which should have been starched and possibly prcdycd or treated
with the background specifications, is lain faeeup over the floor paper, aligned,
and tacked or stapled to the floor. The inked design clearly shows through the
scrim and allows for the colorations and illusions to begin.
The procedure of scene painting remains constant whether working on
opaque, translucent, or transparent surfaces: apply the background colors, and
work toward the foreground. Almost any medium may be used depending
on the effect(s), that is, degrees of transparency or brilliance of color desired.
Detail lines needing to be completely opaque can be achieved by combining
flexible glue or latex with wet pulp or paste forms of color. Metallic powders
can be added to the color if a metal look is required. the mixture should be kept
231
quite thick and may effectively be applied using plastic squeeze bottles or dis-
posable cake-decorator cones. To avoid sticking to the floor paper when dry,
be sure those areas receiving opaque treatments are backed with waxed paper.
Tf soft highlighting is to occur on a scrim or drop that has been dyed, 1 part
liquid bleach mixed with 4 parts water can be used to lift off the dye. As even
watered-down bleach can take its toll on brushes, lISe disposable foam-rub-
ber brushes when using bleach. Should brighter highlights or flash accents be
needed, oil paints are the best to use, as dyes-even aniline-will not pen-
etrate the oil paint and bleed through to the surface.
20. A Final Word
Just as the world continues to revolve, technology, in all of its many forms,
continues to evolve. With the push of a button or a voice-activated command,
minicomputers generate virtual, vividly colored images that are so astounding
and yet now so commonplace that we have come to expect their realistically
portrayed perfection without a moment's thought. Whether representations of
f:'lntasy or of worlds beyond, anything rendered in less than the most evocative
and striking of artistic images may seem dated, passe, incomplete, perhaps
even amateurish.
The technology of the theater has not been exempt from progress. Various
software programs ranging from house management to lighting to costuming
and to scenery are readily available. Computer-aided design (CAD) has made
many a designer's and draftsperson's job easier. The amount of time that the
computer saves now allows artists to take on simultaneous contracts or has, at
the very least, facilitated multitasking. Once, deSigners sat for days at drafting
boards creating working drawings or found themselves tethered to tables paint-
ing colored renderings, whereas now, computer-assisted designing and painting
programs free up copious amounts of time for those deSigners who can either
afford, or wish, to pursue other challenges. Even the realm of the scene painter
has been touched (some may say invaded) by technology. Software programs
are available that can interf:'lce with long, rolling paint sprayers that effortlessly
glide over drops and other forms of scenery, leaving amazing illusions in their
wake. What, then, is the future of the scenic artist? Will he or she be pushed
aside by technology? Will their numbers be greatly reduced; will only one "art-
ist" be needed to program and monitor the machines as they do their work?
Such questions date back in one form or another to the 1ndustrial Revolu-
tion, and the theme of man-versus-machine has been fodder for the writings
232
of everyone from Jul es Verne and H. G. Wells to playwrights of the nineteenth
and twentieth centuries. The fear of human beings overtaken by their inani-
mate creations pose nightmares of both outlandish and frighteningly realistic
proportions. Certainly, the most common counterpoint to the fear of human-
replacing technology is the question: Why should I spend all of this time
when a machine can perform the same tasks so much more quickly and repeat
it more reliably? And when one contemplates becoming a scene painter, many
more ques[jons may arise: Why am] in this dirty shop, hands and face covered
with droplets, dressed like an urchin from OIi'Uerand lugging all these brushes
and buckets around . .. when, ] could be out in the sea's breeze, wearing tropi-
cal linen, si pping a cold one, and interfacing from my laptop?
The answer is simple, and, yet, the solution may not be. First, a painter
must have a passion for the tbeater. One must want to participate in its creation
and not be afraid of the ideas it can enlighten and the emotions it can stir in the
heart. Having a love for t he t heater is a gift that can neither be planned nor pro-
grammed. As Shakespeare wrote, "Who ever lov'd that lov'd not a firs t sight?"
1he appeal, the allure of the theater often come without warning, and those
lucky enough to be involved for a living in its many worlds and forms arc grate-
fully along for the journey because they would not choose to be anywhere else.
