Part 3: Cinematography

Section 1 - Quality
This section explores some of the elements at play in the construction of a shot. As the critics
at Cahiers du cinma maintained the !ho"! is as important as the !"hat! in the cinema. The loo#
of an image its $alance of dar# and light the depth of the space in focus the relation of $ac#ground
and foreground etc. all affect the reception of the image. %or instance the optical &ualities of grainy
$lac# and "hite in Battle of Algiers '(illo Pontecor)o Maarakat madinat al Jazaer Algeria 1*+,-
seem to guarantee its authenticity. .n the other hand the shimmering Technicolor of a musical such
as Singin' in the Rain 'Stanley /onen 1*,0- suggests an out-of-this-"orld glamor and excitement.
C.1.2
3arly films "ere shot in $lac# and "hite $ut the cinema soon included color images. These images
"ere initially painted or stencilled onto the film $ut $y the 1*34s filmma#ers "ere a$le to include
color se&uences in their films. Apart from the added realism or glamor that a color image could
pro)ide color is also used to create aesthetic patterns and to esta$lish character or emotion in
narrati)e cinema.
5n %ederico %ellini6s extra)agant Juliet of the Spirits 'Giulietta degli Spiriti 1*+,- colors separate
the $ourgeois reality and the fantasy daydreamings of the title character "ho partyhops $et"een
$lac# and "hite and reds and purples.
Juliet of the Spirits "as the first %ellini film in color and he intended to ma#e full use of it. 5n order
to further enhance the contrast "ith his pre)ious "or# he cast his fa)orite actress and "ife (iulietta
7assina the protagonist of %ellini6s earlier successes such as Nights of Cairia '!e Notti di
Cairia" #$%&' in "hich she plays a destitute hoo#er in a grim su$ur$an en)ironment. 8o" %ellini
has the same actress play a rich house"ife in luscious technicolor o$)iously signaling a clear
turning point from his early 8eorealism-inspired films.
Contrary to popular $elief 'and (oethe- colors do not necessarily carry exclusi)e meanings.
Compare the use of red in 5ngmar 9ergman6s Cries and (hispers')iskingar *ch Rop 1*:0-.
;hile <hang exploits red as a cliched signifier of unrestrained passion 9ergman associates the
color "ith stagnation and contaminated $lood.
C.8T2AST
The ratio of dar# to light in an image. 5f the difference $et"een the light and dar# areas is large the
image is said to $e !high contrast!. 5f the difference is small it is referred to as !lo" contrast! 7ost
films use lo" contrast to achie)e a more naturalistic lighting. =igh contrast is usually associated
"ith the lo" #ey lighting of dar# scenes in genres such as the horror film and the film noir. A
common cliche is to use contrast $et"een light and dar# to distinguish $et"een good and e)il. The
use of contrast in a scene may dra" on racist or sexist connotations.
%or instance this shot from .rson ;elles6 +ouch of ,-il '1*,>- employs high contrast to further
emphasi?e racial differences $et"een a $londe American "oman and a menacing 7exican man.
/33P %.C@S
1i#e deep space deep focus in)ol)es staging an e)ent on film such that significant elements occupy
"idely separated planes in the image. @nli#e deep space deep focus re&uires that elements at )ery
different depths of the image $oth $e in focus. 5n these t"o shots from +ouch of ,-il '.rson ;elles
1*,>- Besieged'!'Assedio 9ernardo 9ertolucci1**>- all of the different planes of the image are
gi)en e&ual importance through deep focus not only to the characters 'li#e the man pee#ing at the
"indo" in the first image- $ut also to the spaces 'Shanduray6s $asement room in the second-.
;hile deep focus may $e used occasionally some auteurs use it consistently for they $elie)e it
achie)es a truer representation of space. /irectors li#e Aean 2enoir .rson ;elles =ou =sao-=sien
or A$$as Biarostami all use deep focus as an essential part of their signature style.
S=A11.; %.C@S
A restricted depth of field "hich #eeps only one plane in sharp focusC the opposite of deep focus.
@sed to direct the )ie"er6s attention to one element of a scene. Shallo" focus is )ery common in
close-up as in these t"o shots from Central Station 'Central do Brasil ;alter Selles 9ra?il 1**>-.
Shallo" focus suggests psychological introspection since a character appears as o$li)ious to the
"orld around herDhim. 5t is therefore commonly employed in genres such as the melodrama "here
the actions and thoughts of an indi)idual pre)ail o)er e)erything else.
3EP.S@23
A camera lens has an aperture that controls ho" much light passes through the lens and onto the
film. 5f the aperture is "idened more light comes through and the resultant image "ill $ecome
more exposed. 5f an image is so pale that the detail $egins to disappear it can $e descri$ed as
!o)erexposed!. Con)ersely a narro" aperture that allo"s through less light "ill produce a dar#er
image than normal #no"n as !underexposed!. 3xposure can $e manipulated to guide an audience6s
response to a scene.
5n his film +raffic '0444- Ste)en Soder$ergh decided to shot all of the se&uences in the 8orthern
7exico desert o)erexposed. The resulting images gi)e an impression of a $arren desolated land
$eing mercilessly $urnt $y the sun a no-man6s land o)er "hich police and customs ha)e no control.
2ACB58( %.C@S
2ac#ing focus refers to the practice of changing the focus of a lens such that an element in one
plane of the image goes out of focus and an element at another plane in the image comes into focus.
This techni&ue is an e)en more o)ert "ay of steering audience attention through the scene as "ell
as of lin#ing t"o spaces or o$Fects. %or instance in this scene from .eking *pera Blues '/o Ma
/aan Tsui =ar# =on# Bong 1*>+- a connection is made $et"een an acti)ist in hiding and a
police officer "ho is pursuing him.
2ac#ing focus is usually done &uite &uic#lyC in a "ay the techni&ue tries to mimic# a $rief fleeting
glance that can $e used to &uic#en the tempo or increase suspense.
2AT3
A typical sound film is shot at a frame rate of 0G frames per second. 5f the num$er of frames
exposed in each second is increased the action "ill seem to mo)e more slo"ly than normal "hen it
is played $ac#. Con)ersely the fe"er the num$er of frames exposed each second the more rapid
the resulting action appears to $e. The extreme case of frame rate manipulation is stop-motion
"hen the camera ta#es only one frame then the su$Fect is manipulated or allo"ed to change $efore
ta#ing another frame.
