BACKGROUND

Millennium Bug
a problem for both digital (computer-related) and non-
digital documentation and data storage situations which
resulted from the practice of abbreviating a four-digit year to
two digits.



Information Technology Infrastructure
everything that supports the flow and processing (creation,
storage, manipulation) of digital information.


IT Infrastructure systems
provide the fundamental engineering & physical framework
that underlies the operation of a national economy & society.
deliver services such as water, power, and transportation,
and provide a regulatory framework in the form of standards,
codes and regulatory policy environments.
--> technical structures that support a society,(roads, water
supply, sewers, electrical grids, telecommunications) essential
to sustain, or enhance societal living conditions.

COMPUTER AGE

Computers have both simplified & complicated our lives
Did you wonder how these Computers have attained its
status?
the rapid advancement of
Microprocessors
Previously learned how to
convert a decimal number to
hexa, octal & binary.
this is where computer
communicates and this is the
basic requirement for
arithmetic, logic & control
process

Microprocessor the heart and brain of the CPU of
computer which handles the computers requirement for
arithmetic, logic, and control.

The invention of the microprocessor has had a profound
impact on many aspects of our lives. Today even the most
mundane chores are being accomplished under its
supervision-which allows us more time for other productive
endeavors.

Even a short list of the devices using the microprocessor
shows how dependent on it we have become:
Pocket calculators
Digital Cameras, watches (some with calculators built in)
Automatic tellers (at banks and food stores)
Cell phones
CD and MP3 players
Home security and control devices
Realistic video games, ETC.


EVOLUTION OF MICROPROCESSORS

FIRST-GENERATION
Vacuum Tube electron tube (in North America),
thermionic valve, tube or valve
a device controlling electric current through a vacuum
in a sealed container

ENIAC Electronic Numerical Integrator and Computer
(1940s)
was state of the art and occupied thousands of feet of floor
space the early days of computers
constructed largely of vacuum tubes, it was slow, prone to
breakdowns, and performed a limited number of instructions.




SECOND-GENERATION
With the invention of the transistor, computers shrank in size
and increased in power, leading to the second generation of
computers.

Transistor a semiconductor device used to amplify and
switch electronic signals and electrical power.
Composed of a semiconductor material with at least
three terminals for connection to an external circuit.
THIRD GENRATION
*Third-generation computers came about with the invention of
the integrated circuit.
*With third-generation computers, we again saw a decrease in
size and increase in computing power.

Integrated Circuit allowed hundreds of transistors to be
packed on a small piece of silicon.
The transistors were connected to form logic elements, the
basic building blocks of digital computers.

1960s Research Designer devised IC (Integrated Circuits)
by combining various electronics components into a single
component on a silicon Chip.

1969 4004 was originated from a project of Busicom, a
Japanese calculator manufacturer, asked Intel to build a
chipset for high-performance desktop calculators.

Intel 4004 the first general-purpose, commercial
microprocessor, $60

November 15, 1971 1st known advertisement for the 4004
Electronic News.





Early 1970s Intel introduced the 8008 chip, which ushered
in the first generation of microprocessors.

Even some of the early fourth-generation micro-processors
had limited capabilities because of the lack of addressing
modes and instruction types.

Eight-bit machines like the 8080
TM
, Z80
TM
, and 6800
TM
were
indeed more advanced than previous microprocessors, but
they still did not possess multiply and divide instructions.

8-bit In computer architecture, 8-bit integers, memory
addresses, or other data units are those that are at most 8
bits (1 octet) wide.
There are 2
8
(256) possible values for 8 bits.

1974 The 8008 Chip had evolved into 8080, a popular
second-generation of microprocessors with general-purpose
use.

1978 Intel produced the 3
rd
-generation 8086 processor,
which represented a significant advance in its design.

1981 The 8088 was selected by IBM for its forthcoming
personal computer.

*8088 a variation of the 8086, provided a slightly simpler
design & compatibility with then-current input/output devices.