Remember the old joke about the circus worker whose job it was to clean out
the elephant cage? When overheard complaining about the mess, a coworker
asked why he didn't just pack up and leave. The cage cleaner replied, "What?!
And give up show business?" Although there may be times of extremely hard
and dirty work, the personal satisfaction one feels by creating from scratch
something special with one's hands and talent is, as t hey say, "priceless."
Secondly, one must to be willing to work at getting better, at enabling
one's abilities to grow. Whoever says "] could never do that" hasn't a hope of
ever being able to. The human mind and body contain infinite potential, and
the levels that one may achieve are incalculable. And those attained levels
will never fail to be gratifying and worth the while. But the true art ist is ever
self-critical and must want and strive to continue to develop. The gallery of
t his volume has impressive examples of some artists well along on the journey,
while others arc at journey's end. Unlike the computer, on this and all matters
of the heart, there is simply no short cut or fast-forward.
233
Glossary
While the following terms are fairly standardized, some of theif defini-
tions and related applications may vary from theater company to theater com-
pany or paint shop to paint shop. For example, some painters refer [0 a "glaze"
singularly as a final overcoating that lends a sheen to the painted surface; while
others may recognize a glaze as being interchangeable in terminology with a
wash. I hope that the list below creates more clarity than confusion.
Aeschylus. Ancient Greek poetic dramatist (ca. 525-456 H.C. E.) who is thought
to be the first to integrate some form of scene painting into play perfor-
mance.
Agatharc1lUs. Ancient Greek pai nter who is thought to be t he first to paint
theatrical scenery.
analogous colors. I n paiming, differemcolors rendered similar in value because
of a common root (denominator) additive.
aniline dye. 1he premiere dyes llsed in the theater for scene painting; poison-
OllS, containing extracts of benzene.
animal glue. [colloq.] Gelatin glue, found in slab or flake form, containing ani-
mal derivatives that when heated, melted, and diluted with water to form a
"working size," form a tenacious binder for powder pigments.
back-paint. The painting of the rear side of scenery with opaque pai nts in order
to eliminate light leaks.
baseboard (molding). Molding located where a wall meets the floor.
base (local) color. The predominant color a piece of scenery is painted; that
color from which the tint and shade colors are derived.
235
Bergman Bath. Named after twentieth-century scenic artist Robert Bergman,
a procedure by which paints (particularly washes) arc allowed to deliberately
dribble and cascade down a flat's surface by raising one end or a corner.
binder. A substance that adheres the paint to the scenery; any form of glue
used with scene paint.
bobbinet. A lightweight scenic netting with an open, hexagonal weave.
bogus paper (gray paper). A highly absorbent, inexpensive, unbleached paper
used primarily as a protective layer between continentally painted soft scen-
ery and the floor.
boomerang. A muhileveled, rolling unit upon which a painter stands when
painting tall, vertical scenery.
bow line. A chalk line tightly strung on a bowlike piece of wood. The line
must be charged with chalk pieces or chalk bag; use according to snap-
painting guidelines.
bronze powder. Ground metalJic powders used widely for ornamental paint-
ing; they do not have binder.
brown paper. See kraft paper.
brush prints. The manner or angle by which a brush applies paint; flat, flat-
twist, or side prints.
butt joint. Standard arrangement of two pieces oflumber that are blunt cut for
the purpose of joining; most commonly, a board's end butts against another
board's edge or end to end.
CAD. Computer-assisted (or aided) design; also CADD, computer-assisted
drafting and design.
carbon 14. A method used to date archeological or geological specimens.
casein. A type of scene paint loosely derived from milk protein; durable, in
paste and liqUid form containing its own binder.
chair rail (molding). Molding located at the approximate height of the back
of a chair.
chromatherapy. The use of color for therapeutic reasons.
colorcontamination. A primary color that is no longer true, as contaminated
by an additive; the unintentional combining of one color with another.
color wheel. 1he traditional minimum grouping of the three primaries and
immediate three secondary colors on a wheel-shaped diagram.
combing. A method of texturing using a wide brush missing clumps of bristles
so as to resemble the teeth of a comb; an even, linear textural pattern.
common denominator. A root color that is added to all other mixed colors so
as to render them analogous; the base color becomes the common denomi-
nator when creating the tint and shade.
