APA Et Al Amicus Brief

No.
14-5297
IN THE UNITED STATES COURT OF APPEALS
FOR THE SIXTH CIRCUIT
VALERIA TANCO and SOPHIA JESTY, e t al .,
Pl ai nt i f f s-Ap p e l l e e s ,
v .
WILLIAM HASLAM, i n h i s of f i c i al c ap ac i t y as
Gov e rnor of Te nne s s e e , e t al .,
De f e ndant s-Ap p e l l ant s .
On Ap p e al f rom t h e Uni t e d St at e s Di s t ri c t Court
f or t h e Mi ddl e Di s t ri c t of Te nne s s e e
Ci v i l Ac t i on No. 3:13-CV-1159 (Hon. Al e t a Art h ur Trauge r)
Bri e f of t h e Ame ri c an Ps y c h ol ogi c al As s oc i at i on, Ame ri c an Ac ade my of
Pe di at ri c s , Ame ri c an Ps y c h i at ri c As s oc i at i on, Nat i onal As s oc i at i on of Soc i al
Worke rs , and Ke nt uc ky Ps y c h ol ogi c al As s oc i at i on as Ami c i Curi ae i n Sup p ort
of Pl ai nt i f f s-Ap p e l l e e s
Nat h al i e F.P. Gi l f oy l e
AMERICAN PSYCHOLOGICAL ASSOCIATION
750 Fi rs t St re e t NE
Was h i ngt on, DC 20002
Te l e p h one : (202) 336-6100
Fax: (202) 336-6069
Ngi l f oy l e @ap a.org
Paul M. Smi t h
.TENNER &BLOCK LLP
1099 Ne w York Av e . NW, St e . 900
Was h i ngt on, DC 20001
Te l e p h one : (202) 639-6000
Fax: (202) 639-6066
Ps mi t h @je nne r.c om
Couns e l f or Ami c i Curi ae
Case: 14-5297 Document: 63 Filed: 06/16/2014 Page: 1
UNITED STATES COURT OF APPEALS
Disclosure of Corporate Affiliation s
an d Fin an cial In terest
Six th Circuit
Case Number: 14-5297 Case Name: Tan co, et al. v . Haslam
Name of coun sel: Paul M. Smith
Pursuan t to 6th Cir. R. 26. 1, Amicus Curiae American Psych ological Association
Name of Party
makes th e follow in g disclosure:
Is said party a subsidiary or affiliate of a publicly ow n ed corporation ? If Yes, list below th e
iden tity of th e paren t corporation or affiliate an d th e relation sh ip betw een it an d th e n amed
party:
l~ ~
2. Is th ere a publicly ow n ed corporation , n ot a party to th e appeal, th at h as a fin an cial in terest
in th e outcome? If yes, list th e iden tity of such corporation an d th e n ature of th e fin an cial
in terest:
No
CERTIFICATE OF SERVICE
certify th at on Jun e 16, 2014 th e foregoin g documen t w as serv ed on all
parties or th eir coun sel of record th rough th e CM/ECF system if th ey are registered users or, if th ey are n ot,
by placin g a true an d correct copy in th e Un ited States mail, postage prepaid, to th eir address of record.
s/Paul M. Smith
Th is statemen t is filed tw ice: w h en th e appeal is in itially open ed an d later, in th e prin cipal briefs,
immediately precedin g th e table of con ten ts. See 6th Cir. R. 26. 1 on page 2 of th is form.
6CA-1
8~ 0$ Page 1 of 2
Six th Circuit
Pursuan t to 6th Cir. R. 26. 1, Amicus Curiae American Academy of Pediatrics
Name of Party
party:
No
in terest:
fR:7
certify th at on Jun e 16, 2014 th e foreg oin g documen t w as serv ed on all
parties or th eir coun sel of record th roug h th e CM/ECF system if th ey are reg istered users or, if th ey are n ot,
by placin g a true an d correct copy in th e Un ited States mail, postag e prepaid, to th eir address of record.
s/Paul M. Smith
immediately precedin g th e table of con ten ts. See 6th Cir. R. 26. 1 on pag e 2 of th is form.
6CA-1
$~~$ Pag e 1 of 2
Six th Circuit
Pursuan t to 6th Cir. R. 26. 1, Amicus Curiae American Psy ch iatric Association
Name of Party
Is said party a subsidiary or affiliate of a publicly ow n ed corporation ? if Yes, list below th e
party :
in th e outcome? If y es, list th e iden tity of such corporation an d th e n ature of th e fin an cial
in terest:
No
parties or th eir coun sel of record th roug h th e CM/ECF sy stem if th ey are reg istered users or, if th ey are n ot,
s/Paul M. Smith
immediately precedin g th e table of con ten ts. See 6th Cir. R. 26. 1 on pag e 2 of th is form.
6CA-1
8~~$ Pag e 1 of 2
Six th Circuit
Case Number: 14-5297
Case Name: Tan co, et al. v . Haslam
Pursuan t to 6th Cir. R. 26.1, Amicus Curiae Nation al Association of Social Workers
Name of Party
party:
~ ~ ~ ~ ~
in terest:
No
parties or th eir coun sel of record th roug h th e CM/ECF system if th ey are reg istered users or, if th ey are n ot,
s/Paul M. Smith
immediately precedin g th e table of con ten ts. See 6th Cir. R. 26.1 on pag e 2 of th is form.
6CA-1
8/08 Pag e 1 of 2
Six th Circuit
Pursuan t to 6th Cir. R. 26. 1, Amicus Curiae Ken tucky Psych ological Association
Name of Party
party:
INo
in terest:
No
certify th at on Jun e 16 2014 th e foregoin g documen t w as serv ed on all
parties or th eir coun sel of record th rough th e CM/ECF system if th ey are registered users or, if th ey are n ot,
by placin g a true an d correct copy in th e Un ited States mail, postage prepaid, to th eir address of record.
s/Paul M. Smith
immediately precedin g th e table of con ten ts. See 6th Cir. R. 26. 1 on page 2 of th is form.
6CA-1
8/08 Page 1 of 2
TABLE OF CONTENTS
CORPORATE DISCLOSURE STATEMENTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . i
TABLE OF AUTHORITIES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . - - - - - - . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v i i i
IDENTITY AND INTEREST OF AMICI CURIAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
ARGUMENT. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
I. The Sc i en t i f i c Ev i den c e Pr es en t ed i n Thi s Br i ef . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
II. Homos exuali t y Is A Nor mal Expr es s i on of Human Sexuali t y, Is
Gen er ally Not Chos en , an d Is Hi ghly Res i s t an t To Chan ge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
III. Sexual Or i en t at i on an d Relat i on s hi ps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
A. Gay Men an d Les bi an s For m St able, Commi t t ed Relat i on s hi ps
That Ar e Equi v alen t t o. Het er os exual Relat i on s hi ps i n Es s en t i al
Res pec t s
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
B. The In s t i t ut i on of Mar r i age Of f er s Soc i al, Ps yc hologi c al, an d
Healt h Ben ef i t s That Ar e Den i ed t o Same- Sex Couples Who
Can n ot Legally Mar r y . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
IV. The Chi ldr en of Same- Sex Couples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 3
A. Man y Same- Sex Couples Rai s e Chi ldr en . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 3
B. The Fac t or s That Af f ec t t he Adjus t men t of Chi ldr en Ar e Not
Depen den t on Par en t al Gen der or Sexual Or i en t at i on . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 4
(1 ) The quali t i es of par en t- c hi ld r elat i on s hi ps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 4
(2) The quali t i es of r elat i on s hi ps bet ween s i gn i f i c an t adult s
i n c hi ldr en ' s li v es . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 5
(3 ) The av ai labi li t y of ec on omi c an d ot her r es our c es . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 6
C. Ther e Is No Sc i en t i f i c Bas i s f or Con c ludi n g That Same- Sex
Couples Ar e An y Les s Fi t or Capable Par en t s Than
Het er os exual Couples , or That Thei r Chi ldr en Ar e An y Les s
Ps yc hologi c ally Healt hy an d Well Adjus t ed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 8
v i
V. Denying t h e S t a t u s of Ma rria ge t o S a me-S ex Cou ples S t igma t iz es
Th em
..............................................................................................................2 4
CONCLUS ION
........................................................................................................2 6
CERTIFICATE OF COMPLIANCE
CERTIFICATE OF S ERVICE
v ii
TABLE OF AUTHORITIES
CASES
DeBoer v . Snyder, 973 F. Supp. 2d 755 (E. D. Mich. 2014) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
United Sta tes v . Winds or, 133 S. Ct. 26 75 (2013) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
TEXTS, TREATISES, AND OTHER AUTHORITIES
2010 Cens us a nd 2010 America n Community Surv ey, Sa me-Sex Unma rried
P a rtner or Spous e Hous eholds by Sex of Hous eholder by P res ence of
Own Children, a v a ila ble a t http://www. cens us . gov /hhes /s a mes e~
files /s upp-ta ble-AFF. xIs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 , 13
J. M. Ada ms & W. H. Jones , The Conceptua liza tion of Ma rita l Commitment,
72 J. P ers ona lity & Soc. P s ychol. 1177 (1997) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
D. W. Allen, High School Gra dua tion Ra tes Among Children of Sa me-Sex
Hous eholds , 11 Rev . Econ. of the Hous ehold 6 35 (2013) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21-22
D. W. Allen et a l. , Nontra ditiona l Fa milzes a nd Childhood P rogres s Through
School, 50 Demogra phy 955 (2013) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
P . R. Ama to, Children of Div orce in the 1990s , 15 J. Fa m. P s ychol. 355
(2001) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
Am. Aca d. of P edia trics , P olicy Sta tement, P romoting the Well-Being of
Children Whos e P a rents a ye Ga y o~ Les bia n, 131 P edia trics 8 27
(2013) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1, 23
Am. As s n for Ma rria ge a nd Fa m. Thera py, Repa ra tiv e/Conv ers ion Thera py
(2009), a v a ila ble a t http://www. a a mft. org/iMIS 15/AAMFT/
MFT Res ources /Content/Res ources /P os ition On Couples . a s px . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
Am. Med. As s n, P olicy H-6 0. 940, P a rtner Co-Adoption, a v a ila ble a t
http://www. a ma -a s s n. org/a ma /pub/a bout-a ma /our-people/member-
groups -s ections /glbt-a dv is ory-committee/a ma -policy-rega rding-
s exua l-orienta tion. pa ge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
v iii
Am. Med. Assn, Policy H-65.973, Health Cage D isp ar ities in Same-Sex
Par tner Households, available at http ://www.ama-assn.or g/ama/p ub/
about-ama/our -p eop le/member -gr oup s-sections/glbt-advisor y-
committee/ama-p olicy-r egar ding-sexual-or ientation.p age ............................2 4
Am. Med. Assn, Policy H-160.991, Health Cage Needs of the Homosexual
Pop ulation, available at http ://www.ama-assn.or g/ama/p ub/about-
amaJour -p eop le/member -gr oup s-sections/glbt-advisor y-
committee/ama-p olicy-r egar ding-sexual-or ientation.p age .......................... 6-7
Am. Psychiatr ic Assn, Position Statement on Homosexuality and Civil
Rights (1973), in 131 Am. J. Psychiatr y 4 97 (1974 ) .......................................5
Am. Psychiatr ic Assn, Position Statement: Psychiatr ic Tr eatment and
Sexual Or ientation (1998), available at http ://www.p sych.or g/
D ep ar tments/ED U/Libr ar y/APAOfficialD ocumentsandRelated/
PositionStatements/19982 0.asp x