Enhanced versions of the 8086 include the 80286, 80386,
80486, Pentium & other more advanced Pentium and Celeron
models, each of which provides additional power.




FOURTH GENERATION
LSI
new technology, called large-scale integration
was even faster than the previous medium- and small-
scale integration (MSI and SSI) technologies, which dealt with
only tens or hundreds of transistors on a chip.
created the fourth generation of computers.

VLSI
An advanced form of LSI technology
very large scale integration, is now being used to in-crease
processing power

*Within the last few decades, microprocessor technology has
improved tremendously.
Thirty-two-bit processors can now multiply and divide,
operate on many different data types (4-, 8-, 16-, 32-bit
numbers), and address billions of bytes of information.

***Each new microprocessor to hit the market boasts a fancier
instruction set and faster clock speed, and our need for faster
and better processors keeps growing.

RISC
Reduced Instruction Set Computer
technology that is based on the fact that most
microprocessors use only a small portion of their entire
instruction set
By designing a machine that uses only the more common
types of instructions, processing speed can be increased
without the need for a significant advance in integrated circuit
technology.


Why the need for super-fast machines?
Consider a microprocessor dedicated to displaying three-
dimensional color images on a video screen. Rotating the
three-dimensional image around an imaginary axis in real
time (in only a few seconds or less) may require millions or
even billions of calculations.
A slow microprocessor could not do the job.


FIFTH-GENERATION COMPUTERS
Eventually we will see the 5
th
generation Computers.
The whole artificial intelligence movement is pushing
toward that goal, with the desired outcome being the
production of a machine that can think. Until then, we will
have to make the best use of the technology we have
available.













DATA CENTERS provide an environment for
computing equipment;
a facility used to house computer systems &
associated components, such as telecommunications
and storage systems.
*includes redundant or backup power supplies,
redundant data communications connections,
environmental controls (e.g., air conditioning, fire
suppression) & security devices.
A data center can occupy one room of a building, one or
more floors, or an entire building.
Data Datum (sing.) the raw materials of the EDP
system, that facts & figures that must be fed into,
processed, & outputted to provide the needed
information to the user.
Collection of facts in the form of numbers, special
symbols, letters or combination of these.
includes texts & letters, numbers, sounds, pictures,
graphics, images, & video
*We input DATA to the computer, then the computer will
process and analyze inputted data using a software.
And the result of that processed data is what we call
Information
These are items of knowledge, which may be
regarded as facts but are not necessary meaningful

Data Processing
main task of the computer
processing of data through the use of a computer to
create the information required by man for planning &
decision making.
the transformation of data into a meaningful & useful
information.

Central Processing Unit (CPU) heart & brain of the
computer system. It is where data processing takes
place. The computation & control of different devices
happen here.
Charles Babbage father of Computer because of his
discovery of Data Processing Cycle
2 Machines he invented:
1. Analytic Engine
2. Difference Engine
Data Processing Cycle
Get the
Class List
from the
College
Masterlist
Name
Jose Santos
90 87 93
Leni Gomez
91 87 89
Adrian Go 75
83 81
Get the
average of
the three
subjects
Sort the list
according
to the
average (
highest to
lowest)
LIST OF
TOP 20
Name
Ave
Sony Uy
93
Tom Cat
94
Pilar Yu
93
The Top
3
Student
met their
course
grade
goal

5 Phases of Data Processing:
1. ) ORIGINATION a step that involves the gathering
of data.
Activities Input:
1. Editing elimination of gathered data not
needed for processing
2. Coding transformation of data into more
concise form
3. Verifying checking for errors, checking the
accuracy of the coded data
GIGO Garbage In, Garbage
Out phrase that is used to refer about the computers
consistency that it will always give same result all the
time.