236
complementary color. Any two colors directly across from one another on the
color wheel.
concave. A recessed bowl or curved shape.
continental system. 1he act of painting scenery that is f.'lceup on the floor.
convex. A protruding bowl or curved shape.
cool. Referring to an emotional mood quality derived from the temperature
value of color; any soothing, complacent color, such as blue or green.
corner-block assembly. Element of standard flat construction. Rail and style
arc butted at ninety degrees, and a right triangle piece of plywood is lapped
over the joint and nailed or screwed into place to secure the joint.
cornice (molding) . Molding located where a wall and ceiling meet.
cove molding. A shape dominated by a large concave quarter circle.
cross-hatching. A figure-eight-oriented painting stroke, commonly used
when sizing or priming a paint surface.
e utawl machine. A horizontally-operated machine able to cut very tight and
intricate curves by means of a jigsaw-type mechanism.
cut-bristle brush. A form of specialty brush; some bristles have been
removed to produce a comb-like appearance; used for wood graining and
combing.
cut drop. A scenic drop featuring cutout sections that serve as translucencies
or transparencies.
cut stone. A raised rectangle centered within a larger rectangle; the two rect-
angles are joined by angled planes.
deep shade. A shade far removed in hue from the base color; a shade of the
middle shade.
drop. A rectangular-shaped clement of soft scenery usually made of muslin
and that hangs vertically.
dry powder pigment. Oldest and traditional medium of scene paint; needs a
separate binder.
dutchman. 1he material that covers the hinges and scams between the Rats.
eye level. Same as horizon line. See horizon line.
fantail brush . Scene-painting brush whose ferrule forces the bristles out
in a fan shape; used to paint foliage and ornament because of its cutting
edge.
ferrule. The metal part of the brush located between the bristles and handle;
holds bristles in place and reinforces their shape.
fitch. A liner brush.
Rash color. A brilliantly bright tint used for special accenting; a highlight of
a highlight.
237
flat (scenic). The most basic element offramed scenery, covered by muslin or can-
vas; that piece of scenery that is commonly used to form walls on the stage.
flexible glue. A glue that when dry remains somewhat pliable and resists
cracking; commonly plastic-based, such as a polyvinyl.
flogger. Device used to remove chalk and dust from the painting surface or to
impart a painted texture.
flogging. A method of texturing in which paint is applied using strands of
material or heavy twine whipped against the scenery.
floor triangle. A form of painter's st raightedge, used continentally to locate
and strike perpendicular lines.
flying. Raising scenery upward and out of Sight behind the top of the prosce-
nium arch; flown scenery stores in the fly gallery.
gelatin glue. The premier glue of scene painting; excellent when used with
dry-powder pigments and as a strong and working size; in ground, slab, and
flake form.
glaze. Same as a wash. See wnsh.
gloss glaze. A transparent glaze that leaves a surface sheen when dry.
glue pot. Used to heat and melt gelatin glue; double-boiler or electric types.
gobo. A stainless-steel or glass disc placed in the gate of an ERS (ellipsoidal
reflector spotlight); it features a patterned or amorphous arrangement of
negative spaces that when light rays shine through, projects an image onto
the scenery or stage floor.
graded wet blend. A bl ending of colors using a gradation of colors; usually
an even, linear pattern of bands of color wet blended together. See also wet
blend.
graining. Texture by dry brushing or combing to achieve a wood-grain
appearance.
graphic-arts approach. As applying to painting metal or reflective surfaces,
a procedure using a wet-on-wet technique and/or the use of sprayers or air
brushes; the scene-painting approach implies a wet-an-dry approach using
brush strokes.
gray paper. Sec bogus paper.
grid or gridding. Overlaying a drawing or scenic surf:'lce with squares for the
purpose of a scaled transfer.
half-tone. A hue located halfway between the base color and its correspond-
ing tint or shade.
heart grain. A wood-grai ning pattern that results from a tree being cut
through diagonally and whereby individual grain lines loop back in t he
opposite direction; the loop in the grain is also called the cup.