.....................................................................6
Am. Psychiatr ic Assn, Position Statement: Sup p or t of Legal Recognition of Same-
Sex Civil Mar r iage (2 005), available at
http ://www.p sychiatr y.or g/file% 2 01ibr ar y/
advocacy% 2 0and% 2 0newsr oom/p osition% 2 0statements/p s2 005_
samesexmar r iage.p df
................................................................................................2 3
Am. Psychoanalytic Assn, Position Statement: Attemp ts to Change Sexual
Or ientation, Gender I dentity, o~ Gender Exp r ession (2 012 ), available
at http ://www.ap sa.or g/ ap saaJp osition_statements/attemp ts_
change sexual or ientation.asp x
....................................................................7
Am. Psychoanalytic Assn, Position Statement: Par enting (2 012 ), available
at http ://www.ap sa.or g/about_ap saa/p osition statements/
p ar enting.asp x
............................................................................................2 , 2 3
Am. Psychol. Assn, Minutes of the Annual Meeting of the Council of
Rep r esentatives, 30 Am. Psychologist 62 0 (1975) ..........................................5
Am. Psychol. Assn, Rep ot of the Amer ican Psychological Association Task
For ce on Ap p ~op ~iate Ther ap eutic Resp onses to Sexual Or ientation
(2 009), available at
http ://www.ap a.or g/p i/lgbt/r esour ces/sexual-
or ientation. asp x
................................................................................................6
ix
Am. Psychol. Assn, Resolution on Appropriate Affirmative Responses to
Sexual Orientation Distress and Change E fforts (2009), available at
http: / / w w w .apa.org/ pi/ lgbt/ resources/ sexual- orientation. aspx ........................6
Am. Psychol. Assn, Resolution on Ma~~iage E quality For Same- Sex
Couples (2011), available at http: / / w w w .apa.org/ about/ policy/ same-
sex.pdf ..........................................................................................................1, 6
Am. Psychol. Assn, Resolution on Sexual Orientation, Parents and
Children (2004), available at http: / / w w w .apa.org/ about/ policy/
parenting.aspx ................................................................................................23
N. Anderssen et al., Outcomes fog Children w ith Lesbian o~ Gay Parents, 43
Scand. J . Psychol. 3 3 5 (2002) ........................................................................18
K.F. Balsam et al., Three- Yeas Follow- Up of Same- Sex Couples Who Had
Civil Unions in Vermont, Same- Sex Couples Not in Civil Unions, and
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(2008 ) ...............................................................................................................9
P. Berger & H. Kellner, Marriage and the Construction of Reality, 46
Diogenes 1 (196 4) ............................................................................................9
T.J . Biblarz & J . Stacey, How Does the Gender of Parents Matter?, 72 J .
Marriage & Fam. 3 (2010) ................................................................. 18 , 19- 20
H. Bos et al., Lesbian and Heterosexual Tw o- Parent Families, J . Child &
Fam. Stud. (2014), available at http: / / dx.doi.org/ 10.1007/ s108 26 - 014-
9913 - 8 ............................................................................................................19
H. Bos & T.G.M. Sandfort, Children' s Gender I dentity in Lesbian and
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S.L. Brow n, The E ffect of Union Type on Psychological Well- Being, 41 J .
Health & Soc. Behay. 241 (2000) ..................................................................11
R.P.D. Burton, Global I ntegrative Meaning as a Mediating Factor in the
Relationship Betw een Social Roles and Psychological Distress, 3 9 J .
Health & Soc. Behay. 201 (1998 ) ..................................................................10
R.W. Chan et al., Psychological Adjustment Among Children Conceived via
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Dev. 443 (1998 ) ...................................................................................... 15, 17
x
Consequences of Growing Up Poor (G.J. Duncan & J. Brooks-Gunn ed s.,
1997)
..............................................................................................................17
J. Crocker et al ., Social St igma, in 2 The Hand book of Social Psychol ogy
504 (D.T. Gil bert et al . ed s., 4t h ed . 1998) ....................................................24
E.M. Cummings et al ., Chil d ren's Responses t o Everyd ay Marit al Confl ict
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E.M. Cummings et al ., Everyd ay Marit al Confl ict and Chil d Aggression, 32
J. Abnormal Chil d Psychol . 191 (2004)
........................................................15
A.R. D'Augel l i, Sexual O rient at ion, in 7 Encycl oped ia of Psychol ogy 260
(A.E. Kazd in ed ., 2000)
...................................................................................4
E. Durkheim, Suicid e (J.A. Spaul d ing & G. Simpson t rans., 1951) (1897) ............10
S. Erich et al ., A Comparat ive Anal ysis of Ad opt ive Famil y Funct ioning Wit h
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GLBT Fam. St ud . 43 (2005)
..........................................................................19
S. Erich et al ., Gay and Lesbian Ad opt ive Famil ies, 9 J. Fam. Soc. Work 17
(2005)
.............................................................................................................19
Famil y Cont ext of Parent ing in Chil d ren's Ad apt at ion t o El ement ary School
(P.A. Cowan, et al . ed s., 2005)
......................................................................15
R.H. Farr et al ., Parent ing and Chil d Devel opment in Ad opt ive Famil ies, 14
Appl ied Devel opment al Sci. 164 (2010)
.......................................................19
A.L. Fed ewa & T.P. Cl ark, Parent Pract ices and Home-School
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B.L. Frankowski, Sexual O rient at ion and Ad ol escent s, 113 Ped iat rics 1827
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G.J. Gat es, LGBT Parent ing in t he Unit ed St at es, The Wil l iams I nst it ut e
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A.E. Gol d berg, Lesbian and Gay Parent s and Them Chil d ren (2010) ....................18
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S. Golombok, Pa re nt ing (2002) ........................................................................ 1 4, 1 5
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(2009) .............................................................................................................25
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A mong Le sbia n, Ga y, a nd Bise xua l A dult s, 67 J. Consult ing &
Clinica l Psychol. 945 (1 999) .........................................................................25
G.M. He re k e t a l., I nt e rna liz e d St igma A mong Se xua l Minorit y A dult s, 56 J.
Counse ling Psychol. 32 (2009) ........................................................................6
E. Hooke r, The A djust me nt of t he Ma le Ove rt Homose xua l, 21 J. Proje ct ive
Te chnique s 1 7 (1 957) ......................................................................................5
N.J. Johnson e t a l., Ma rit a l St a t us a nd Mort a lit y, 1 0 A nna ls Epide miology
224 (2000) ......................................................................................................1 1
xii
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(2004) ...............................................................................................................9
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L.A. Ku r de k, Re l a t i o ns hi p Ou t c o me s a nd t he i r Pr e di c t o r s , 60 J. Ma r r i a ge &
Fa m. 553 (19 9 8) .............................................................................................13
L.A. Ku r de k, Wha t D o We Kno w Abo u t G a y a nd Le s bi a n Co u pl e s ? 14
Cu r r e nt D i r e c t i o ns i n Ps yc ho l . S c i . 251 (2005) ...............................................9
M.E. La mb, Mo t he r s , Fa t he r s , Fa mi l i e s , a nd Ci r c u ms t a nc e s , 16 Appl i e d
D e ve l o pme nt a l S c i . 9 8 (2012) .......................................................................14
M.E. La mb & C. Le wi s , The Ro l e o f Pa r e nt- Chi l d Re l a t i o ns hi ps i n Chi l d
D e ve l o pme nt , i n D e ve l o pme nt a l S c i e nc e 429 (M.H. B o r ns t e i n & M.E.
La mb e ds ., 5t h e d. 2005) ........................................................................ 14, 15
J.A. La vne r e t a l ., Ca n G a y a nd Le s bi a n Pa r e nt s Pr o mo t e He a l t hy
D e ve l o pme nt i n Hi gh- Ri s k Chi l dr e n Ado pt e d Fr o m Fo s t e r Ca ge ?, 82
Am. J. Or t ho ps yc hi a t r y 465 (2012) ...............................................................19
G . Le vi nge r , Ma r i t a l Co he s i ve ne s s a nd D i s s o l u t i o n, 27 J. Ma r r i a ge & Fa m.
19 (19 65) ........................................................................................................12
B .G . Li nk & J.C. Phe l a n, Co nc e pt u a l i zi ng S t i gma , 27 Ann. Re v. S o c . 363
(2001) .............................................................................................................24
S . Mc La na ha n & G . S a nde f u r , G r o wi ng Up Wi t h a S i ngl e Pa r e nt 39 (19 9 4) ........16
J.E. Mu r r a y, Ma r i t a l Pr o t e c t i o n a nd Ma r i t a l S e l e c t i o n, 37 D e mo gr a phy 511
(2000) .............................................................................................................11
Na t ' l Ac a de my o f S c i e nc e s ' I ns t i t u t e o f Me di c i ne , Re po t : The He a l t h o f
Le s bi a n, G a y, B i s e xu a l , a nd Tr a ns ge nde ~ Pe o pl e (2011), a va i l a bl e a t
ht t p://www.na p.e du /o pe nbo o k.php?r e c o r d_i d=13128 ..............................4, 19
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I ssu es, in Socia l Worl d Spea ks 224 (6t h ed. 2003) ....................................2, 23
N a t ' 1 Ass' n of Socia l Workers, Posit ion St a t em ent : " R epa ra t iv e " a nd
" Conv ersion " Thera pies for L esb ia ns a nd Ga y Men (2000), a v a il a b l e
a t ht t p: / / w w w .na sw dc.org / div ersit y/ l g b / repa ra t iv e.a sp ...................................7
N eig hb orhood Pov ert y (J . B rooks-Gu nn et a l . eds., 1 997 ) ......................................1 7
S.L . N ock, A Com pa rison of Ma rria g es a nd Coha b it ing R el a t ionships, 1 6 J .