5n this clip from Herto)6s Man 0ith the Mo-ie Camera 'Chelo-ek s kinoapparatom @SS2 1*0*-
stop motion is used to gi)e the impression than the chairs open up $y themsel)es.
5n Burosa"a6s Se-en Samurai 'Shichinin no samurai Aapan 1*,G- slo" motion is used to contrast
the emotional rescue of a child "ith the death of the man "ho #idnapped him.
T313P=.T. S=.T
An image shot "ith an extremely long lens is called a telephoto shot. The effect of using a long lens
is to compress the apparent depth of an image so that elements that are relati)ely close or far a"ay
from the camera seem to lie at approximately the same distance. 5n this first shot
from .a1ack '9rian =elgeland 1***- "e can clearly see there is a considera$le distance $eteen
the fallen $ody and the red car.
Iet "hen a telephoto lens is used for a close-up of 7el (i$son his face loo#s li#e it is pressed
against the carJ =ere a telephoto lens create a shallo" space "hich com$ines "ith extreme canted
framing to suggest the physical and psychological disarray of a man "ho has $een $etrayed shot
and left for dead.
<..7 S=.T
The ?oom shot uses a lens "ith se)eral elements that allo"s the filmma#er to change the focal
length of the lens 'see telephoto shot- "hile the shot is in progress. ;e seem to mo)e to"ard or
a"ay from the su$Fect "hile the &uality of the image changes from that of a shorter to a longer
lens or )ice )ersa. The change in apparent distance from the su$Fect is similar to
the crane or trac#ing shots $ut changes in depth of field and apparent si?e is &uite different. <ooms
are commonly used at the $eginning of a scene or e)en a film to introduce an o$Fect or character
$y focusing on it. 5n the initial se&uence of +he Stendhal S1ndrome '!a Sindrome di Stendhal /ario
Argento 5taly 1**+- the camera ?ooms from a medium long shot of people cueing up at a
museum6s entrance to a medium close-up of the female protagonist.
%e" cinematic techni&ues are used in isolation. 8otice ho" the "oman !helps! the ?oom to achie)e
its purpose of singling her out $y mo)ing around.
5n another clip from the same film a ?ooms is used to offer a more detailed )ie" of an o$Fect.
%urthermore as "e mo)e closer and closer to the painting 'Cara)aggio6s 2ead of Medusa" 1,*4-
1+44- $oth our attention and tension are increased.
Section 0 - %raming
5n one sense cinema is an art of selection. The edges of the image create a !frame! that includes or
excludes aspects of "hat occurs in front of the camera -- the !profilmic e)ent!. The expressi)e
&ualities of framing include the angle of the camera to the o$Fect the aspect ratio of the proFected
image the relationship $et"een camera and o$Fect and the association of camera "ith character.
5n Cruel Stor1 of 3outh 'Seishun zankoku monogatari .shima 8agisa 1*+4- the radical
decentering of the character in relation to the frame mar#s their failed struggle to find a place in
their "orld.
A8(13 .% %2A758(
7any films are shot "ith a camera that appears to $e at approximately the same height as its
su$Fect. =o"e)er it is possi$le to film from a position that is significantly lo"er or higher than the
dominant element of the shot. 5n that case the image is descri$ed as lo" angle or high angle
respecti)ely. Angle of framing can $e used to indicate the relation $et"een a character and the
camera6s point of )ie". .r can simply $e used to create stri#ing )isual compositions.
Camera angle is often used to suggest either )ulnera$ility or po"er. 5n +he Color of
.aradise 'Rang4e 5hoda1***- the father "ho rules a$solute o)er his family is often portrayed
from a lo" angle therefore aggrandi?ing his figure.
.n the other hand his $lind son 7ohammad and his elderly grandmother are often shot from a high
angle emphasi?ing their dependence and smallness. These interpretations are not exclusi)e
ho"e)er. The relation $et"een camera and su$Fect can $e rendered ironic or it may suggest more
the su$Fect of perception than to the state of the o$Fect. The father in this film is so $usy smiling at
his fiancee that he falls off his horse "hile 7ohammed and her granny seen from a$o)e may also
indicate that (od is "atching o)er them and #eeping them under protection.
ASP3CT 2AT5.
The ratio of the hori?ontal to the )ertical sides of an image. @ntil the 1*,4s almost all film "as shot
in a G:3 or 1.33:1 aspect ratio. Some filmma#ers used multiple proFectors to create a "ider aspect
ratio "hereas others claimed that the screen should $e s&uare not rectangular. ;idescreen formats
$ecame more popular in the 1*,4s and no" films are made in a )ariety of aspect ratios -- some of
the most common $eing 1.++:1 1.:+:1 1.>,:1 and 0.3,:1 'cinemascope-.
;idescreen films are often trimmed for tele)ision or )ideo release effecti)ely altering the original
compositions. Some /H/6s ha)e the option of sho"ing the film in its original format and in a
reduced ratio that fits the TH screen. Compare the same frame from
9ertolucci6s Besieged '!'Assedio" #$$6-. .$Fects appear much more cramped "ith the reduced
aspect ratio gi)ing an impression of physical 'and psychological- space different from the theatrical
release.
13H31 .% %2A758(
8ot only the angle from "hich a camera films $ut the height can also $e a significant element in a
film. A lo"-le)el camera is placed close to the ground "hereas a high-le)el camera "ould $e placed
a$o)e the typical perspecti)e sho"n in the cinema. Camera le)el is used to signify sympathy for
characters "ho occupy particular le)els in the image or Fust to create pleasura$le compositions.
Camera le)el is o$)iously used to a greater ad)antage "hen the difference in height $e"teen
o$Fects or characters is greater. 5n +he Color of .aradise 'Rang4e 5hoda 5ran 1***- 7aFid 7aFidi
uses different camera height to emphasi?e the difference $et"een 7ohammad and his father.