238
hematite. As derived from the Greek word bema or baima, meaning blood, an
ore of reddish color.
highlight. 11)e application of the tint color to create an illusion of protrusion.
horizon line. The borizontalline where earth and sky meet; the extent of one's
visibil ity of distance, uniformly on the same level as the eye of the observer;
eye level.
hub. A point from which gathered drapery is gathered and suspended; from
this point, tension lines in the fabri c radiate downward, thus causing the
drapery to form a swag and pleated arrangement.
Hudson sprayer. Commercial hand-pump sprayer best suited to priming and
unsubde texturing; large and rather heavy, though portable. Hudson, though
originally applying to the manufacturer's name, may refer to any pump-type
(Iawn-and-garden) sprayer used in theat rical painting.
hue. A quality of color; a particular shade or tint of a color.
inking. The verification of a chalk-sketched drawing by using aniline dye or
ink markers.
jack. A wooden brace resembling a large right triangle; most commonly used
for unseen stability on door and window units.
keystone. Originally resembling the trapezoid-shaped center stone on a classic
Roman arch, now commonly a rectangular piece ofJ.,4 inch plrvood lapped
over a butt joint of framed scenery and attached to ensure stability.
keystoning. The distortion of a projected image caused by the projection strik-
ing the surface from an angle.
kraft paper (brown paper). Commercially available, nonabsorbent paper
used to safeguard against paint spills or mishaps; excellent with the pounce
method for t ransferring detail work.
latex. A rubber-based binder and form of scene paint widely used in the the-
ater.
lay in. The application of background or predominant colors prior to formal
texturing and detail painting.
lay-in brush. A brush four to six inches wide used to quickly apply color.
light leak. Thinly painted areas revealed by backlighting; usually uninten-
tional.
light source. An actual or invented source from which light is emitted so as
to create three-dimensional scene-painting effects; that which illuminates
thickness and contour.
liner brush. A chisel-ended brush used to produce thin, cri sp lines and sweeps
of varying thickness; commonly used for detail painting and available in
widths ranging from % to 21,7 inch.
239
lining. The act of detai l painting that reveals shape, contour, and thickness.
lowlight. The application of the shade color to create an illusion of depth.
luminosity (of color). The extent of a color's brightness.
McCandless Method (McCandless 111eory). Named after stage-lighting
innovator Stanley McCandless, one principle involves the use of warm and
cool cross-lights striking the stage at a forty-five-degree angle from both the
vertical and horizontal axes.
middle shade. A hue between the base color and deep shade.
opaque. A fabric or consistency of paint that cannot be seen through; any
paint that covers and hides what is underneath; opposite of a wash or glaze.
opaque projector. A projector that can project opaque images, such as a page
from a book.
overhead projector. A projector whose images for projection must be in trans-
parent form.
packing tape. A strong cellophane tape used for scal ing cardboard boxes for
shipping.
paint carrier. Ascene-painting aid; a type of box and vert ical-handle arrange-
ment used to carry paint containers and brushes so as to self-contain paint-
ing supplies and increase the mobi lity of the painter; also, a large rolling
paint cart.
painter's elevation. A sample drawing provided by the scenic designer of each
setting detailing painting techniques and colors.
painter's holiday. [colloq.] Any oversight or incomplete paint job resulting
from the painter's carelessness or negligence.
painter's tape. A green or blue tape resembling masking tape but less sticky in
nature; will mask off areas without removing previous coats of paint when
removed.
paint frame. A wide vert ical frame to which two-dimensional scenery is
attached for vertical painting.
paraffin (wax). A mixture of hydrocarbons used in t he making of candles;
appl ied wi th a brush for scene painting whi le in a warm, liquefied state to
mask areas from paint ing.
perspective. Picturing object s on a two-dimensional surf.1.ce so as to show
distance or depth.
picture rail (molding). Molding located below a cornice molding from which
framed pictures may be hung.
pinake. A covered frame upon which paint is applied; allegedly used in ancient
Creek theater.