Fa m . I ssu es 53 (1 995) ....................................................................................1 0
C.J . Pa t t erson, Chil dren of L esb ia n a nd Ga y Pa rent s, Psychol og y, L a w , a nd
Pol icy, 64 Am . Psychol og ist 7 27 (2009) .......................................................1 8
C.J . Pa t t erson, Fa m il y L iv es of L esb ia n a nd Ga y Adu l t s, in The Ha ndb ook of
Ma rria g e a nd Fa m il y 659 (G. W. Pet erson & K.R . B u sh eds. 201 3)............1 8
C.J . Pa t t erson, Fa m il y R el a t ionships of L esb ia ns a nd Ga y Men, 62 J .
Ma rria g e & Fa m . 1 052 (2000) .......................................................................1 8
C.J . Pa t t erson, Fa m il ies of t he L esb ia n B a b y B oom , 4 J . Ga y &L esb ia n
Psychot hera py 91 (2001 ) ...............................................................................1 7
C.J . Pa t t erson, Ga y Fa t hers, in The R ol e of t he Fa t her in Chil d Dev el opm ent
(M.E. L a m b ed., 4t h ed. 2004) .......................................................................1 9
C.J . Pa t t erson, L esb ia n a nd Ga y Pa rent s a nd Them Chil dren, in
Cont em pora s^y Perspect iv es on L esb ia n, Ga y, a nd B isex u a l I dent it ies,
N eb ra ska Sym posiu m on Mot iv a t ion 1 41 (D.A. Hope ed., 2009) ................1 8
C.J . Pa t t erson, &P.D. Ha st ing s, Socia l iz a t ion in t he Cont ex t of Fa m il y
Div ersit y, in Ha ndb ook of Socia l iz a t ion 328 (J .E. Gru sec &P.D.
Ha st ing s eds., 2007 ) .......................................................................... 1 4, 1 5, 1 7
L .A. Pepl a u &A.W. Fing erhu t , The Cl ose R el a t ionships of L esb ia ns a nd
Ga y Men, 58 Ann. R ev . Psychol . 405 (2007 ) ..............................................8 , 9
L .A. Pepl a u &A.W. Fing erhu t , Sa m e-Sex R om a nt ic R el a t ionships, in
Ha ndb ook of Psychol og y a nd Sex u a l O rient a t ion 1 65 (C.J . Pa t t erson
&A.R . D' Au g el l i eds., 201 3) ..........................................................................8
x iv
L.A. Peplau & N. Ghavami, Gay, Lesbian, and Bisexual R elat io nships, in
Encyclo pedia o f Human R elat io nships (H.T. R eis & S. Sprecher eds.,
2009) ............................................................................................................8 , 9
L.A. Peplau & K.P. Beals, The Family Lives o f Lesbians and Gay Men, in
Handbo o k o f Family Co mmunicat io n 233 (A.L. V ang elist i ed., 2004) ..........9
E.C. Perrin et al., Technical R epo rt : Co parent o r Seco nd-Parent Ado pt io n
by Same-Sex Parent s, 109 Pediat rics 341 (2002) ........:.................................18
Pew R esearch Cent er fo r t he Peo ple and t he Press, A Survey o f LGBT
Americans (2013), available at ht t p:/ / www.pewso cialt rends.o rg /
2013/ 06/ 13/a-survey-o f-lg bt -americans/ ...................................................8 , 25
D. Po t t er, Same-Sex Parent Families and Children' s Academic Achievement ,
74 J . Marriag e & Fam. 556 (2012) ..............................................15-16, 17, 21
D. Previt i & P.R . Amat o , Why St ay Married?, 65 J . Marriag e & Fam. 561
(2003)
.............................................................................................................12
M. R eg nerus, Ho w Different Aye t he Adult Children o f Parent s Who Have
Same-Sex R elat io nships?, 41 So c. Sci. R esearch 752 (2012) .......................16
B.F. R iess, Psycho lo g ical Test s in Ho mo sexualit y, in Ho mo sexual Behavio r
(J . Marmo r ed., 198 0) ......................................................................................5
I . R ivers et al., V ict imiz at io n, So cial Suppo rt , and Psycho so cial Funct io ning
Amo ng Children o f Same-Sex and Oppo sit e-Sex Co uples in t he Unit ed
King do m, 44 Develo pment al Psycho l. 127 (2008 ) ........................................19
G.I . R o isman et al., Adult R o mant ic R elat io nships as Co nt ext s fo g Human
Develo pment , 44 Develo pment al Psycho l. 91 (2008 ) .....................................9
M.J . R o senfeld, No nt radit io nal Families &Childho o d P~o g ~ess Tho ug h
Scho o l, 47 Demo g raphy 755 (2010) ................................................. 16, 17, 22
C.E. R o ss et al., The I mpact o f t he Family o n Healt h, 52 J . Marriag e & Fam.
1059 (1990)
....................................................................................................11
C.E. R o ss, R eco ncept ualiz ing Marit al St at us as a Co nt inuum o f So cial
At t achment , 57 J . Marriag e & Fam. 129 (1995) ............................................11
S. Sarant ako s, Children in Three Co nt ext s, 21 Child. Aust ralia 23 (1996) .............16
xv
R.W. Simon, Re v is it ing t he Re lat ions hips Among Ge nde r, Marit al St at u s ,
and Me nt al He alt h, 107 Am. J . Soc. 1065 (2002) .........................................11
J .Z . Smit h e t al., Mu lt ile v e l Mode ling Approache s t o t he St u dy of LGBT-
Pa~e nt Familie s , in LGBT-Pare nt Familie s 307 (A. E. Goldbe rg & K.
A. Alle n e ds ., 2013)
.......................................................................................15
J . St ace y & T.J . Biblarz, (How) Doe s t he Se xu al Orie nt at ion of Pare nt s
Mat t e r?, 66 Am. Soc. Re v . 159 (2001) .................................................. 18, 19
S. St ack & J .R. Es hle man, Marit al St at u s and Happine s s , 60 J . Marriag e &
Fam. 527 (1998) .............................................................................................10
C.J . Te ling at or & C.J . Pat t e rs on, Childre n and Adole s ce nt s of Le s bian and
Gay Pare nt s , 47 J . Am. Acad. Child &Adole s ce nt Ps ychiat ry 1364
(2008)
.............................................................................................................18
J .L. Wainrig ht & C.J . Pat t e rs on, De linqu e ncy, V ict imizat ion, and Su bs t ance
Us e Among Adole s ce nt s wit h Fe male Same-Se x Pare nt s , 20 J . Fam.
Ps ychol. 526 (2006) ................................................................................ 19, 20
J .L. Wainrig ht & C.J . Pat t e rs on, Pe e p Re lat ions Among Adole s ce nt s wit h
Fe male Same-Se x Pare nt s , 44 De v e lopme nt al Ps ychol. 117 (2008) ............20
J .L. Wainrig ht e t al., Ps ychos ocial Adju s t me nt , School Ou t come s , and
Romant ic Re lat ions hips of Adole s ce nt s wit h Same-Se x Pare nt s , 75
Child De v . 1886 (2004) .......................................................................... 18, 20
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(1991)
.............................................................................................................13
R.G. Wig ht e t al., Same-Se x Le g al Marriag e and Ps ycholog ical We ll-Be ing ,
103 Am. J . Pu b. He alt h 339 (2013) ...............................................................10
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470 (2003)
......................................................................................................12
XV l
IDENTITY AND INTEREST OF AMICI CURIAEI
The American Psychological Association ("APA") is a scientif ic and
edu cational organiz ation dedicated to increasing and disseminating psychological
knowledge; it is the world's largest prof essional association of psychologists. The
APA has adopted mu ltiple research-based policy statements su pporting the rights
of gay and lesbian people, inclu ding a 2011 policy statement su pporting f u ll
marriage eq u ality f or same-sex cou ples.2
The American Academy of Pediatrics ("AAP") is the largest prof essional
association of pediatricians in the world. Throu gh edu cation, research, advocacy,
and the provision of expert advice, the AAP seeks the optimal physical, mental,
and social health and well-being f or inf ants, children, adolescents, and you ng
adu lts. The AAP su pports marriage eq u ality f or all capable and consenting
cou ples, inclu ding those who are of the same gender, to gu arantee all legal rights
and benef its f or their children.3
The American Psychiatric Association is the Nation's largest organiz ation of
physicians specializ ing in psychiatry. It j oins this brief f or the reasons expressed
' No party's cou nsel au thored this brief in whole or in part, and no party or party's
cou nsel nor any other person other than Amici contribu ted money that was
intended to f u nd preparing or su bmitting this brief .
2 APA Resolu tion on Ma~~iage Eq u ality For Same-Sex Cou ples (2011) (denial of
marriage eq u ality "perpetu ates the stigma historically attached to homosexu ality,
and reinf orces prej u dice against lesbian, gay, and bisexu al people").
3 AAP, Policy Statement, Promoting the Well-Being of Children Whose Parents
are Gay o~ Lesbian, 13 1 Pediatrics 827, 828 (2013 ).
i n i t s 2005 p o s i t i o n s t a t e m e n t , Sup p o rt o f Le ga l R e c o gn i t i o n o f Sa m e- Se x C i v i l
Ma rri a ge ( " I n t h e i n t e re s t o f m a i n t a i n i n g a n d p ro m o t i n g m e n t a l h e a lt h , t h e
Am e ri c a n P s y c h i a t ri c As s o c i a t i o n s up p o rt s t h e le ga l re c o gn i t i o n o f s a m e- s e x
m a rri a ge w i t h a ll ri gh t s , b e n e fi t s , a n d re s p o n s i b i li t i e s c o n fe rre d b y c i v i l
m a rri a ge . " ) .