5n the first image the camera concentrates on 7ohammad as he recogni?es his father6s hand after
patiently "aiting for him for hours. The father is almost a$sent from the sceneC only the part of him
that 7ohammad touches is )isi$le therefore increasing our empathy "ith the $lind $oy. .n the
second image camera le)el is adFusted to the father6s si?e ma#ing 7ohammed a puny defenceless
figure in a "orld that o)ercomes him. The first shot is on 7ohammad6s School for the 9lind "hile
the second is on a shop in Tehran. Through different camera le)els the director ma#es clear "here
7ohammad6s fits and "here he does not.
CA8T3/ %2A758(
Canted %raming is a )ie" in "hich the frame is not le)elC either the right or left side is lo"er than
the other causing o$Fects in the scene to appear slanted out of an upright positon.Canted framings
are used to create an impression of chaos and insta$ility. They are therefore associated "ith the
frantic rhythms of action films music )ideos and animation.
7any =ong Bong films of the >4s and *4s $lend elements of the genres mentioned a$o)e for
instance Tsui =ar#6s .eking *pera Blues '/o Ma /aan 1*>+-. These films employ uncon)entional
framings to achie)e their signature di??ing free"heeling style. Canted framings are also common
"hen shooting "ith a Steadycam.
FOLLOWING SHOT
A shot "ith framing that shifts to #eep a mo)ing figure onscreen. A follo"ing shot com$ines a
camera mo)ement li#e panning trac#ing tilting or craning "ith the specific function of directing
our attention to a character or o$Fect as heDsheDit mo)es inside the frame. 5n this shot from ,1es
(ide Shut 'Stanley Bu$ric# 1***- the camera pans slightly to accompany a couple into the
$allroom floor.
REFRAMING
Short panning or tilting mo)ements to adFust for the figures6 mo)ements #eeping them onscreen or
centered. An important techni&ue of continuity editing than#s to its uno$strusi)e nature. The
characters6 actions ta#e precedence o)er the camera mo)ements as in this dancing scene from
Bu$ric#6s ,1es (ide Shut '1***-
POINT-OF-VIEW SHOT
A shot ta#en "ith the camera placed approximately "here the character6s eyes "ould $e sho"ing
"hat the character "ould seeC usually cut in $efore or after a shot of the character loo#ing. =orror
films and thrillers often use P.H shots to suggest a menacing and unseen presence in the scene.
%ilms that use many point-of-)ie" shots tend to"ard dynamic and non-naturalistic style. 5n this clip
from .eking *pera Blues '/o Ma /aan Tsui =ar# =ong Bong 1*>+- the female impersonator6s
fear of the soldier "ho attempts to procure him for his general is rendered comic $y the cut to P.H
and "ide angle.
P.H is one of the means $y "hich audiences are encouraged to identify "ith characters. =o"e)er
it is actually a relati)ely rare techni&ue: identificatory mechanisms rely more on sympathetic
character and the flo" of narrati)e information than on simple optical affiliation.
WIDE ANGLE LENS
A lens of short focal length that affects a scene6s perspecti)e $y distorting straight lines near the
edges of the frame and $y exaggerating the distance $et"een foreground and $ac#ground planes. 5n
doing so it allo"s for more space to enter the frame 'hence the name !"ide!- "hich ma#es it more
con)enient for shooting in a closed location for instance a real room rather than a three-"all studio
room. 5n addition a "ider lens allo"s for a $igger depth of field. 5n 3,mm filming a "ide angle
lens is 34mm or less. See also telephoto lens.
Since a "ide angle lens distorts the edges of an image as in this frame from 3i 3i '3d"ard Iang
Tai"an 0444- extreme "ide lenses are a)oided in naturalistic styles or they are used in
unrestrained or open spaces "ith no con)erging lines around the edges of the frame.
Section 3 - Scale
5f the same o$Fect "ere filmed at different shot scales it "ould often signify &uite differently. Shot
scale can foster intimacy "ith a character or con)ersely it can s"allo" the character in its
en)ironment..rson ;elles exploited di)ergent shot scales in Citizen 5ane '1*G1- to demonstrate
the changing po"er relationship $et"een Charles %oster Bane and his la"yer. As a $oy his figure is
lost in the sno" at the $ac# of the shot as the la"yer arranges for his adoption. As a young man he
re$els against 9ernstein6s o)ersight rising in the frame as he asserts himself.
EXTREME LONG SHOT
A framing in "hich the scale of the o$Fect sho"n is )ery smallC a $uilding landscape or cro"d of
people "ill fill the screen. @sually the first or last shots of a se&uence that can also function
as esta$lishing shots.. The follo"ing examples of framing from ,1es (ide Shut 'Stanley Bu$ric#
1***- and A Summer +ale'Conte d'7t 3ric 2ohmer 1**+- "ell illustrate the range of uses for this
particular shot scale.
These t"o extreme long shots are also esta$lishing shots. =o"e)er their primary function is
different. ;hereas 2ohmer gi)e us a standard esta$lishing shot that introduces the locale "here the
main characters are a$out to meet Bu$ric# uses the $allroom shot mainly as a $rief transition
$et"een t"o more important scenes. ;hile the t"o shots a$o)e ha)e similar si?es some extreme
long shots can $e significantly larger particularly if shot from the air "ith the help of cranes or
helicopters. This #ind of extreme long shot is also called ird's e1e -ie0 shot since it gi)es an aerial
perspecti)e of the scene.
LONG SHOT
A framing in "hich the scale of the o$Fect sho"n is smallC a standing human figure "ould appear
nearly the height of the screen. 5t ma#es for a relati)ely sta$le shot that can accomodate mo)ement
"ithout reframing. 5t is therefore commonly used in genres "here a full $ody action is to $e seen in
its entirety for instance =olly"ood 7usicals or 1*:4s 7artial Arts films.
Another ad)antage of the long shot is that it allo"s to sho" a character and herDhis surroundings in
a single frame as in these t"o images from ,1es (ide Shut'Stanley Bu$ric# 1***- and A Summer
+ale 'Conte d'7t 3ric 2ohmer 1**+-.
MEDIUM LONG SHOT
%raming such than an o$Fect four or fi)e feet high "ould fill most of the screen )ertically. Also
called plain amricain" gi)en its recurrence in the ;estern genre "here it "as important to #eep a
co"$oy6s "eapon in the image.
