J.W.

Hargis argues that, in the work of anti-

Christian writers - especially Celsus - we see why the
early Christians were persecuted. Is he right?
Joseph Sverker
B1
Church History
Meic Pearse
31 January 2001
Outline
p. 2- Introduction
Celsus and reasons for persecution of Christians
p. 3- Celsus as representative of the Roman society and arguments against
Christian exclusivism
p. 4- Tertullian and persecution from a Christian viewpoint
p. 5- Athenagoras and Celsus
p. 6- Conclusion
p. 7- Bibliography
1
J.W. Hargis argues that, in the work of anti-Christian writers - especially Celsus
- we see why the early Christians were persecuted. Is he right?
Introduction
No one would argue against the fact that Christians were persecuted in the Roman empire, but what
were the reasons and where can they be found?
We find sources for persecution in a variety of writers, each of whom wrote in different
situations. They differ in their historical reliability as well. To trust in only one sort of source
without taking the others into account would be to miss out important facts. Reasons for
persecution vary and the anti-Christians writers, such as Celsus, reflect that, but so do the Christian
writers. What were Celsus reasons for the persecution? Did other writers have the same reasons
and did the context that Celsus wrote in affect his accusations of the Christians?
Celsus and reasons for persecution of Christians
Christians were persecuted for many different reasons. One of them, argued strongly by Celsus,
was the Christians social exclusivism. Christians did not participate in the required social actions
such as sacrifices to the Emperor and the Roman gods. The reason for this was because of the
Christians belief in worshipping only one god and their reluctance to offer loyalty to other gods.
1
It was not only their beliefs that made the Christians excluded from the society. Their
exclusivism came from two ways, from themselves and from the Roman society. There was a
widespread and common hatred against them. The people of Rome did not allow Christians to go to
social environments such as the baths,
2
neither were they seen at gladiator games.
3
Christians
should not participate in those things and hated as they were, they were not wanted there either. It
made them even more alienated and the Christians would naturally be seen as more and more
peculiar.
2
1
R. Joseph Hoffmann, Celsus: On the True Doctrine: A Discourse Against the Christians (Oxford: Oxford University
Press, 1987) p. 43.
2
Jeffrey W. Hargis, Against the Christians: The Rise of Early Anti-Christian Polemic (New York: Peter Lang, 1999) p.
12.
3
Athenagoras, Legatio and De Resurrectione, William R. Schoedel (ed. and translator) (Oxford: Clarendon Press,
1972) p. 85.
The Christians became scapegoats, more or less the one to blame, in the Roman society.
4
To
write against Christians, as Celsus did, was probably very welcomed by the Romans and the
accusation of social exclusivism was likely to be a reason, amongst others, for persecution of the
Christians. It is in Celsus On the True Doctrine (178-180) that we can find his opinions. It has
survived through Origen in his reply to Celsus, Contra Celsum (248).
5

The hatred was more or less because of the relationship between Judaism and Christianity.
Jews were hated for their social exclusivism and for their denial of the Roman gods, which led
them to be accused of atheism, as were the Christians. But Jews had protection from Rome, which
Christians did not. The Christians were being looked upon as the lineal heirs of the hatred against
Jews.
6

Celsus saw Christianity as a worse form of Judaism. The Christians has gone astray from
their ancestors beliefs, which was seen as really bad in Celsus, a Roman citizens eyes. For the
Christian to go astray from both Roman gods and their ancestors would probably generate an
even lower view of them.
Origen argues that Celsus is far away from the truth when he accuses the Christians of being
apostates from the law of your fathers.
7
But what it does show is that the accusation is serious
and would at least lead Celsus to want to punish the Christians.
8
Being apostates is a further
reason, which Celsus gives, for persecution or at least for hatred of the Christians amongst the
Roman people.
Celsus as representative of the Roman society and arguments against
Christian exclusivism
Celsus reasons for persecution has to be representative of the Roman society, if they are to be
taken seriously. Persecution is carried through by a mass of people and not just the opinion of a
nonofficial person. Celsus view is the view of contemporary Romans according to Frend.
9
The
reasons for hatred, described by Celsus, would probably be true for many others in the Roman
3
4
Hargis, Against the Christians, p. 65.
5
Origen, Contra Celsum in Ante-Nicene Christian Library: Translation of the Writings of the Fathers down to A.D.
325. vol. XXIII, Alexander Roberts & James Donaldson (eds.) (Edinburgh: T&T Clark, 1872)
6
Herbert B. Workman, Persecution in the Early Church (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1980) p. 45.
7
Origen, Contra Celsum, book ii, chapter IV
8
Origen, Contra Celsum, ii, IV
9
W. H. C. Frend, Martyrdom and Persecution in the Early Church: A Study of a Conflict from the Maccabees to
Donatus (Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1965) p. 276.
empire at that time. The fact that the persecutions were the will of the mob and that the officials
sentenced the Christians to please the people are strong arguments for Celsus to represent the
overall opinion.
10