Th e N a t i o n a l As s o c i a t i o n o f So c i a l Wo rke rs ( " N ASW" ) i s t h e la rge s t
a s s o c i a t i o n o f p ro fe s s i o n a l s o c i a l w o rke rs i n t h e Un i t e d St a t e s . N ASW de v e lo p s
p o li c y s t a t e m e n t s o n i s s ue s o f i m p o rt a n c e t o t h e s o c i a l w o rk p ro fe s s i o n .
C o n s i s t e n t w i t h t h o s e s t a t e m e n t s , N ASW s up p o rt s full le ga l a c c e p t a n c e o f le s b i a n ,
ga y , a n d b i s e x ua l p e o p le , i n c ludi n g t h e i r ri gh t t o m a rry .4
Th e Ke n t uc ky P s y c h o lo gi c a l As s o c i a t i o n ( " KP A" ) i s t h e Ke n t uc ky a ffi li a t e
o f t h e AP A; i t i s n a t i o n a lly re c o gn i z e d a s o n e o f t h e p re e m i n e n t s t a t e p s y c h o lo gi c a l
a s s o c i a t i o n s , h a v i n g w o n m a n y AP A n a t i o n a l a w a rds , i n c ludi n g a n a w a rd fo r
di v e rs i t y i n i t i a t i v e s i n 2013. KP A e n ga ge s i n t h e a dv a n c e m e n t o f t h e s c i e n c e a n d
p ro fe s s i o n o f p s y c h o lo gy fo r t h e h e a lt h a n d ge n e ra l b e n e fi t o f s o c i e t y a n d t o
p ro m o t e a p s y c h o lo gi c a lly h e a lt h y Ke n t uc ky .
All p a rt i e s h a v e c o n s e n t e d t o t h e fi li n g o f t h i s b ri e f.
4N ASW, P o li c y St a t e m e n t : Le s b i a n , Ga y , a n d B i s e x ua l I s s ue s , i n So c i a l Wo rk
Sp e a ks 224, 225 ( 6t h e d. 2003) .
2
ARGUMENT
I . The S c i en t i f i c Evi den c e Presen t ed i n Thi s B ri ef .
Thi s b ri ef p resen t s an ac c u rat e su mmary of t he c u rren t st at e of sc i en t i f i c an d
p rof essi on al kn owl edge c on c ern i n g sex u al ori en t at i on an d f ami l i es rel evan t t o t hi s
c ase. Ami c i have made a good f ai t h ef f ort t o t ake i n t o ac c ou n t t he f i n di n gs of al l
val i d, p u b l i shed st u di es i n t hi s area.
Ami c i rel y on t he b est emp i ri c al researc h avai l ab l e. B ef ore c i t i n g a st u dy,
Ami c i have c ri t i c al l y eval u at ed i t s met hodol ogy, i n c l u di n g t he rel i ab i l i t y an d
val i di t y of t he measu res an d t est s i t emp l oyed, an d t he q u al i t y of i t s dat a- c ol l ec t i on
p roc edu res an d st at i st i c al an al yses.
S c i en t i f i c researc h i s a c u mu l at i ve p roc ess, an d n o emp i ri c al st u dy i s p erf ec t
i n i t s desi gn an d ex ec u t i on . Ac c ordi n gl y, Ami c i b ase t hei r c on c l u si on s as mu c h as
p ossi b l e on f i n di n gs t hat have b een rep l i c at ed ac ross st u di es rat her t han on t he
f i n di n gs of an y si n gl e st u dy.
Even wel l- ex ec u t ed st u di es may b e l i mi t ed i n t hei r i mp l i c at i on s an d
gen eral i z ab i l i t y. Man y st u di es c i t ed herei n di sc u ss t hei r own l i mi t at i on s an d
p rovi de su ggest i on s f or f u rt her researc h. Thi s i s c on si st en t wi t h t he sc i en t i f i c
met hod an d does n ot i mp eac h t hese st u di es' overal l c on c l u si on s.
Most of t he emp i ri c al st u di es an d l i t erat u re revi ews c i t ed herei n have b een
p u b l i shed i n rep u t ab l e, p eer- revi ewed ac ademi c j ou rn al s. S ome ac ademi c b ooks,
3
book c h a p t e r s , a nd t e c h ni c a l r e p or t s , wh i c h t y p i c a l l y a r e not s u bj e c t t o t h e s a me
p e e r-r e vi e w s t a nda r ds a s j ou r na l a r t i c l e s , ma y a l s o be c i t e d, p r ovi de d t h a t t h e y
r e p or t r e s e a r c h e mp l oy i ng r i gor ou s me t h ods , a r e a u t h or e d by e s t a bl i s h e d
r e s e a r c h e r s , a nd a c c u r a t e l y r e f l e c t p r of e s s i ona l c ons e ns u s a bou t t h e c u r r e nt s t a t e of
knowl e dge .
I I . Homos e xu a l i t y I s A Nor ma l Exp r e s s i on of Hu ma n Se xu a l i t y , I s
Ge ne r a l l y Not Ch os e n, a nd I s Hi gh l y Re s i s t a nt t o Ch a nge .
Se xu a l or i e nt a t i on r e f e r s t o a n e ndu r i ng di s p os i t i on t o e xp e r i e nc e s e xu a l ,
a f f e c t i ona l , or r oma nt i c a t t r a c t i ons t o ma l e s , f e ma l e s , or bot h . I t a l s o e nc omp a s s e s
a n i ndi vi du a l ' s s e ns e of p e r s ona l a nd s oc i a l i de nt i t y ba s e d on t h os e a t t r a c t i ons ,
be h a vi or s e xp r e s s i ng t h e m, a nd me mbe r s h i p i n a c ommu ni t y of ot h e r s wh o s h a r e
t h e m.s Al t h ou gh s e xu a l or i e nt a t i on r a nge s a l ong a c ont i nu u m f r om e xc l u s i ve l y
h e t e r os e xu a l t o e xc l u s i ve l y h omos e xu a l , i t i s u s u a l l y di s c u s s e d i n t e r ms of t h r e e
c a t e gor i e s : h e t e r os e xu a l (h a vi ng s e xu a l a nd r oma nt i c a t t r a c t i on p r i ma r i l y or
e xc l u s i ve l y t o me mbe r s of t h e ot h e r s e x) , h omos e xu a l (h a vi ng s e xu a l a nd r oma nt i c
a t t r a c t i on p r i ma r i l y or e xc l u s i ve l y t o me mbe r s of one ' s own s e x) , a nd bz s e xu a l
(h a vi ng a s i gni f i c a nt de gr e e of s e xu a l a nd r oma nt i c a t t r a c t i on t o bot h s e xe s ) .
5 Se e Na t ' 1 Ac a de my of Sc i e nc e s ' I ns t i t u t e of Me di c i ne , Re p ot : Th e He a l t h of
Le s bi a n, Ga y , B i s e xu a l , a nd T~a ns ge nde ~ Pe op l e (2011) ; A.R. D' Au ge l l i , Se xu a l
O r i e nt a t i on, i n 7 Enc y c l op e di a of Ps y c h ol ogy 260 (A.E. Ka z di n e d., 2000) ; G.M.
He r e k, Homos e xu a l i t y , i n 2 Co~s i ni Enc y c l op e di a of Ps y c h ol ogy 774-76 (I .B .
We i ne r & W.E. Cr a i gh e a d e ds ., 4t h e d. 2010) .
C!
When the American P s y chiatric As s ociation publis hed the f irs t Diagnos tic
and S tatis tical Manual of Mental Dis orders ("DS M") in 1952, homos exuality was
lis ted as a mental dis order. However, this clas s if ication ref lected s ocial s tigma
rather than empirical res earch f indings . Recognizing the lack of s cientif ic
evidence f or this clas s if ication,6 the American P s y chiatric As s ociation removed
homos exuality f rom the DS M in 1973, s tating that "homos exuality peg s e implies
no impairment in judgment, s tability , reliability , or general s ocial or vocational
capabilities . "~ In 1975, the AP A adopted a policy ref lecting the s ame conclus ion.$
For decades , the cons ens us of mains tream mental health prof es s ionals and
res earchers has been that homos exuality and bis exuality are normal expres s ions of
human s exuality ; that they pos e no inherent obs tacle to leading a happy , healthy ,
and productive lif e; and that gay and les bian people f unction well in the f ull array
of s ocial ins titutions and interpers onal relations hips .
Mos t gay men and les bians do not experience their s exual orientation as a
voluntary choice. In a U. S . national probability (i. e. , "repres entative") s ample of
6 S ee, e. g. , E. Hooker, The Adjus tment of the Male Overt Homos exual, 21 J .
P rojective Techniques 17 (1957); B. F. Ries s , P s y chological Tes ts in
Homos exuality , in Homos exual Behavior 296 (J . Marmor ed. , 1980); C. Gons iorek,
The Empirical Bas is f og the Demis e of the Illnes s Model of Homos exuality , in
Homos exuality 115 (J . C. Gons iorek & J . D. Weinrich eds . , 1991).
~ Am. P s y chiatric As s n, P os ition S tatement. Homos exuality and Civil Rights
(1973 ), in 131 Am. J . P s y chiatry 497 (1974).
g AP A, Minutes of the Annual Meeting of the Council of Repres entatives , 30 Am.
P s y chologis t 620, 633 (1975).