MEDIUM CLOSE-UP
A framing in "hich the scale of the o$Fect sho"n is fairly largeC a human figure seen from the chest
up "ould fill most of the screen. Another common shot scale.
CLOSE-UP
A framing in "hich the scale of the o$Fect sho"n is relati)ely large. 5n a close-up a person6s head or
some other similarly si?ed o$Fect "ould fill the frame. %raming scales are not uni)ersal $ut rather
esta$lished in relationship "ith other frames from the same film. These t"o shots from ,1es (ide
Shut and A Summer +ale can $e descri$ed as close-ups e)en if one starts at the nec# and the second
at the upper chest..
%raming scales are usually dra"n in relationship to the human figure $ut this can $e misleading
since a frame need not include people. Accordingly this shot from +he Color of .aradise 'Rang4e
5hoda 7aFid 7aFidi 5ran1***- is also a close-up.
EXTREME CLOSE-UP
A framing in "hich the scale of the o$Fect sho"n is )ery largeC most commonly a small o$Fect or a
part of the $ody usually shot "ith a ?oom lens. Again faces are the most recurrent images in
extreme close-ups as these images from +he Color of .aradise 'Rang4e 5hoda7aFid 7aFidi
1***-
and M1 Neighor +otoro '+onari No +otoro 7iya?a#i =ayao 1*>>- demonstrate. ;ith regard to
the latter it should $e noted that "hile all of these film terms e&ually applies to animation the
technical procedure to achie)e a particular effect can $e )ery different. %or instance this last frame
is a dra"ing of Totoro6s teeth not a ?oom on his face as it "ould ha)e $een the case in a li)e-action
film.
Section - Mo!e"ent
There are many "ays to mo)e a camera: in fluid long ta#es rapid and confusing motions etc. that
esta$lish the rhythm and point of )ie" of a scene.A film such asMan 0ith the Mo-ie
Camera ' Chelo-ek s kinoapparatom /?iga Herto) @SS2 1*0*- features a full catalog of the
creati)e possi$ilities open to the film camera. 5n one famous se&uence "e get to see the
cinematographer using a car as a mo$ile support for a trac#ing shot. %urthermore one soon reali?es
that the "hole process is pro$a$ly $eing mirrored $y a second car in order to film the first one.
Scenes ta#en from $oth cameras are playfully incorporated into the film. ;as this image of the car
passing $y ta#en $y the first or the second carDcamera unitK
CRANE SHOT
A shot "ith a change in framing rendered $y ha)ing the camera a$o)e the ground and mo)ing
through the air in any direction. 5t is accomplished $y placing the camera on a crane '$asically a
large cantile)ered arm- or similar de)ice. Crane shots are often long or extreme long shots: they
lend the camera a sense of mo$ility and often gi)e the )ie"er a feeling of omniscience o)er the
characters.
Crane shots can also $e used to achie)e a flo"ing rhythm particularly in a long ta#e as in this clip
from +he .la1er 'Altman 1**0-
HANDHELD CAMERA# STEAD$CAM
The use of the camera operator6s $ody as a camera support either holding it $y hand or using a
gyroscopic sta$ili?er and a harness. 8e"sreel and "artime camera operators fa)ored smaller
cameras such as the 3clair that "ere &uic#ly adopted $y documentarist and a)ant-garde filmma#ers
nota$ly the cinLma )eritL mo)ement of the 1*,4s and 1*+4s. They "ere also used $y young
filmma#ers since they "ere cheap and lent the images a greater feeling of sponteneity. At the time
this challenge to pre)ailing standards "as percei)ed as anti-cinematic $ut e)entually it came to $e
accepted as a style. ;hereas hand held cameras gi)e a film an unsta$le Fer#y feel they also allo"s
for a greater degree of mo)ement and flexi$ility than $ul#ier standard cameras --at a fraction of the
cost. %ilmma#ers no" are experimenting "ith digital )ideo in a similar "ay. (yroscopically
sta$ili?ed !steadicams! "ere in)ented in the 1*:4s and made it possi$le to create smooth !trac#ing!
shots "ithout cum$ersome e&uipment. 7ore recently they are extensi)ely used in music )ideos and
in the films of the /ogme mo)ement such as 1ars Hon Trier6s/ancer in the /ark '/enmar# 0444-
5ronically "hile today6s steadicams allo" for a fairly sta$le image 1ars Hon Trier and his accolites
prefer to exacer$ate the Fer#iness and unsta$ility traditionally associated "ith these cameras as a
mar#er of )isceral autorial inter)ention. 5n fact com$ining steadicam shooting "ith
aggressi)e reframings and Fump cuts or e)en $y shooting on lo" definition formats /ogme and
other radical filmma#ing mo)ements attempt to create a ne" cinematic loo# as further a"ay as
possi$le from mainstream =olly"ood.
PAN
A camera mo)ement "ith the camera $ody turning to the right or left. .n the screen it produces a
mo$ile framing "hich scans the space hori?ontally. A pan directly and immediately connects t"o
places or characters thus ma#ing us a"are of their proximity. The speed at "hich a pan occurs can
$e expoited for different dramatic purposes. %or instance in a 7i?oguchi or a =ou film t"o
characters may $e ha)ing a con)ersation in a room and after se)eral minutes the camera might pan
and re)eal a third person "as also present thus changing the "hole implication of the scene. 5n a
film li#e +raffic 'Ste)en Soder$ergh 0444- on the other hand pans are usually )ery &uic#
suggesting that characters ha)e no time to "aste and that decisions must $e ta#en fast therefore
contri$uting to the sense of imminent danger and moral urgency that the films tries to communicate.
5n the clip a$o)e the defense la"yer has Fust finished a long cle)er speech yet the Fudge has no
second thoughts on his )erdict nor any pity for the 'presuma$ly guilty- accused and their rich legal
cohorts. 1astly a pan does not necessarily mean that the camera mo)es along an hori?ontal line.
This clip from +he Stendhal S1ndrome '!a Sindrome di Stendhal /ario Argento1**+- illustrates
"hat "e could call a 89:; pan<
TILT
A camera mo)ement "ith the camera $ody s"i)eling up"ard or do"n"ard on a stationary support.