2.) INPUT the transformation of gathered data into
form acceptable for processing.
The feeding of raw materials (data) or instructions to
the Central processing Unit (CPU) of the computer in a
machine-readable format.
Activities in Process:
1. Classifying separates data into categories
2. Sorting arranging according to sequences
or arrange the data in a specified order (ascending,
descending, etc.)
Structured Data numbers, text, dates
Unstructured Data images, videos,
documents
3. Calculating refers to computation perform
on the data
4. Recording saving the data in storage
device documentation of data in order to produce
information
5. Summarizing refers to aggregation of data
Ex: final grade, total, sum, standard deviation

3.) PROCESS the performance of operations &
manipulation of data in order to convert them into
meaningful information in the CPU.
Parts of the CPU:
A. Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU) performs arithmetic
operations such as addition, subrtraction, division &
multiplication. Logical operation such as comparison of
2 or more numbers are also done here.
where arithmetic operations, logical comparisons &
operational decisions are performed. Some of these
operations are comparing, sorting & rearranging of data.
B. Control Unit acts as the supervisor of all
operations within the computer based on the program
instructions given.
Directs the flow of data and instructions to the
different parts of the computer.
It acts as the traffic cop of the central processor.
It supervises the insertion, retrieval, data
manipulation & execution of instructions in the main
memory of the CPU.
C. Main Memory or Primary Storage Unit
stores instructions & data while processing is done
Used to store instructions & data on a temporary
basis
It is also known as the internal memory of the
computer.
Working Memory of the Computer main memory of the CPU.

Types of Computer Memory:
a. Random Access Memory (RAM) store instructions
which later can be erased or changed. All information
stored here are lost and erased when the computer is
turned off.
Used to store data & instructions entered from the
keyboard and other input devices.
Contents are erased when the power is turned off.

b. Read Only Memory (ROM) contains permanently
stored instructions that a computer is required to keep
able to perform its basic routine operations.
Designed to store programs and data that control the
mechanical operations of the computer. The contents
are not lost in the event of power failure or when the
machine is turned off.
c. External Memory Secondary Storage ;
uses removable device to store information; nonvolatile
& is used to store data outside the CPU.
Ex: Magnetic disk (hard drives, flash drives & floppy
disks)
- most widely used
Optical disks (BD, DVD & CD)
- read-only disks that read & record data using laser
beams instead of magnetic means.
4.) OUTPUT consists of results or information
brought about by the manipulation of data
the presentation of data or the preparation of
processed information in form acceptable to the user for
analysis or for future processing.
The final stage in computer operations where the
processed data are converted into a format
understandable by people.
Activities:
1. Reproducing refer to making multiple
copies of data either on the same medium
or ordinary medium.
2. Communicating refers to transfer of data
from one person /place to another.
3. Storing refers to saving & storing data
4. Retrieving opening , finding & recovering of
data
Example: OUTPUT of the Computer


HARDCOPY - printed copy(printout) of info from a
computer.
Ex: printout on a sheet of paper containing information ,
Teleprinter pages, continuous printed
tapes, Facsimile pages, computer printouts, and radio
photo prints.
SOFTCOPY - the unprinted digital document file
Ex: Hardisks, USB,Optical disks, diskettes, & non
printed punched paper tapes

5.) FEEDBACK optional; not necessary
the comparison of output & goal set in
advance.

Methods of Data Processing:
1. Manual/Conventional Method involves the use of
Hands, fingers or toes in counting; uses ink & paper
Ex: Abacus, Stones, Slide Rule
2. Mechanical Method involves the use of machine-
like equipment which uses gears, lever, pulleys & other
moving part.
Ex: Typewriter

3. Electro-Mechanical Method a combine device use
both electrical & mechanical parts
Ex: Electric Typewriter

4. Electronic/Competerized Method this method
requires the use of devices which are powered by
electricity but with no mechanical parts inside instead
electronics circuit are used
Ex: Computer, Calculator
Units in Computer Storages capacity
Name
(Symbol)
Value
kilobyte (kB) 10
3

megabyte (MB) 10
6

gigabyte (GB) 10
9

terabyte (TB) 10
12

petabyte (PB) 10
15

exabyte (EB) 10
18

zettabyte (ZB) 10
21

yottabyte (YB) 10
24


Large Measurements
A number of large measurements are used when referring to
both memory and disk space:
One kilobyte is equal to 2
10
, or 1024 bytes.