5
662 s e l f- i d e n t i f i e d l e s b i a n , ga y, a n d b i s e x u a l a d u l t s , 88% of ga y me n a n d 68% of
l e s b i a n s r e p or t e d f e e l i n g t he y ha d n o choi ce a t a l l a b ou t t he i r s e x u a l or i e n t a t i on ,
whi l e on l y 5% of ga y me n a n d 16% of l e s b i a n s f e l t t he y ha d a f a i r a mou n t or a
gr e a t d e a l of choi ce .9
Al t hou gh s ome gr ou p s a n d i n d i v i d u a l s ha v e of f e r e d cl i n i ca l i n t e r v e n t i on s
t ha t p u r p or t t o cha n ge s e x u a l or i e n t a t i on f r om homos e x u a l t o he t e r os e x u a l
s ome t i me s ca l l e d "con v e r s i on " t he r a p i e s t he s e i n t e r v e n t i on s ha v e n ot b e e n
s hown t o b e e f f e ct i v e or s a f e . A r e v i e w of t he s ci e n t i f i c l i t e r a t u r e b y a n APA t a s k
f or ce con cl u d e d t ha t s e x u a l or i e n t a t i on cha n ge e f f or t s a r e u n l i k e l y t o s u cce e d a n d
ca n b e ha r mf u l . 'o
Al l ma jor n a t i on a l me n t a l he a l t h or ga n i za t i on s i n cl u d i n g Ami ci ha v e
a d op t e d p ol i cy s t a t e me n t s ca u t i on i n g t he p r of e s s i on a n d t he p u b l i c a b ou t
t r e a t me n t s t ha t p u r p or t t o cha n ge s e x u a l or i e n t a t i on . ' 1
9 G. He r e k e t a l . , De mogr a p hi c, Ps ychol ogi ca l , a n d Soci a l C ha r a ct e r i s t i cs of Se l f-
I d e n t i f i e d Le s b i a n , Ga y, a n d Bi s e x u a l Ad u l t s i n a U . S. Pr ob a b i l i t y Sa mp l e , 7
Se x u a l i t y Re s . & Soc. Pol i cy 176 (2010); s e e a l s o G. He r e k e t a l . , I n t e r n a l i ze d
St i gma Amon g Se x u a l Mi n or i t y Ad u l t s , 56 J . C ou n s e l i n g Ps ychol . 32 (2009).
C omp a r a b l e d a t a f or he t e r os e x u a l s ' p e r ce p t i on s of t he i r own s e x u a l or i e n t a t i on a r e
n ot a v a i l a b l e .
t o
APA, Re p ot of t he Ame r i ca n Ps ychol ogi ca l As s oci a t i on Ta s k For ce on
Ap p r op r i a t e The r a p e u t i c Re s p on s e s t o Se x u a l O r i e n t a t i on (2009); s e e a l s o APA,
Re s ol u t i on on Ap p r op r i a t e Af f i r ma t i v e Re s p on s e s t o Se x u a l O r i e n t a t i on Di s t r e s s
a n d C ha n ge E f f or t s (2009).
~ 1 Se e APA Re s ol u t i on on Ma r r i a ge E q u a l i t y, s u p r a n ot e 2; Am. Ps ychi a t r i c As s n ,
Pos i t i on St a t e me n t : Ps ychi a t r i c Tr e a t me n t a n d Se x u a l O r i e n t a t i on (1998); Am.
As s n f or Ma r r i a ge & Fa m. The r a p y, Re p a r a t i v e /C on v e r s i on The r a p y (2009); Am.
I I I . Sexual O r i en t at i o n an d R elat i o n s h i p s .
Sexual o r i en t at i o n i s co mmo n ly di s cus s ed as a ch ar act er i s t i c o f i n di v i duals ,
li k e b i o lo g i cal s ex o r ag e. T h i s p er s p ect i v e i s i n co mp let e b ecaus e s exual
o r i en t at i o n n eces s ar i ly i n v o lv es r elat i o n s h i p s w i t h o t h er p eo p le. Sexual act s an d
r o man t i c at t r act i o n s ar e cat eg o r i z ed as h o mo s exual o r h et er o s exual acco r di n g t o
t h e b i o lo g i cal s ex o f t h e i n di v i duals i n v o lv ed, r elat i v e t o each o t h er . I n deed, i t i s
o n ly b y act i n g w i t h an o t h er p er s o n o r des i r i n g t o act t h at i n di v i duals exp r es s
t h ei r h et er o s exuali t y, h o mo s exuali t y, o r b i s exuali t y. T h us , s exual o r i en t at i o n i s
i n t eg r ally li n k ed t o t h e i n t i mat e p er s o n al r elat i o n s h i p s t h at h uman b ei n g s fo r m w i t h
o t h er s t o meet t h ei r deep ly felt n eeds fo r lo v e, at t ach men t , an d i n t i macy. I t defi n es
t h e un i v er s e o f p er s o n s w i t h w h o m o n e i s li k ely t o fi n d t h e s at i s fyi n g an d fulfi lli n g
r elat i o n s h i p s t h at , fo r man y i n di v i duals , co mp r i s e an es s en t i al co mp o n en t o f
p er s o n al i den t i t y.
Med. As s n , P o li cy H-160. 991, Healt h Cag e Needs o f t h e Ho mo s exual P o p ulat i o n ;
Nat ' l As s n o f So c. Wo r k er s , P o s i t i o n St at emen t : "R ep ar at i v e" an d "Co n v er s i o n "
T h er ap i es fo g Les b i an s an d Gay Men (2000); Am. P s ych o an alyt i c As s n , P o s i t i o n
St at emen t : At t emp t s t o Ch an g e Sexual O r i en t at i o n , Gen der I den t i t y, o r Gen der
Exp r es s i o n (2012); s ee als o B. L. Fr an k o w s k i , Sexual O r i en t at i o n an d Ado les cen t s ,
113 P edi at r i cs 1827 (2004).
7
A. Gay Men and Lesbians Form S t abl e, Commit t ed R el at ionsh ip s
Th at Are Equival ent t o Het erosexual R el at ionsh ip s in Essent ial
R esp ect s.
Most gay men and l esbians want t o form st abl e, l ong- l ast ing rel at ionsh ip s.12
Many of t h em do so. According t o 2010 Census dat a, same- sex coup l es h eaded
more t h an 600, 000 U.S . h ouseh ol ds, incl uding over 32, 000 h ouseh ol ds in
Mich igan, Kent ucky and Tennessee.13 Dat a from nat ional p robabil it y samp l es
indicat e t h at more t h an t wo t h irds of l esbians and ap p roximat el y 40% of gay men
are current l y in commit t ed rel at ionsh ip s.14 Numerous st udies using nonp robabil it y
samp l es of gay men and l esbians h ave found t h at t h e vast maj orit y of p art icip ant s
h ave been in a commit t ed rel at ionsh ip at some p oint in t h eir l ives, and t h at many
exist ing coup l es h ave been t oget h er 10 or more years.
l s
12
For examp l e, in a 2013 nat ional p robabil it y samp l e of l esbian, gay, and bisexual
adul t s, 60% were current l y married or said t h ey woul d l ike t o get married. Pew
R esearch Cent er, S urvey of LGBT Americans (2013). I n an earl ier nat ional survey,
78% of gay men and 87% of l esbians wh o were current l y in a rel at ionsh ip said
t h ey woul d marry t h eir p art ner if it were l egal . Herek et al ., Demograp h ic, sup ra
not e 9.
13
2010 Census and 2010 American Communit y S urvey, S ame- S ex Unmarried
Part ner or S p ouse Househ ol ds by S ex of Househ ol der by Presence of Own
Ch il dren; G.J . Gat es, LGBT Parent ing in t h e Unit ed S t at es, Th e Wil l iams I nst it ut e,
at 2 (2013 ).
14
Herek et al ., Demograp h ic, sup ra not e 9; Pew R esearch Cent er, sup ra not e 12.
is
S ee L.A. Pep l au & A.W. Fingerh ut , S ame- S ex R omant ic R el at ionsh ip s, in
Handbook of Psych ol ogy and S exual Orient at ion 165- 178 (C.J . Pat t erson & A.R .
D'Augel l i eds., 2013); L.A. Pep l au & A.W. Fingerh ut , Th e Cl ose R el at ionsh ip s of
Lesbians and Gay Men, 58 Ann. R ev. Psych ol . 405 (2007); L.A. Pep l au & N.
Gh avami, Gay, Lesbian, and Bisexual R el at ionsh ip s, in Encycl op edia of Human
R el at ionsh ip s (H.T. R eis & S . S p rech er eds., 2009).
'3
Empirical re s e arch de mons trate s th at th e ps ych ological and s ocial
dime ns ions of committe d re lations h ips be twe e n s ame-s e x partne rs large ly
re s e mble th os e of h e te ros e xu al partne rs h ips . Same-s e x cou ple s form de e p
e motional attach me nts and commitme nts , with le v e ls of re lations h ip s atis faction
s imilar to or h igh e r th an th os e of h e te ros e xu al cou ple s .1 6 Th e y als o go th rou gh
s imilar proce s s e s to addre s s conce rns abou t intimacy, lov e , e q u ity, and oth e r
re lations h ip is s u e s . "
B. Th e I ns titu tion of Marriage Offe rs Social, Ps ych ological, and
He alth Be ne fits Th at Are De nie d to Same-Se x Cou ple s Wh o
Cannot Le gally Marry.
Marriage h as a profou nd e ffe ct on th e liv e s of marrie d indiv idu als .
Sociologis ts h av e obs e rv e d th at marriage cre ate s orde r in pe ople s ' liv e slg and
1 6 K. F. Bals am e t al. , Th re e-Ye as Follow-Up of Same-Se x Cou ple s Wh o Had Civ il
Unions in Ve rmont, Same-Se x Cou ple s Not in Civ il Unions , and He te ros e xu al
Ma~~ie d Cou ple s , 44 De v e lopme ntal Ps ych ol. 1 02 (2008); L. A. Ku rde k, Ch ange in
Re lations h ip Qu ality fog Partne rs from Le s bian, Gay Male , and He te ros e xu al
Cou ple s , 22 J . Fam. Ps ych ol. 701 (2008); L. A. Pe plau & K. P. Be als , Th e Family
Liv e s of Le s bians and Gay Me n, in Handbook of Family Commu nication 233, 236
(A. L. Vange lis ti e d. , 2004).
l ~ Ku rde k, Ch ange in Re lations h ip Qu ality, s u pra note 1 6 ; L. A. Ku rde k, Aye Gay
and Le s bian Coh abiting Cou ple s Re ally Diffe re nt from He te ros e xu al Marrie d
Cou ple s ?, 6 6 J . Marriage & Fam. 880 (2004); G. I . Rois man e t al. , Adu lt Romantic
Re lations h ips as Conte xts for Hu man De v e lopme nt, 44 De v e lopme ntal Ps ych ol. 91
(2008); s e e ge ne rally L. A. Ku rde k, Wh at Do We Know Abou t Gay and Le s bian
Cou ple s ?, 1 4 Cu rre nt Dire ctions in Ps ych ol. Sci. 251 (2005); Pe plau & Finge rh u t
(2007), s u pra note 1 5; Pe plau & Gh av ami, s u pra note 1 5.
1 8 P. Be rge r & H. Ke llne r, Marriage and th e Cons tru ction of Re ality, 46 Dioge ne s
1 (1 96 4).