5t produces a mo$ile framing that scans the space )ertically. 5ts function is similar to that
of pans and trac#ing shots al$eit on a )ertical axis. 5n this clip from Besieged '!'Assedio 5taly
1**>- 9ernardo 9ertolucci uses a tilt to esta$lish the social 'and e)en racial- distance $et"een an
African housemaid and her "ealthy 3nglish employer.
A tilt usually also implies a change in the angle of framingC in this clip the camera starts "ith a high
angle )ie" of the "oman and ends up on a lo" angle )ie" of the man --"hich o$)iously reinforces
the social ine&uality of their relationship. 1astly a tilt is also a means of gradually
unco)ering offscreen space. This can $e exploited for suspense since a sense of anticipation gro"s
in the )ie"er as the camera mo)ement forces herDhis attention in a precise direction yet ne)er
#no"ing "hen it "ill stop nor "hat "ill $e found there.
TRAC%ING SHOT
A mo$ile framing that tra)els through space for"ard $ac#"ard or laterally. See also crane
shot pan and tilt. A trac#ing shot usually follo"s a character or o$Fect as it mo)es along the screen.
Contrary to the pan "hich mimic#s a turning head a trac#ing shot physically accompanies the
entire range of mo)ement. 5t therefore creates a closer affinity "ith the character or o$Fect mo)ing
since the spectator is not Fust "atching himDher mo)ing $ut mo)ing 0ith himDher. A standard
trac#ing shot as it "as de)ised in the Classical Studio filmma#ing consisted in placing the camera
on a "heeled support called a doll1 and mo)ing it along rails or trac#s to ensure the smoothness of
mo)ement associated "ith the continuity editing style. As cameras $ecame lighter and steadier
trac#ing shots $ecame more flexi$le and creati)e: $ycicles "heelchairs roller s#ates and many
ingenious "heeled artifacts augmented the range of mo)ement of trac#ing shots. 5n this clip
from Central Station 'Central do Brasil ;alter Salles 9ra?il 1**>- one ininterrupted mo)ement
is rendered "ith t"o different trac#ing shots lin#ed $y a match on action.
The first is a classic trac#ing shot "ith the camera on rails side"ays to the character that is mo)ing
follo"ing the child as the trains departs. The second uses the train as a dolly as it mo)es a"ay from
the running child. 5ndeed trac#ing shots are one of the most suggesti)e and creati)e camera
mo)ements one that can $e accomplished in a num$er of cle)er "ays. 8ot surprisingly
some auteurs li#e 7ax .phuls or .rson ;elles made )irtuosistic trac#ing shots a staple of their
films often in conFuntion "ith long ta#es.
WHIP PAN
An extremely fast mo)ement of the camera from side to side "hich $riefly causes the image to $lur
into a set of indistinct hori?ontal strea#s. .ften an impercepti$le cut "ill Foin t"o "hip pans to
create a tric# transition $et"een scenes. As opposed to dissol)es action or graphic matches and
fades --the most common transitions of the continuity style-- "hip pans al"ays stand out gi)en
their a$rupt $ris# nature. Commonly used in flashy action genres such as #ung-fu mo)ies from the
:4s li#e =ists of =ur1 '+ang Shan /a >iong ;ei 1o =on# Bong 1*:1-.
Part G: 3diting
Section & - De!ice'
a( TRANSITIONS
The shot is defined $y editing $ut editing also "or#s to Foin shots together. There are many "ays of
effecting that transition some more e)ident than others. 5n the analytical tradition editing ser)es to
esta$lish space and lead the )ie"er to the most salient aspects of a scene. 5n the
classical continuity style editing techni&ues a)oid dra"ing attention to themsel)es. 5n a
constructi)ist tradition such as So)iet 7ontage cinema there is no such false modesty.
Herto)6s Man 0ith the Mo-ie Camera 'Chelo-ek s kinoapparatom" @SS2 1*0*- cele$rates the
po"er of the cinema to create a ne" reality out of disparate fragments.
C=3AT C@T
Cheat cut. 5n the continuit1 editing system a cut "hich purports to sho" continuous time and space
from shot to shot $ut "hich actually mismatches the position of figures or o$Fects in the scene. 5n
this se&uence from Meet Me in St< !ouis 'Hincente 7inelli 1*GG- the editing sacrifices actual
physical space for dramatic space. As "e can see in the first shot there is a "all $ehind the
telephone.
=o"e)er that "all magically disappears in the third shot in order to sho" $oth the telephone and
the family seated around the dining ta$le 'an important element in the film- from an angle that
"ould had $een impossi$le in an actual room. Cheat cuts "ere also often used to disguise the
relati)ely short stature of leading men in relation to their statues&ue female co-stars.
C2.SSC@TT58( a#a PA2A1131 3/5T58(
3diting that alternates shots of t"o or more lines of action occurring in different places usually
simultaneously. The t"o actions are therefore lin#ed associating the characters from $oth lines of
action. 5n this extended clip from 3d"ard Iang6s 3i 3i 'Tai"an 0444- father and daughter go out on
dates at presuma$ly the same time and go through the same motions e)en if the father is in Aapan
and the daughter in Taipei.
To further stress the similarities the father is actually reli)ing his first date "ith his first girlfriend
'"hom he has Fust met again after 04 years- "hile his daughter is actually on her first dateJ Iang
uses parallel editing across space and time to suggest that history repeats itself generation after
generation.
C@T-58 C@T A;AI
An instantaneous shift from a distant framing to a closer )ie" of some portion fo the same space
and )ice )ersa. 5n 1ars Hon Trier6s /ancer in the /ark ' /enmar# 0444- Selma and 9ill ha)e a
dramatic con)ersation in 9ill6s car that is framed $y a cut-in and a cut-a"ay.
The t"o cuts neatly $rac#et 9ill6s anguished confession as a separate moment pri)ate and isolated
that only Selma #no"s a$out. This editing-constructed secrecy "ill ultimately ha)e drastic
conse&uences for Selma.