240
plain-sawn, plain-sawing. A wood-cutting process by which the saw blade
cuts across the tree's growth rings, revealing a heart grain.
plumb line. A symmetrically balanced weight attached to string and used to
show a perfectly vertical line.
polyethylene. Commercially available clear plastic frequently used by paimers
as a drop cloth.
pounce. A method whereby a perforated design is transferred to another sur-
face using chalk; the act of pounding chalk dust through a perforated pat-
tern.
pounce bag. A cheesecloth bag containing charcoal or indigo chalk dust used
for pouncing.
pounce wheel. A spiked wheel device that perforates paper.
primary color. A color that cannot be made by combining any other colors;
namely, red, yellow, and blue as roots of the color wheel.
primer brush. Any wide, soft, long-bristled brush used for priming scenery.
primer coat (priming). The initial coat of paint on any new piece of scenery;
deSigned to tighten and seal the weave in the fabri c and limit the porosity
of wooden surfaces; on used scenery, the covering over of previous images
wit h paint.
puddling. A method of texturing whereby two or more colors are dri bbled or
spattered onto scenery and allowed to run together.
quartersawing. A wood-cutting process by which the saw blade cuts perpen-
dicular to the t ree's growth rings; a straight grain results.
rag rolling. Texturing scenery wit h a rolled rag dipped into a color; technique
resembles use of a rolling pin.
rolling. The application of color by a paint roller.
Roman ogee molding. A classic architectural shape dominated by a central
S curve.
scale transfer. Proportionally enlarging or redUCing a drawing, painting, or
photograph and reproducing it on another surface.
scarf joint. A type oflumber joinery in whi ch the ends of each board are Cllt
in a long, tapering angle rather than a blunt cut.
scrim. A sceni c drop constructed in a wide enough weave that allows it to be
seen through under appropriate stage-li ghting conditions.
scumble. A mottled form of textural painting created by sharply changing
the positioning of the wrist and lifting the brush off the painting surface
between strokes.
secondary color. A color resulting from the mixture of two primary colors.
241
shade. A darker variation of the base color; that color that is often used as a
10wUght.
shadow wash. A transparent dark color used to suggest the shadow of one
object cast upon another.
shark's-tooth scrim. A netting with a close, rectangular weave; stronger than
bobbinet and with a greater capacity for opacity.
size. Synonymous with glue and "strong size"; thinning wiU create the work-
ing size or size water.
size water. Sometimes called size," a thinned binder used to "size"
(shrink and tighten) the material on newly covered flats, and as the liquefy-
ing and binder agent for dry-powder pigments.
ski agraphia. Translated as "shadow painting," a suspected quality of painting
that, through the implied use of shadows, conveys a 3-D illusion; its inven-
tion credited to Agatharchus.
snap line. A retractable st ring linc wound in a chalk-filled container; when
stretched ovcr a surface the line is snapped to furnish a perfectly straight
chalk line.
solution. The mixture quality of a paint or wash whereby the coloring medium
is permanently dissolved and will not separate from its liquefying agent.
spatter. Texture achieved by flicking droplets of paint from a brush onto the
painting surface, covering it with paint droplets.
spatter and drag. The method of dragging spatter droplets with a cloth or push
broom in order to produce a texture that is linear and like wood-grain.
sponging. Achieving texture by applying color with a sponge.
spraying. A texturing met hod using an aerosol, electric, or manual appara-
tus.
stamping. A method of applying designs by pressing pattern-shaped sponges,
thick carpet, or any paint-retaining article against the painting surface.
starch primer. A starch solmion applied to all new, unpainted drops and
scrims that tightens the fabric and retards the bleeding of colors.
stencil or stenciling. A method of texturing whereby color is applied through
holes in a pattern, resulting in a repetitive design on the painting surface.
stencil brush. A round-shaped bristle arrangement with a blunt end that is
used to push color through stencils in a stippling fas hion.
stippling. A textural effect produced by pushing the end of a brush, rag, or
feather duster against the painting surface.
straightedge. A notched painting aid that assures the painting of a straight
line.