L'~
"provides a st ron g posit ive sen se of iden t it y , sel f- w ort h , an d mast ery ."1 9 Empirical
research demon st rat es t h at marriag e h as dist in ct b en efit s t h at ext en d b ey on d t h e
mat erial n ecessit ies of l ife.2 0 Th ese in t an g ib l e b en efit s h ave import an t impl icat ion s
for t h e ph y sical an d psy ch ol og ical h eal t h of married in dividu al s an d for t h e
rel at ion sh ip it sel f.
Becau se marriag e rig h t s h ave b een g ran t ed t o same- sex cou pl es on l y
recen t l y , l it t l e empirical research h as b een pu b l ish ed t h at compares married same-
sex cou pl es t o u n married same- sex cou pl es or t h ose in civil u n ion s.2 1 Based on
t h eir scien t ific an d cl in ical expert ise, Amici b el ieve it is appropriat e t o ext rapol at e
1 9 W
R. Gove et al ., Th e Effect of Marriag e on t h e Wel l- Bein g of Adu l t s, 1 1 J . Fam.
I ssu es 4, 1 6 (1 9 9 0 ); see al so E. Du rkh eim, Su icide 2 59 (J .A. Spau l din g & G.
Simpson t ran s., 1 9 51 ) (1 89 7).
2 0 See S. St ack & J .R. Esh l eman , Marit al St at u s an d Happin ess, 60 J . Marriag e &
Fam. 52 7 (1 9 9 8); R.P.D. Bu rt on , Gl ob al I n t eg rat ive Mean in g as a Mediat in g
Fact or I n t h e Rel at ion sh ip Bet w een Social Rol es an d Psy ch ol og ical Dist ress, 39 J .
Heal t h & Soc. Beh ay . 2 0 1 (1 9 9 8); S.L. Nock, A Comparison of Ma~~iag es an d
Coh ab it in g Rel at ion sh ips, 1 6 J . Fam. I ssu es 53, 53 (1 9 9 5); Gove (1 9 9 0 ), su pra
n ot e 1 9 , at 5.
2 1
See R.G. Wig h t et al ., Same- Sex Leg al Ma~~iag e an d Psy ch ol og ical Wel l- Bein g ,
1 0 3 Am. J . Pu b . Heal t h 339 , 343 (2 0 1 3) (fin din g b ased on comparison of g ay ,
l esb ian , an d b isexu al Cal iforn ian s w h o w ere l eg al l y married t o t h ose in domest ic
part n ersh ips or n ot in a l en g t h y recog n ized rel at ion sh ip t h at "t h ere mig h t b e a
u n iqu e posit ive men t al h eal t h associat ion specifical l y con ferred b y l eg al marriag e,
part icu l arl y compared w it h n ot b ein g in an y t y pe of l eg al l y recog n ized rel at ion sh ip
at al l .").
1 0
from the emp i ri c a l res ea rc h l i tera tu re for heteros ex u a l c ou p l es wi th q u a l i fi c a ti on s
a s n ec es s a ryto a n ti c i p a te the l i k el y effec ts of ma rri a ge for s a me-s ex c ou p l es .
2 2
Thi s res ea rc h s hows tha t ma rri ed heteros ex u a l men a n d women gen era l l y
ex p eri en c e b etter p hys i c a l a n d men ta l hea l th tha n thei r u n ma rri ed c ou n terp a rts .
2 3
Thes e hea l th b en efi ts do n ot a p p ea r to res u l t s i mp l y from b ei n g i n a n i n ti ma te
rel a ti on s hi p ; mos t s tu di es ha ve fou n d tha t ma rri ed heteros ex u a l . i n di vi du a l s
gen era l l y ma n i fes t grea ter wel l -b ei n g tha n memb ers of c omp a ra b l e c oha b i ti n g
c ou p l es .2 4 Of c ou rs e, ma ri ta l s ta tu s a l on e does n ot gu a ra n tee b etter hea l th or
grea ter ha p p i n es s . Un ha p p i l y ma rri ed p eop l e often ha ve l ower l evel s of wel l -b ei n g
tha n the u n ma rri ed, a n d ma ri ta l di s c ord a n d di s s a ti s fa c ti on a re often a s s oc i a ted
2 2
Comp a ri s on s b etween ma rri ed a n d u n ma rri ed heteros ex u a l c ou p l es a re
c omp l i c a ted b y the p os s i b i l i ty tha t ob s erved di fferen c es mi ght b e du e to s el f-
s el ec ti on ( i . e. , p eop l e who c hoos e to ma rry ma y di ffer a p ~ i o~ i from thos e who do
n ot) . Res ea rc hers ha ve c on c l u ded, however, tha t b en efi ts a s s oc i a ted wi th ma rri a ge
res u l t l a rgel y from the i n s ti tu ti on i ts el f ra ther tha n s el f-s el ec ti on . See, e. g. , Gove
( 1990) , s u p ra n ote 19, a t 10; J . E . Mu rra y, Ma ri ta l P rotec ti on a n d Ma ri ta l
Sel ec ti on , 3 7 Demogra p hy 511 ( 2 000) . I t i s rea s on a b l e to ex p ec t tha t s a me-s ex
c ou p l es who c hoos e to ma rry wi l l , l i k e thei r heteros ex u a l c ou n terp a rts , b en efi t
from the i n s ti tu ti on of ma rri a ge i ts el f.
2 3
See N. J . J ohn s on et a l . , Ma ri ta l Sta tu s a n d Morta l i ty, 10 An n a l s E p i demi ol ogy
2 2 4 ( 2 000) ; C. E . Ros s et a l . , The I mp a c t of the Fa mi l y on Hea l th, 52 J . Ma rri a ge &
Fa m. 1059 ( 1990) ; R. W. Si mon , Revi s i ti n g the Rel a ti on s hi p s Amon g Gen der,
Ma ri ta l Sta tu s , a n d Men ta l Hea l th, 107 Am. J . Soc . 1065 ( 2 002 ) .
2 4
See Gove ( 1990) , s u p ra n ote 19; S. L. Brown , The E ffec t of Un i on Typ e on
P s yc hol ogi c a l Wel l-Bei n g, 4 1 J . Hea l th & Soc . Beha y. 2 4 1 ( 2 000) . Bu t s ee C. E .
Ros s , Rec on c ep tu a l i zi n g Ma ri ta l Sta tu s a s a Con ti n u u m of Soc i a l Atta c hmen t, 57 J .
Ma rri a ge & Fa m. 12 9 ( 1995) ( fa i l i n g to detec t s i gn i fi c a n t di fferen c es i n dep res s i on
b etween ma rri ed a n d c omp a ra b l e c oha b i ti n g heteros ex u a l c ou p l es ) .
11
with n e g a tiv e he a l th e f f e c ts .2 5 Ne v e rthe l e s s , s a tis f ie d ma rrie d c oupl e s c on s is te n tl y
ma n if e s t hig he r l e v e l s of ha ppin e s s , ps y c hol og ic a l we l l - b e in g , a n d phy s ic a l he a l th
tha n the un ma rrie d .
Be in g ma rrie d is a l s o a s ourc e of s ta b il ity a n d c ommitme n t. M a rita l
c ommitme n t is a f un c tion n ot on l y of re wa rd in g f e a ture s of the re l a tion s hip, b ut
a l s o of c on s tra in ts on d is s ol v in g the re l a tion s hip ( e . g . , f e e l in g s of f a mil y
ob l ig a tion ; mora l a n d re l ig ious v a l ue s ; l e g a l re s tric tion s ; f in a n c ia l c on c e rn s ; a n d
a n tic ipa te d d is a pprov a l of othe rs ) .2 6 The e x is te n c e of s uc h b a rrie rs a l on e is n ot
s uf f ic ie n t to s us ta in a ma rria g e in the l on g te rm, a n d pe rc e iv in g on e 's in tima te
re l a tion s hip prima ril y in te rms of re wa rd s , ra the r tha n b a rrie rs to d is s ol ution , is
l ik e l y to b e a s s oc ia te d with g re a te r re l a tion s hip s a tis f a c tion .2 7 Non e the l e s s ,
pe rc e iv e d b a rrie rs a re n e g a tiv e l y c orre l a te d with d iv orc e ; thus , the ir pre s e n c e ma y
2 5
Se e W. R. Gov e e t a l . , Doe s M a rria g e Ha v e P os itiv e E f f e c ts on the P s y c hol og ic a l
We l l- Be in g of the I n d iv id ua l ? , 2 4 J . He a l th & Soc . Be ha y . 12 2 ( 1983) ; K.
Wil l ia ms , Ha s the Future of M a rria g e A~~iv e d ? , 44 J . He a l th Soc . Be ha y . 47 0
( 2 003) ; J . K. Kie c ol t- Gl a s e r & T. L. Ne wton , M a rria g e a n d He a l th, 12 7 P s y c hol .
Bul l . 47 2 ( 2 001) .
2 6
Se e G. Le v in g e r, M a rita l Cohe s iv e n e s s a n d Dis s ol ution , 2 7 J . M a rria g e & Fa m.
19 ( 196 5 ) ; J . M . Ad a ms & W. H. J on e s , The Con c e ptua l iza tion of M a rita l
Commitme n t, 7 2 J . P e rs on a l ity & Soc . P s y c hol . 117 7 ( 1997 ) .
2 7 Se e , e . g . , D. P re v iti & P . R. Ama to, Why Sta y M a rrie d ? , 6 5 J . M a rria g e & Fa m.
5 6 1 ( 2 003) .
12
i n c r e a s e p a r t n e r s ' mot i va t i on t o s e e k s ol u t i on s f or p r obl e ms r a t h e r t h a n d i s s ol vi n g
t h e r e l a t i on s h i p .2 8
For s a me-s e x c ou p l e s l a c ki n g a c c e s s t o l e g a l ma r r i a g e , t h e p r i ma r y
mot i va t i on t o r e ma i n t og e t h e r d e r i ve s f r om t h e r e wa r d s a s s oc i a t e d wi t h t h e
r e l a t i on s h i p r a t h e r t h a n f or ma l ba r r i e r s t o s e p a r a t i on .2 9 Gi ve n t h i s f a c t , a n d t h e
l e g a l a n d p r e j u d i c i a l obs t a c l e s t h a t s a me-s e x p a r t n e r s f a c e , t h e p r e va l e n c e a n d
d u r a bi l i t y of s a me-s e x r e l a t i on s h i p s a r e s t r i ki n g .