Celsus says in his On the True Doctrine, that Christians should take office in the government
of the country, if that is required for the maintenance of the laws and the support of religion.
11

Celsus argues that Christians have got no reasons to worship Jesus, their God or to exclude
themselves from the society. He wanted Christians to be involved in the society, but at the same
time as he condemned them in every way that he could.
12
The Christians would become a larger
threat to the Roman society the more they increased. The fact that Celsus took his task so seriously
shows that Christianity had gained influence.
13
Celsus argued against the exclusivism by
discrediting Jesus and the Christian god. He tried to persuade the Christians by arguing that God
did not have any real power and that Jesus wasnt God, which meant that they would not need to
follow what God said.
Jesus could not, according to Celsus be the son of God since he lived a detestable and in
Celsus eyes unworthy life. Jesus death was not the death of a God because of the humility and his
resurrection was only witnessed by his closest friends, who already believed in him. That makes a
weak ground for Jesus to be a son of God, according to Celsus. God would be a very weak god, if
he could not protect his son better than that.
14
And if he is a powerful god why did he send his son
to such an unimportant corner of the empire as Palestine?
15
There can be no reasons for the
Christians to worship only him and to obey that god in what he says about being excluded from the
society.
Tertullian and persecution from a Christian viewpoint
Tertullian (160-220) argues in favour of the Christians exclusivism, even though it was a crime
and reason for persecution for Celsus. The Christians are dangerous precisely because they put the
advancement of their beliefs above the common good and the welfare of the state.
16
But the
exclusivism was different to Tertullian, participation in the society could easily lead to idolatry,
4
10
Hargis, Against the Christians, p. 10.
11
Origen, Contra Celsum, viii, LXXV
12
Hargis, Against the Christians, p.130.
13
Hoffmann, Celsus, p. 30.
14
Hoffmann, Celsus, p. 63f.
15
Frend, Martyrdom and Persecution, p. 278.
16
Hoffmann, Celsus, p. 44.
according to Tertullian, and that was the worst kind of crime.
17
It did not matter if the exclusivism
was a reason for persecution. No Christian should be in a situation,
18
or vocation that could be
connected to idolatry.
19

There are in Tertullians writings statements that are against the Roman laws, such as his
urging for the Christians not to get involved in any idolatry. Tertullians resistance against Roman
gods would not be accepted. A Roman citizen had to worship the Roman gods; civic duty and
religion was closely linked together in Rome, according to Simeon Guterman. For Tertullian to
write that Christians were not to be involved in either was a serious violation of the law.
20
What Tertullian did was to argue a case which would lead to persecution. Celsus argued the
same thing, but as someone who accuses the Christians. What Hargis can see in the anti-Christian
writers can also be seen in Christian writers: reasons for persecution. It is arguable if non-Christian
writers give the best answers to the question, why Christians were persecuted. Origen writes about
Celsus that it was not his object to investigate everything here in the spirit of truth, and to accept
whatever he might find to be useful; but he composed these statements in the spirit of an enemy,
and with a desire to overthrow everything as soon as he heard it.
21
The accuser would be more
likely to exaggerate about the opponent than someone, who like Tertullian, argues in favour of it.
At least when there is a matter of life and death. The Christian writings will be as reliable a source
about persecution as the non Christian writings. For Hargis to argue that we can see reasons why
they were persecuted is probably a correct conclusion. But we have to be aware of the possibility
that the sources might be distorted. To look at both sides will give a broader and clearer picture.
Athenagoras and Celsus
Athenagoras, a Christian writer, writes in probably the same time as Celsus, (176-180).
Athenagoras wrote A Plea for the Christians to defend the Christians from the accusations that lead
to persecution. He wrote to emperor Marcus Aurelius, the plea is for him that he would listen to the
Christians and end the unjust persecution.
22

5
17
Tertullian, On Idolatry in Ante-Nicene Christian Library: Translation of the Writings of the Fathers down to A.D.
325. vol. XI, Alexander Roberts & James Donaldson (eds.) (Edinburgh: T.&T. Clark, 1869) ch. I.
18
Tertullian, On Idolatry, ch. XV.
19
Tertullian, On Idolatry, ch. XII.
20
Simeon L. Guterman, Religious Toleration and Persecution in Ancient Rome (London: Aiglon, 1951) p. 28.
21
Origen, Contra Celsum, ii, III.
22
Athenagoras, Legatio, p. 3ff.
Athenagoras is defending the Christians on other points than those, with which Celsus is
accusing them on. The charges Athenagoras is handling seems to derive more from rumours and
tales than from a study of what Christianity is. The Christians were persecuted because they were
thought to be atheists, but they are also thought of having godless banquets and sexual unions,
23

and also for being murderers and cannibals.
24
These are other charges for persecution than those
Celsus brings up. Celsus is philosophical in his charges and writings,
25
but the charges that
Athenagoras defends himself against have not got any, or at least not any clear, philosophical
grounds.
It seems unlikely that Athenagoras would write to the emperor if the threats were not real.
The fact that Celsus does not mention those accusations raises the question of whom he is really
writing about the main reasons for persecution of Christians. To leave them out when they are so
important to Athenagoras that it is those arguments that he brings to the emperor implies that those
were the most important reasons for the persecution. Celsus motives could be more of propaganda
than as a reliable source for why Christians were persecuted, even though Hargis points out that
Celsus was more philosophical in his approach. Propaganda against Christians is known to have
existed. The charges that Athenagoras had to handle came probably from that sort of propaganda.
26