/5SS.1H3
A transition $et"een t"o shots during "hich the first image gradually disappears "hile the second
image gradually appearsC for a moment the t"o images $lend insuperimposition< /issol)es can $e
used as a fairly straighfor"ard editing de)ice to lin# any t"o scenes or in more creati)e "ays for
instance to suggest hallucinatory states. 5n this series of shots from +he Stendhal S1ndrome '!a
Sindrome di Stendhal /ario Argento 1**+- a young "oman $ecomes so a$sor$ed $y
9rueghel6s +he =all of ?carus that she actually di)es into the painting6s seaJ 'at least in her
imagination in !real life! she faints-.
525S
A round mo)ing mask that can close do"n to end a scene 'iris-out- or emphasi?e a detail or it can
open to $egin a scene 'iris-in- or to re)eal more space around a detail. %or instance in this scene
from Neighors '9uster Beaton 1*04- the iris is used "ith the comic effect of gradually re)ealing
that the female protagonist is 1- ready for her "edding and 0- ready for her not-too-luxurious
"edding.
5ris is a common de)ice of early films 'at at time "hen some techni&ues li#e ?ooming "ere not
feasi$le- so much so that "hen it is used after 1*34 it is often percei)ed as charminlgly
anachronistic or nostalgic as in Truffaut6s Shoot the .iano .la1er '1*+4-.
A@7P C@T
An elliptical cut that appears to $e an interruption of a single shot. 3ither the figures seem to change
instantly against a constant $ac#ground or the $ac#ground changes instantly "hile the figures
remain constant. See also elliptical editing steadicam.< Aump cuts are anathema to Classical
=olly"ood continuity editing $ut feature prominently in a)ant-garde and radical filmma#ing.;hen
the %rench 8ou)elle Hague films of the 1*+4s made Fump cuts an essential part of their playful
modern outloo# many directors from around the glo$e started to use Fump cuts --either creati)ely or
in a last ditch attempt to $ecome !hip!. 7ore recently Fump cuts are more commonly associated
"ith music )ideos )ideo or alternati)e filmma#ing li#e 1ars Hon Trier6s /ogma films. =ere is an
example from /ancer in the /ark '/enmar# 0444-.
Aump cuts are used expressi)ely to suggest the ruminations or am$i)alences of a character or of
hisDher e)eryday life $ut they are also a clear signifier of rupture "ith mainstream film storytelling.
2ather than presenting a film as a perfectly self-contained story that seamlessly unfold in front of
us Fump cuts are li#e utterances that e)identiates $oth the artificiality and the difficulties of telling
such a story.
3STA915S=58( S=.TD233STA915S=58( S=.T
A shot usually in)ol)ing a distant framing that sho"s the spatial relations among the important
figures o$Fects and setting in a scene. @sually the first fe" shots in a scene are esta$lishing shots
as they introduces us to a location and the space relationships inside it.
5n the initial se&uence from .eking *pera Blues '/o Ma /aan =on# Bong1*>+- director Tsui
=ar# uses three shots to esta$lish the locale. 5n the first one three musicians are sho"n against a
fireplace in "hat loo#s li#e a luxurious room. .ur suspicions are confirmed $y the second
esta$lishing shot "hich sho"s us the other half of the ample room 'shotD re)erse shot- and re)eals a
party going on.
After this introduction the camera mo)es for"ard "ith se)eral close-ups of $oth the musicians and
the spectators. At the end of the se&uence =ar# sho"s us the entire room in a larger shot. This final
esta$lishing shot is called a reestalishing shot for it sho"s us once again the spatial relationships
introduced "ith the esta$lishing shots.
SHOT)REVERSE SHOT
T"o or more shots edited together that alternate characters typically in a con)ersation situation.
5n continuit1 editing characters in one framing usually loo# left in the other framing right. .)er-
the-shoulder framings are common in shotDre)erse-shot editing. Shot D re)erse shots are one of the
most firmly esta$lished con)entions in cinema and they are usually lin#ed through the e&ually
persuasi)e eyeline matches. These con)entions ha)e $ecome so strong that they can $e exploited to
ma#e impro$a$le meanings con)incing as in this se&uence from +he Stendhal S1ndrome '!a
Sindrome di Stendhal 5taly1**+-. /irector /ario Argento has his protagonist Anna loo#ing at
9otticelli6s +he Birth of )enus 'c1G>,-...
...$ut "ith the use of successi)e shotD re)erse shots eyeline matches and matching framings it
soons $egins to loo# as if Henus herself is loo#ing at AnnaJ
SUPERIMPOSITION
The exposure of more than one image on the same film strip. @nli#e a dissol)e a superimposition
does not signify a transition from one scene to another. The techni&ue "as often used to allo" the
same performer to appear simultaneously as t"o characters on the screen 'for example Son of the
Sheik- to express su$Fecti)e or intoxicated )ision '+he !ast !augh- or simply to introduce a
narrati)e element from another part of the diegetic "orld into the scene. 5n this clip
fromNeighors '9uster Beaton 1*04- the resentful father of the $ride loo#s at the "edding ring
and immediately associates in his mind "ith a fi)e and dime store. The su$Fecti)e shot gi)es us a
clear indication of his opinion of his soon to $e son-in-la".
WIPE
A transition $et"en shots in "hich a line passes across the screen eliminating the first shot as it
goes and replacing it "ith the next one. A )ery dynamic and noticea$le transition it is usually
employed in action or ad)enture films. 5t often suggest a $rief temporal ellypsis and a direct
connection $et"een the t"o images. 5n this example from Burosa"a6s Se-en Samurai 'Sichinin No
Samurai Aapan 1*,G- the old man6s "ords are immediately corro$orated $y the "andering
destitute samurai coming into to"n.
As other transitions de)ices li#e the "hip pan "ipes $ecame fashiona$le at an specific historical
time 'the 1*,4s and 1*+4s- so much so as to $ecame stylistic mar#ers of the film of the period.
*( MATCHES
3diting matches refer to those techni&ues that Foin as "ell as di)ide t"o shots $y ma#ing some form
of connection $et"een them. That connection can $e inferred from the situation portrayed in the
scene 'for example eyeline match- or can $e of a purely optical nature 'graphic match-.