IV. Th e Ch i l d r e n of Sa me-Se x Cou p l e s .
A. Ma n y Sa me-Se x Cou p l e s Ra i s e Ch i l d r e n .
Th e 2 010 Ce n s u s r e c or d e d 111,033 h ou s e h ol d s h e a d e d by s a me-s e x p a r t n e r s
wi t h c h i l d r e n u n d e r a g e 18 ; a p p r oxi ma t e l y 5,9 46 of t h e s e h ou s e h ol d s we r e i n
Mi c h i g a n , Ke n t u c ky a n d Te n n e s s e e .30 Th e s e f i g u r e s a r e wi d e l y a s s u me d t o
u n d e r e s t i ma t e t h e a c t u a l n u mbe r of s a me-s e x c ou p l e s wh o a r e r a i s i n g c h i l d r e n .31
2 8 Se e T. B. He a t on &S. L. Al br e c h t , St a bl e Un h a p p y Ma ~~i a g e s , 53 J . Ma r r i a g e &
Fa m. 747 (19 9 1); L. K. Wh i t e &A. Boot h , Di vor c e Ove r t h e Li f e Cou r s e , 12 J .
Fa m. Is s u e s 5 (19 9 1).
2 9
L. A. Ku r d e k, Re l a t i on s h i p Ou t c ome s a n d Th e i r P r e d i c t or s , 60 J . Ma r r i a g e &
Fa m. 553 (19 9 8 ).
30
2 010 Ce n s u s Su r ve y, s u p r a n ot e 13.
31
Th i s i s be c a u s e t h e Ce n s u s d oe s n ot d i r e c t l y a s s e s s p a r t i c i p a n t s ' s e xu a l
or i e n t a t i on ; i t r e f l e c t s on l y h ou s e h ol d s h e a d e d by c oh a bi t i n g s a me-s e x p a r t n e r s
wh o vol u n t a r i l y r e p or t e d t h e i r r e l a t i on s h i p s t a t u s .
13
B. The Factors That A f f ect the A djustment of Children A re Not
Dependent on Parental Gender or Sexual Orientation.
Hundreds of studies over the past 30 y ears have elucidated the f actors that
are associated w ith healthy adjustment among children and adolescents i.e., the
inf luences that allow children and adolescents to f unction w ell in their daily lives.
A s one noted authority in developmental psy chology explained, based on the
accumulated empirical evidence:
Many studies have show n that adjustment is largely
af f ected by dif f erences in the q uality of parenting and
parent- child relationships, the q uality of the relationships
betw een the parents, and the richness of the economic
and social resources available to the f amily .
Dimensions of f amily structure including such f actors
as divorce, single parenthood, and the parents' sexual
orientation and biological relatedness betw een parents
and children are of little or no predictive importance once
the process variables are taken into account, because the
same f actors explain child adjustment regardless of
f amily structure.
32
(1) The q ualities of parent- child relationships
Research show s that children' s adjustment is af f ected by the q uality of a
parent- child relationship including attributes like parental w armth, consistency ,
32
M.E. Lamb, Mothers, Fathers, Families, and Circumstances, 16 A pplied
Developmental Sci. 98- 111 (2012); see also S. Golombok, Parenting (2002); M.E.
Lamb & C. Lew is, The Role of Parent- Child Relationships in Child Development,
in Developmental Science 429- 68 (M.H. Bornstein & M.E. Lamb eds., 5 th ed.
2005 ); C.J . Patterson, & P.D. Hastings, Socializ ation in the Context of Family
Diversity , in Handbook of Socializ ation 328- 5 1 (J .E. Grusec & P.D. Hastings eds.,
2007).
14
and s t ab i l i t y . C h i l dr e n wh os e p ar e nt s p r ov i de t h e m wi t h l ov i ng g ui dance i n t h e
cont e x t of s e cur e h ome e nv i r onme nt s ar e l i k e l y t o s h ow mor e p os i t i v e adj us t me nt ,
r e g ar dl e s s of t h e i r p ar e nt s ' s e x ual or i e nt at i on.
33
(2) Th e q ual i t i e s of r e l at i ons h i p s b e t we e n s i g ni fi cant adul t s i n ch i l dr e n' s
l i v e s
A ddi t i onal l y , ch i l dr e n ar e mor e l i k e l y t o s h ow p os i t i v e adj us t me nt wh e n
p ar e nt al r e l at i ons h i p s ar e ch ar act e r i z e d b y l ov e , war mt h , coop e r at i on, s e cur i t y , and
mut ual s up p or t . In cont r as t , wh e n p ar e nt al r e l at i ons h i p s ar e confl i ct- r i dde n and
acr i moni ous , adj us t me nt t e nds t o b e l e s s fav or ab l e . Fami l y i ns t ab i l i t y , h ous e h ol d
di s r up t i on, and p ar e nt al di v or ce ar e oft e n as s oci at e d wi t h p oor e r adj us t me nt and
p r ob l e ms t h at can l as t i nt o adul t h ood.34 Th e s e p at t e r ns ar e ob s e r v e d, r e g ar dl e s s of
wh e t h e r ch i l dr e n ar e r e ar e d b y s ame- s e x coup l e s or h e t e r os e x ual coup l e s .
35
33
Lamb &Le wi s , s up r a not e 32; P at t e r s on &Has t i ng s , s up r a not e 32; J . Z . Smi t h
e t al . , M ul t i l e v e l M ode l i ng A p p r oach e s t o t h e St udy of LGBT P ar e nt- Fami l i e s , i n
LGBT- P ar e nt Fami l i e s 307- 323 (A . E. Gol db e r g & K. A . A l l e n e ds . , 2013)
(q ual i t i e s s uch as p ar e nt al war mt h , p ar e nt s ' i nt i mat e r e l at i ons h i p q ual i t y , and
p ar e nt al we l l - b e i ng mat t e r mor e t o ch i l dr e n' s adj us t me nt t h an s e x ual or i e nt at i on).
3a
Se e , e . g . , P . R. A mat o, C h i l dr e n of Di v or ce i n t h e 1990s , 15 J . Fam. P s y ch ol . 355
(2001).
3s
Th e Fami l y C ont e x t of P ar e nt i ng i n C h i l dr e n' s A dap t at i on t o El e me nt ar y Sch ool
(P . A . C owan e t al . e ds . , 2005); R. W. C h an e t al . , P s y ch os oci al A dj us t me nt A mong
C h i l dr e n C once i v e d V i a Donor Ins e mi nat i on By Le s b i an and He t e r os e x ual
M ot h e r s , 69 C h i l d De v . 443 (1998); E. M . C ummi ng s e t al . , C h i l dr e n' s Re s p ons e s
t o Ev e r y day M ar i t al C onfl i ct Tact i cs i n t h e Home , 74 C h i l d De v . 1918 (2003);
E. M . C ummi ng s e t al . , Ev e r y day M ar i t al C onfl i ct and C h i l d A g g r e s s i on, 32 J .
A b nor mal C h i l d P s y ch ol . 191 (2004); Gol omb ok (2002), s up r a not e 32; D. P ot t e r ,
Same- Se x P ar e nt Fami l i e s and C h i l dr e n' s A cade mi c A ch i e v e me nt , 74 J . M ar r i ag e
[ [ .
Consequently, r esea r c h er s must ta ke c a r e to a void c onf la ting th e neg a tive
c onsequenc es of exper ienc ing divor c e or h ouseh old insta b ility with th e
c onsequenc es of simply h a ving a g a y or lesb ia n pa r ent.3 6
(3 ) Th e a va ila b ility of ec onomic a nd oth er r esour c es
Ch ildr en with suf f ic ient ec onomic r esour c es a r e likely to live in sa f er
neig h b or h oods, b r ea th e c lea ner a ir , a nd ea t mor e nutr itious f ood. Th ey a r e a lso
mor e likely to h a ve oppor tunities to pa r tic ipa te in positive a f ter-sc h ool a c tivities,
a nd h a ve soc ia l a nd emotiona l r esour c es f r om tea mma tes, c oa c h es, youth lea der s,
a nd oth er s. To th e extent th a t c h ildr en h a ve a c c ess to th ese r esour c es, th ey a r e
& Fa m. 556 (2012); M. J. Rosenf eld, Nontr a ditiona l Fa milies & Ch ildh ood
Pr og r ess Th r oug h Sc h ool, 47 Demog r a ph y, 755 (2010).
Alth oug h r esea r c h c onduc ted with c h ildr en r ea r ed b y h eter osexua l pa r ents
indic a tes th a t th ey f a r e b etter with two pa r enting f ig ur es th a n with one, see, e. g . , S.
Mc La na h a n & G. Sa ndef ur , Gr owing Up With a Sing le Pa r ent 3 9 (1994),
c ompa r a b le studies of c h ildr en r ea r ed b y sa me-sex c ouples ver sus th ose r a ised b y
a sing le lesb ia n, g a y, or b isexua l pa r ents h a ve not a ppea r ed in th e r esea r c h
liter a tur e.
3 6
Sever a l studies th a t pur por t to identif y dif f er enc es in th e a djustment of c h ildr en
of h eter osexua l ver sus sa me-sex c ouples exh ib it th is f la w. See, e. g . , S. Sa r a nta kos,
Ch ildr en in Th r ee Contexts, 21 Ch ild. Austr a lia 23 (1996 ) (in a study of Austr a lia n
c h ildr en, c onf la ting ef f ec ts of pa r enta l divor c e a nd soc ia l stig ma with th e ef f ec ts of
pa r enta l sexua l or ienta tion); M. Reg ner us, How Dif f er ent Aye th e Adult Ch ildr en of
Pa r ents Wh o Ha ve Sa me-Sex Rela tionsh ips? 41 Soc . Sc i. Resea r c h 752-770 (2012)
(c onf la ting ef f ec ts of h ouseh old disr uption with ef f ec ts of per c eived pa r enta l
sexua l or ienta tion). Bec a use of th ese a nd oth er sig nif ic a nt limita tions, th e
f or eg oing studies do not per mit c onc lusions to b e dr a wn a b out th e ef f ec ts of
pa r enta l sexua l or ienta tion on c h ildr en' s outc omes. See, e. g . , DeBoe~ v. Snyder ,
973 F. Supp. 2d 755, 76 6 (E. D. Mic h . 2014) (a f ter a tr ia l on th e mer its, f inding
Reg ner us' a sser tion c h ildr en of h eter osexua l c ouples f a r e b etter th a n th ose of g a y
pa r ents " entir ely unb elieva b le a nd not wor th y of ser ious c onsider a tion" ).