One megabyte (1 MByte) is equal to 2
20
, or 1,048,576 bytes.

One gigabyte (1 GByte) is equal to 2
30
, or 1024
3
, or
1,073,741,824 bytes.

One terabyte (1 TByte) is equal to 2
40
, or 1024
4
, or
1,099,511,627,776 bytes.

One petabyte is equal to 2
50
, or 1,125,899,906,842,624
bytes.

One exabyte is equal to 2
60
, or 1,152,921,504,606,846,976
bytes.

One zettabyte is equal to 2
70
bytes.
One yottabyte is equal to 2
80
bytes.

Hierarchy of Data
1. Bit(s) binary digit representing either 0 or 1 (for
information to be used by a computer, it must be
reduced to this)
Ex: 0 or 1
2. Bytes a string of eight bits
Ex: 01001010 letter J

Integer Storage Sizes
Byte the basic storage unit for all data in an x86 computer
containing 8 bits.
Word 2 bytes
doubleword (4 bytes)
quadword 8 bytes


ASCII American Standard Code for
Information Interchange
a character-encoding scheme based on
the ordering of the English alphabet.
ASCII codes
represent text in computers, communications e
quipment, and other devices that use text.


3. Field (name field) a group of characters, items,
elements, or categories

Ex: John Stewart

4. Record a group of field
Ex:
Name Course Birthday GWA
John Stewart BS
ECE
06/06/1990 1.75

5. File a collection of related record


COURSE FILE
Name
Course Birthday
GWA






6. Database a collection of information
Information result of the analyzed /processed data

STUDENT DATABASE
FINANCIAL FILE

DIRECTORY FILE

COURSE FILE

Database a collection of data organized to
service many applications at the same time by
storing & managing data so that they appear to be
in one location
a collection of related information grouped together
as a single item to serve a specific purpose
organized collection of logically related data
a structure that can house information about multiple
types of entities, as well as relationships among the
entities.

Entity a person, place or thing; represented as a
record in a database
Attribute a property of an entity; represented as a
field in a database record
Relationship an association between entities;
represented using a common field in a set of records.
Meta data data that describes the properties &
context of user data







John Stewart BS ECE 06/06/1990 1.75
Gabriel Dionisio BS HRM 03/13/1989 1.89
Christine Barley BS
Tourism
07/19/1991 2.25
Kinds of Database:
According to the number of files:
1. Simple database that has only 1 file
2. Relation database with more than 1 file or table
that are related to each other

According to Compatibility:
1. Homogeneous the database technology is the
same or at least compatible at each of the locations &
that the data at the various locations are also
compatible.
2. Heterogeneous a database technology with
different computers & operating systems

According to Method Used:
1. Conventional
2. Computerized


Characteristics of Computerized Database:
1. Speed retrieve or finding information in seconds
than finding a record on a filling cabinet
2. Compact can store hundreds of files in different
storage devices that is very small compared to filing
cabinet
3. Flexibility we can edit or modify, sort the record
faster & easier

According to Application:
1. Bibliographic each record is a reference or citation
(may also include a summary or abstract) to a
publication, magazine or journal article, news story,
patent, conference paper, etc.
2. Directory each record gives factual information
about companies, organizations, products, etc.
3. Numeric each record is a table of statistical data,
often with text added
4. Full-text each record include the complete text of
magazine articles, newswire stories, encyclopedias, etc.
5. Multimedia each record may contain text, graphics,
video & sound

Database Management the process of storing &
organizing information
Database management system (DBMS)
a software package with computer programs that
control the creation, maintenance, and use of
a database.
allows organizations to conveniently develop
databases for various applications by database
administrators(DBAs) and other specialists.