E$ELINE MATCH
A cut o$eying the a@is of action principle in "hich the first shot sho"s a person off in one direction
and the second sho"s a near$y space containing "hat he or she sees. 5f the person loo#s left the
follo"ing shot should imply that the loo#er is offscreen right. The follo"ing shots from /ario
Argento6s +he Stendhal S1ndrome'!a Sindrome di Stendhal 5taly 1**+- depict Anna loo#ing at a
painting 9rueghel6s +he =all of ?carus< The scene ta#es place inside %iren?e6s most famous
museum the @ffi?i (allery.
%irst "e see her loo#ing... then "e see "hat she loo#s at.
As her interest gro"s the eyeline match 'that is the connection $et"een loo#er and loo#ed- is
stressed "ith matching close-ups of Anna6s face and 5carus6s falling into the ocean in the
painting.Again this implies that Anna is loo#ing directly at 5carus6s $ody.
5ronically e)en if Argento managed to film inside the real @ffi?i gallery the painting he "anted to
use +he =all of ?carus" is not part of the museum6s collectionJ The painting that "e see is pro$a$ly
a reproduction shot in the studio and edited together "ith Anna6s shots in the @ffi?i to ma#e us
$elie)e that they are $oth in the same room. As this example demonstrates eyeline matches can $e a
)ery persuasi)e tool to construct space in a film real or imagined.
GRAPHIC MATCH
T"o successi)e shots Foined so as to create a strong similarity of compositional elements 'e.g.
color shape-. @sed in trasparent continuity styles to smooth the transition $et"een t"o shots as in
this clip from (omen *n +he )erge *f A Ner-ous Breakdo0n 'MuAeres al Borde de un AtaBue de
Ner-ios AlmodM)ar 1*>>-.
(raphic matches can also $e used to ma#e metaphorical associations as in So)iet 7ontage style.
%urthermore some directors li#e .?u IasuFiro use graphic matches as an integral part of their film
style.
MATCH ON ACTION
A cut "hich splices t"o different )ie"s of the same action together at the same moment in the
mo)ement ma#ing it seem to continue uninterrupted. Quite logically these characteristics ma#e it
one of the most common transitions in the continuity style. =ere is an example from +raffic 'Ste)en
Soder$ergh 0444-
A match on action adds )ariety and dinamism to a scene since it con)eys t"o mo)ements: the one
that actually ta#es place on screen and an implied one $y the )ie"er since herDhis position is
shifted.
c( DURATION
.nly since the introduction of editing to the cinema at the turn of the 04th century has not-editing
$ecome an option. The decision to extend a shot can $e as significant as the decision to cut it.
3diting can affect the experience of time in the cinema $y creating a gap $et"een screen time and
diegetic time '7ontage ando)erlapping editing- or $y esta$lishing a fast or slo" rhythm for the
scene.
LONG TA%E# a+a PLAN-SE,UENCE
A shot that continues for an unusually lengthy time $efore the transition to the next shot. The
a)erage lenght per shot differs greatly for different times and places $ut most contemporary films
tend to ha)e faster editing rates. 5n general lines any shot a$o)e one minute can $e considered a
long ta#e. =ere is an excerpt from the initial shot of 2o$ert Altman6s +he .la1er '1**0- "hich not
only runs for more than eight minutes $ut it is in itself an hommage to another famous long ta#e
the first shot of ;elles6s +ouch of ,-il '1*,>-.
@nless shot at a fixed angle "ith a fixed camera and no mo)ement long ta#es are extremely hard
to shoot. They ha)e to $e choreographed and rehearsed to the last detail since any error "ould
ma#e it necessary to start all o)er again from scratch. Sophisticated long ta#es such as this one
from +he .la1er "hich includes all #inds of camera mo)ements and ?ooms are often seen
as auteuristic mar#s of )irtuosity. Aside from the challenge of shooting in real time long ta#es
decisi)ely influence a film6s rhythm. /epending on ho" much mo)ement is included a long ta#e
can ma#e a film tense stagnant and spell-$inding or daring flo"ing and carefree.5ndeed directors
li#e Altman ;elles 2enoir Angelopoulos Tar#o)s#i or 7i?oguchi ha)e made long ta#es 'usually
in com$ination "ith deep focus anddeep space- an essential part of their film styles.
OVERLAPPING EDITING
Cuts that repeat part or all of an action thus expanding its )ie"ing time and plot duration. 7ost
commonly associated "ith experimental filmmma#ing due to its temporally disconcerting and
purely graphic nature it is also featured in films in "hich action and mo)ement ta#e precedence
o)er plot and dialogue: sports documentaries musicals martial arts etc. .)erlapping editing is a
common characteristic of the fren?ied =ong Bong action films of the >4s and *4s. ;hen director
Aohn ;oo mo)ed to =olly"ood he tried to incorporate some of that style into mainstream action
films such as MissionC ?mpossile D '0444-.
RH$THM
The percei)ed rate and regularity of sounds series of shots and mo)ements "ithin the shots.
2hythmic factors include $eat 'or pulse- accent 'or stress- and tempo 'or pace-. 2hythm is one of
the essential features of a film for it decisi)ely contri$utes to its mood and o)erall impression on
the spectator. 5t is also one of the most complex to analy?e since it is achie)ed through the
com$ination of mise-en-scene cinematography sound and editing. 5ndeed rhythm can $e
understood as the final $alance all of the elements of a film. 1et us compare ho" rhythm can
radically alter the treatment of a similar scene. These t"o clips from /econstructing 2arr1';oody
Allen 1**:- and Cries and (hispers ')iskingar *ch Rop 5ngmar 9ergman S"eden1*:0- feature a
couple at a ta$le and $oth clips feature a moment of fracture $et"een the t"o characters. Still they
could not $e more dissimilar. Allen employs fast cuts 'e)en Fump cuts- pans &uic# dialogue and
gesturing as he concentrates exclusi)ely on the t"o characters shot from a )ariety of angles $ut
al"ays in medium close-up and close-up.
3)en if $oth characters o)ertly disagree "ith each other there is an o)erall feeling of "armth and
inmediacy $et"een them suggested $y their proximity 'esta$lished in short pans and close-ups- and
in the tone of their speech. The &uic# camera mo)ements and different camera placements suggest
the uneasiness of $oth characters as they $udge on their seats.