A reason for Celsus, not to accuse Christians of things like cannibalism, could be
that the writers like Athenagoras succeeded in defending the Christians with their pleas. The
persecutions were not legalised by the emperor,
27
and that could make a difference in Celsus
approach as well. It would be no use citing hearsays, if he tried to convince officials. If he was
writing from different perspective than Athenagoras and about a different problem in the Roman
society than that which Athenagoras accusers were focusing on, then he would use other reasons
for describing the situation or pursuing the reader.
Rome experienced a general crisis in politics and economics and it was difficult to find
workers that could work and supply the cities with food.
28
The reason for social exclusivism that
Celsus gives would be more important, since everyone who is not a part of the society would
represent the loss of one worker for Rome. This would be a valid argument if Celsus wrote to an
official. To accuse Christians of only converting the foolish people, the workers,
29
would also be a
6
23
Athenagoras, Legatio, p. 77.
24
Athenagoras, Legatio, p. 83ff.
25
Hargis, Against the Christians, p. 15.
26
Hargis, Against the Christians, p. 14.
27
Hargis, Against the Christians, p. 9.
28
Gza Alfldy, The Social History of Rome, David Braund & Frank Pollock (translators) (London, Routledge, 1988)
p. 157ff.
29
Lecture hand out, What sort of people, doc. 2.
strong argument against them in that situation of a crisis. Celsus would then give clear reasons why
Christians should not be allowed to practise their religion; they would be a real threat to whole of
the Roman society and its structure. The reason given by Celsus for persecution would make more
sense in this particular context if we compare him with his contemporary writer, Athenagoras.
Conclusion
The Roman law said that everyone in the Roman empire should sacrifice to the Roman gods.
Celsus writes that the Christians did not do so, which is true. Actions counter to the law lead to
punishment and Celsus does give reasons why Christians were persecuted and punished, mainly
because of social exclusivism. But his reasons are partly different from those of Athenagoras, a
writer at the same time as Celsus. Celsus does not give us all the reasons for persecution that
Athenagoras did. Christian writers would have to be included if we want a broader spectrum of the
persecution. To study Tertullian would be an example. He wrote about why Christians should
exclude themselves from society. Tertullian agree with Celsus point of social exclusivism as well
as it gives it a broader picture.
Celsus was a good source for knowing what the general Roman thought about Christians,
even though he did not include every reason for the hatred that Christians met. One reason for the
differences in charges, between what Celsus wrote and what Athenagoras wrote, could be that
Celsus wrote in a different context than what Athenagoras had, or rather than what his accusers
had. The accusations of being social exclusive would be effective if Celsus was writing to Roman
officials, who were in a social crisis at that time. Athenagoras accusers did probably accuse the
Christians in a different way, which is reflected in his respond to them.
Anti-Christian writers give us reasons for the persecution, but only partial reasons that have
to be complemented with the reasons given by Christian writers.
words 2473

7
Bibliography
Alfldy, Gza, The Social History of Rome, David Braund & Frank Pollock (translators), London,
Routledge, 1988
Athenagoras, Legatio and De Resurrectione, William R. Schoedel (ed. and translator), Oxford:
Clarendon Press, 1972
Frend, W., H., C., Martyrdom and Persecution in the Early Church: A Study of a Conflict from the
Maccabees to Donatus, Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1965
Guterman, Simeon, L., Religious Toleration and Persecution in Ancient Rome, London: Aiglon,
1951
Hargis, Jeffrey, W., Against the Christians: The Rise of Early Anti-Christian Polemic, New York:
Peter Lang, 1999
Hoffmann, R., Joseph, Celsus: On the True Doctrine: A Discourse Against the Christians, Oxford:
Oxford University Press, 1987
Origen, Contra Celsum in Ante-Nicene Christian Library: Translation of the Writings of the
Fathers down to A.D. 325. vol. XXIII, Alexander Roberts & James Donaldson (eds.),
Edinburgh: T&T Clark, 1872
Tertullian, On Idolatry in Ante-Nicene Christian Library: Translation of the Writings of the
Fathers down to A.D. 325. vol. XI, Alexander Roberts & James Donaldson (eds.), Edinburgh:
T.&T. Clark, 1869
Workman, Herbert, B., Persecution in the Early Church, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1980
8