242
suspension. The mixture quality of a paint or wash whereby the color sedi-
ment or pulp is temporarily suspended in the liquefying agent (e.g., water)
but will eventually settle to the container's bottom if not shaken or stirred.
temperature color. A color that affects the warmth or coolness of the painting
surface.
tertiary color. Third in a rank of color, that is, referring to that color resul t-
ing from the mixture of a primary and a secondary. In true color theory, all
colors, except for the three primaries, classify as secondary colors.
texturing. Whether actual (three-dimensional) or as a painted effect, creating
the appearance of a surf..1.ce quaHty to the scenery.
tint. A lighter variation of the base color; that color that is often used as a
highlight .
toning. Applying the base color with its corresponding tint and shade so as to
reinforce the shape of a scenic uni t and di rect focus to a specific area.
toning down. As in a final spattering and other steps, reducing the luminosity
of a color so as to prevent it from "popping" under stage lighting.
translucency. An clement of scenery or a wash t hrough which can be seen a
vague and barely discernible image; light may pass through but t he scenery
is not transparent.
transparency. An element of scenery or a wash through which can dearly be
seen an underlying image or feature.
tripped or tripping. When the fly gallery above the stage is not tall enough to
fl y a drop out of sight, the horizontal middle of the drop wilJ have a second-
ary set of fly lines attached to it, thus allowing the drop to fold up into the
fly gallery as it is raised.
valance. An uppermost, horizontal arrangement of drapery that customar-
ily overhangs decoratively alone or in front of the upper part of a vertical
counterpart.
value. A quality or richness of color.
vanishing point (v.p.). l bat point on t he horizon line at which parallel lines
converge, as in perspective drawing.
veining net. A loose arrangement made of twine, crochet yarn, or muslin
strips used as a tool for flogging, particularly for creating veining in stone-
work.
vinyl. Compound of plastic derivatives used as a basc for scene paint and
glazes.
wainscoting. Paneling of wood and the like on the lower section of walls in
a room.
243
warm. Referring to an emotional mood quality derived from the temperature
value of color; any exciting, energetic color, such as yellow, orange, or red.
wash. 1he thinning of a paint so as to lose its opacity; a dye or glaze.
wet blend or wet-on-wet. Two or more colors intermingled when wet. See also
graded wet blend.
wet-on-dry. Painting on top of a previous painting step that has d ried.
whiting. I nexpensive, nonopaque powder pigment used in priming and to
stretch the mixtures of powdered colors.
working size. See size water.
244
William H. Pi nnell has designed and painted more than 140 productions
in Canada and the United States and has toured with the U.S.O. from Italy
to the Arctic Circle as a performer. He has also directed several award-nomi-
nated productions that played to critical acclaim at the Edinburgh Interna-
tional Festival Fringe. A graduate of the Hilberry Classic Repertory program at
Wayne State University, Pinnell is a professor of dramatic art at the Uni versity
of Windsor in Ontario, Canada. Among his awards for teaching excellence
is, most recently, the 2005 Education Achievement Award by the Canadian
Institute for Theatre Technology in recognition of his longstanding career as an
educator. Pinnell is also the author of Perspective Renderingfor the Theatre.
Theater
7healrical Scene Painting: A Lmon Guide, second edition, is a practical
guide to scene painting for students and novices, as well as a reference for
intermediate scene painters who wish to refresh or supplement their basic
skiUs. Drawing on his extensive teaching and scene-painting experience,
William H. Pinnell clarifies and expands on the lessons of the first edition,
providing a detailed overview of the fundamental s of traditional scene
painting.
This guide not only covers the basic tools of the trade and various methods
of creating texture on scenery but also includes advanced techniques for
scene making, beginning with stonework, woodwork, and wallpaper before
moving on to the more intricate techniques of moldings, paneling, drapery,
foliage, shiny metal, perspective illusions, scale transfers, scenic drops, and
scrims. Pinnell also includes refinements and embellishments that can lead
to the development of personal style without sacrificing realism. Useful
to both self-taught artists and students, each lesson in the guide can be a
stand-alone topic orcan form the foundation for a student to bui ld skills for
increasingly complex techniques.
William H. Pinnell is a professor at the School of Dramatic Art at the
Uni versity of Windsor in Ontario. He has deSigned and painted for
more than one hundred major theatrical productions and is the author of
Perspective Renderingfor the 7heatre. published by SIU Press in 1996. In
2005, he received the Education Achievement Award from the Canadian
Institute for Theatre Technology.
Southern Illinoi s University Press
1915 UniverSity Press Drive
M,il Code 6806
Carbondale, IL 62901
www.siu.edui-siupress
ISBN 0-8093-2765- 1
ISBN 978-0 8093-2765-2
9
Cover illustrations: "Perspective vista," by Wi.lliam H. Pinnell
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