Cries and (hispers" on the other hand present us "ith a scene of horrifying stillness. 9ergman
accentuates the separation $et"een man and "oman $y shooting them frontally and almost
eliminating dialogue. 5n this context e)en the smallest sounds of for#s and #ni)es sound ominousC a
glass shattering resonates li#e a shot.
%urthermore the mise-en-scene $ecomes as e&ually if not more important than the characters
reducing e)erything to dour red $lac# and "hites. The feeling of claustropho$ia is enhanced $y the
use of shallo" space ha)ing the characters $ecome one "ith the austere $ac#grounds. Pace is
deli$erately slo" and it only &uic#es "hen the glass $rea#s and $oth characters lift up their heads
only to immediately return to normal. 9ergman accelerates the rhythm for a second punctuating the
moment of the glass $rea#ing so that a tri)ial incident is magnified into a clear signal of disaster.
1astly rhythm is almost $y definition intrisically related to music and sound. Some of the most
stri#ing examples of the use of music as a film6s dri)ing force occur in the 'endlessly imitated-
spaghetti "esterns of Sergio 1eone "hich "ere "ritten in close colla$oration "ith composer 3nnio
7orricone. 5n fact sometimes the music "ould $e composed first and then a scene that fitted that
rhythm "ould $e shot thus re)ersing the customary order.
The prelude to the final shotdo"n of +he Good" the Bad and the Egl1 '?l Buono" il Brutto" il
Catti-o 5taly 1*++- runs for se)eral minutes 'of "hich "e only see the last minute here- as three
men face each other in a triangle "aiting to see "ho "ill ta#e the first step. .ne of the film6s theme
songs is played in its entirety from a slo" elegiac $eginning to a fren?y crescendo that is a$ruptly
cut off $y the first gunshot. The slo" mounting crescendo is paralleled $y an increase in the editing
rate and an intensified framing 'the se&uence actually $egins on a long shot similar to the pre)ious
one-.
Section - - St.le'
The patterned use of transitions matches and duration can $e identified as a cinematic style. 3diting
styles are usually associated "ith historical moments technological de)elopments or national
schools.
CONTINUIT$ EDITING
A system of cutting to maintain continuous and clear narrati)e action. Continuity editing relies upon
matching screen direction position and temporal relations from shot to shot. The film supports the
)ie"er6s assumption that space and time are contiguous $et"een successi)e shots. Also
the diegesis is more readily understood "hen directions on the screen match directions in the "orld
of the film. The !1>4N rule! sho"n in the diagram $elo" dictates that the camera should stay in
one of the areas on either side of the a@is of action 'an imaginary line dra"n $et"een the t"o maFor
dramatic elements A and 9 in a scene usually t"o characters-.
9y follo"ing this rule the filmma#er ensures that each character occupies a consistent area of the
frame helping the audience to understand the layout of the scene. This sense of a consistent space is
reinforced $y the use of techni&ues such as the eyeline match or match on action< 5n this se&uence
from Neighors '9uster Beaton 1*04- continuity is maintained $y the spatial and temporal
contiguity of the shots and the preser)ation of direction $et"een "orld and screen. 7ore
importantly the shots are matched on Beaton6s actions as he shuttles across the courtyard from
stair"ell to stair"ell.
5n the =olly"ood continuity editing system the angle of the camera axis to the axis of action usually
changes $y more than 34 N $et"een t"o shots for example in a con)ersation scene rendered as a
series of shotDre)erse shots. The 1>4N line is not usually crossed unless the transition is smoothed $y
a P.H shot or a reesta$lishing shot.
MONTAGE
1. A synonym for editing. 0. An approach to editing de)eloped $y the So)iet filmma#ers of the
1*04s such as Pudo)#in Herto) and 3isensteinC it emphasi?es dynamic often discontinuous
relationships $et"een shots and the Fuxtaposition of images to create ideas not present in either shot
$y itself. Sergei 3isenstein in particular de)eloped a complex theory of montage that included
montage "ithin the shot $et"een sound and image multiple le)els of o)ertones as "ell as in the
conflict $et"een t"o shots. This se&uence from *ctoer '*kt1ar @SS2 1*0:- is an example of
3isenstein6s intellectual montage. The increasingly primiti)e icons from )arious "orld religions are
lin#ed $y patterns of duration screen direction and shot scale to produce the concept of religion as a
degenerate practice used to legitimate corrupt states.
So)iet 7ontage pro)ed to $e influential around the "orld for commercial as "ell as a)ant-garde
filmma#ers. ;e can see echoes of Pudo)#in in +he Grapes of (rath 'Aohn %ord @SA
1*3*- Mother ?ndia '7eh$oo$ Bhan 5ndia 1*,:- and +he Godfather '%rancis %ord Coppola
@SA 1*:3-. 5n a famous se&uence from the latter film shots of 7ichael attending his son6s $aptism
are intercut "ith the $rutal #illings of his ri)als. 2ather than stressing the temporal simultaneity of
the e)ents 'it is highly unli#ely that all of the 8e" Ior# 7afia heads can $e caught off guard at
exactly the same timeJ- the montage suggests 7ichael6s dual nature and committement to $oth his
!families! as "ell as his a$ility to gain acceptance into $oth on their o"n terms -- through religion
and )iolence.
ELLIPTICAL EDITING
Shot transitions that omit parts of an e)ent causing an ellipses in plot and story duration. 5n this clip
from +raffic 'Ste)en Soder$ergh 0444- a drug party is rendered through elliptical editing 'achie)ed
"ith a plentiful use of dissol)es and Fump cuts- in order to $oth shorten the time and suggest the
character6s ram$ling mental states.
3lliptical editing need not $e confined to a same place and time. A se)en-minute song se&uence
from 2um Aapke 2ain 5oun 'SooraF 9artFatya 5ndia 1**G- dances us through se)eral months in the
life of a family from a cric#et match to a ritual "elcoming a ne" "ife.
from scenes of the ne"ly"eds6 daily life... to the announcement of PooFa6s pregnacy
from a gift sho"er for the upcoming $a$y... to multiple scenes of cele$rations as PooFa6s
approaches her ninth month.