16
more l i k el y t o show p osi t i v e a d j u st men t , reg a rd l ess of t hei r p a ren t s' sex u a l
ori en t a t i on .37
In short , t he sa me fa c t ors a re l i n k ed t o c hi l d ren ' s p osi t i v e d ev el op men t ,
whet her t hey a re ra i sed by het erosex u a l , l esbi a n , or g a y p a ren t s. Moreov er, when
t hei r p a ren t s c a n l eg a l l y ma rry , c hi l d ren ben efi t i n t erms of a l l t hree fa c t ors.
Ma rri a g e fa c i l i t a t es p osi t i v e p a ren t- c hi l d rel a t i on shi p s by p rov i d i n g c hi l d ren wi t h a
l eg a l rel a t i on shi p t o bot h p a ren t s. Thi s l eg a l rel a t i on shi p c a n p rov i d e n eed ed
sec u ri t y a n d c on t i n u i t y , esp ec i a l l y d u ri n g t i mes of c ri si s (su c h a s sc hool
emerg en c i es, med i c a l emerg en c i es, or t he i n c a p a c i t y or d ea t h of a p a ren t ) . In
a d d i t i on , c hi l d ren ben efi t when t hei r p a ren t s a re fi n a n c i a l l y sec u re, p hy si c a l l y a n d
p sy c hol og i c a l l y hea l t hy , a n d n ot su bj ec t ed t o hi g h l ev el s of st ress. To t he ex t en t
t ha t ma rri a g e fa c i l i t a t es sa me- sex c ou p l es' wel l - bei n g , st ren g t hen s t hei r
rel a t i on shi p s wi t h ea c h ot her, a n d red u c es t he ri sk of hou sehol d i n st a bi l i t y , i t
en ha n c es t hei r c hi l d ren ' s wel l - bei n g a s we1 1 .38 Thu s, Ami c i c on c l u d e t ha t
p ermi t t i n g sa me- sex c ou p l es t o ma rry i s l i k el y t o ha v e p osi t i v e effec t s on t he
c hi l d ren t hey ra i se.
37 Nei g hborhood Pov ert y (J . Brook s- Gu n n et a l . ed s. , 1 9 9 7) ; Con sequ en c es of
Growi n g Up Poop (G. J . Du n c a n & J . Brook s- Gu n n ed s. , 1 9 9 7) ; Pa t t erson &
H a st i n g s, su p ra n ot e 32; Pot t er (201 2) , su p ra n ot e 35; Rosen fel d (201 0) , su p ra
n ot e 3 5.
38 Cha n et a l . , su p ra n ot e 35; C. J . Pa t t erson , Fa mi l i es of t he Lesbi a n Ba by Boom, 4
J . Ga y &Lesbi a n Psy c hot hera p y 9 1 (2001 ) .
1 7
C. There Is No S c i en t i f i c Basi s f or Con c ludi n g That S ame-S ex
Couples Are An y Less Fi t or Capable Paren t s Than Het erosexual
Couples, or That Thei r Chi ldren Are An y Less Psyc hologi c ally
Healt hy an d Well Adjust ed.
Assert i on s t hat het erosexual c ouples are bet t er paren t s t han same-sex
c ouples, or t hat t he c hi ldren of lesbi an or gay paren t s f are worse t han c hi ldren of
het erosexual paren t s, are n ot support ed by t he c umulat i ve sc i en t i f i c researc h.
3 9
Rat her, t he vast majori t y of sc i en t i f i c st udi es t hat have di rec t ly c ompared t hese
groups have f oun d t hat gay an d lesbi an paren t s are as f i t an d c apable as
het erosexual paren t s, an d t hat t hei r c hi ldren are as psyc hologi c ally healt hy an d
3 9
The researc h on gay, lesbi an , an d bi sexual paren t s i n c ludes dozen s of empi ri c al
st udi es. Thei r f i n di n gs are summari zed i n revi ews of empi ri c al li t erat ure publi shed
i n respec t ed, peer-revi ewed journ als an d ac ademi c books. Rec en t revi ews i n c lude
T.J . Bi blarz & J . S t ac ey, How Does t he Gen der of Paren t s Mat t es?, 72 J . Marri age
& Fam. 3 -22 (2010); A.E. Goldberg, Lesbi an an d Gay Paren t s an d Thei r Chi ldren
(2010); C.J . Pat t erson , Fami ly Li ves of Lesbi an an d Gay Adult s, i n The Han dbook
of Marri age an d Fami ly 659 , 668-71 (G.W. Pet erson & K.R. Bush eds., 2013 );
C.J . Pat t erson , Chi ldren of Lesbi an an d Gay Paren t s, 64 Am. Psyc hologi st 727
(2009 ). For earli er revi ews an d relat ed researc h, see, e.g., J . S t ac ey & T.J . Bi blarz,
(How) Does t he S exual O ri en t at i on of Paren t s Mat t er?, 66 Am. S oc . Rev. 159
(2001); E.C. Perri n et al., Tec hn i c al Report : Coparen t or S ec on d-Paren t Adopt i on
by S ame-S ex Paren t s, 109 Pedi at ri c s 3 41 (2002); C.J . Pat t erson , Fami ly
Relat i on shi ps of Lesbi an s an d Gay Men , 62 J . Marri age & Fam. 1052 (2000); N.
An derssen et al., O ut c omes f or Chi ldren wi t h Lesbi an o~ Gay Paren t s, 43 S c an d. J .
Psyc hol. 3 3 5 (2002); C.J . Pat t erson , Lesbi an an d Gay Paren t s an d Thei s Chi ldren ,
i n Con t emporary Perspec t i ves on Lesbi an , Gay, an d Bi sexual Iden t i t i es, Nebraska
S ymposi um on Mot i vat i on 141 (D.A. Hope ed., 2009 ); C.J . Teli n gat or & C.J .
Pat t erson , Chi ldren an d Adolesc en t s of Lesbi an an d Gay Paren t s, 47 J . Am. Ac ad.
of Chi ld &Adolesc en t Psyc hi at ry 13 64 (2008); J .L. Wai n ri ght et al., Psyc hosoc i al
Adjust men t , S c hool O ut c omes, an d Roman t i c Relat i on shi ps of Adolesc en t s Wi t h
S ame-S ex Paren t s, 75 Chi ld Dev. 1886 (2009 ).
~E:3
w e l l a d j u s t e d . More re s e a rc h h a s foc u s e d on l e s b i a n mot h e rs t h a n on ga y fa t h e rs ,
4o
b u t p u b l i s h e d s t u d i e s of ga y fa t h e rs fi nd t h a t t h e y a re a s fi t a nd a b l e p a re nt s a s
h e t e ros e x u a l fa t h e rs .41
A 2001 c omp re h e ns i ve s u rve y ofp e e r-re vi e w e d s c i e nt i fi c s t u d i e s c onc l u d e d
t h a t t h e e vi d e nc e from e mp i ri c a l re s e a rc h "s h ow s t h a t p a re nt a l s e x u a l ori e nt a t i on
p e r s e h a s no me a s u ra b l e e ffe c t on t h e q u a l i t y of p a re nt-c h i l d re l a t i ons h i p s or on
c h i l d re n' s me nt a l h e a l t h or s oc i a l a d j u s t me nt . "42 Th e va s t ma j ori t y of re s e a rc h
4o
S e e , e . g. , H. Bos & T. G. M. S a nd fort , C h i l d re n' s Ge nd e r I d e nt i t y i n Le s b i a n a nd
He t e ros e x u a l Tw o-Pa re nt F a mi l i e s , 62 S e x Rol e s 114 (2010); H. Bos e t a l . ,
Le s b i a n &He t e ros e x u a l Tw o-Pa re nt F a mi l i e s , J . C h i l d . & F a m. S t u d . (2014); R. H.
F a rr e t a l . , Pa re nt i ng a nd C h i l d De ve l op me nt i n Ad op t i ve F a mi l i e s , 14 Ap p l i e d
De ve l op me nt a l S c i . 164, 176 (2010); S . Gol omb ok e t a l . , C h i l d re n w i t h Le s b i a n
Pa re nt s , 39 De ve l op me nt a l Ps yc h ol . 20 (2003); I . Ri ve rs e t a l . , V i c t i mi z a t i on,
S oc i a l S u p p ort , a nd Ps yc h os oc i a l F u nc t i oni ng Among C h i l d re n of S a me-S e x a nd
Op p os i t e-S e x C ou p l e s i n t h e Uni t e d Ki ngd om, 44 De ve l op me nt a l Ps yc h ol . 127
(2008); J . L. Wa i nri gh t & C . J . Pa t t e rs on, De l i nq u e nc y, V i c t i mi z a t i on, a nd
S u b s t a nc e Us e Among Ad ol e s c e nt s w i t h F e ma l e S a me-S e x Pa re nt s , 20 J . F a m.
Ps yc h ol . 526 (2006).
41
F a rr, s u p ra not e 40, a t 176; s e e a l s o J . A. La vne r e t a l . , C a n Ga y a nd Le s b i a n
Pa re nt s Promot e He a l t h y De ve l op me nt i n Hi gh-Ri s k C h i l d re n Ad op t e d F rom
F os t e r C a ge ?, 82 Am. J . Ort h op s yc h i a t ry 465-472 (2012); S . E ri c h e t a l . , Ga y a nd
Le s b i a n Ad op t i ve F a mi l i e s , 9 J . F a m. S oc . Work 17 (2005); S . E ri c h e t a l . , A
C omp a ra t i ve Ana l ys i s of Ad op t i ve F a mi l y F u nc t i oni ng w i t h Ga y, Le s b i a n, a nd
He t e ros e x u a l Pa re nt s a nd Th e i s C h i l d re n, 1 J . GLBT F a m. S t u d . 43 (2005). F or a
re vi e w of e a rl i e r re s e a rc h , s e e C . J . Pa t t e rs on, Ga y F a t h e rs , i n Th e Rol e of t h e
F a t h e r i n C h i l d De ve l op me nt 397, 413 (M. E . La mb e d . , 2004).
42
S t a c e y & Bi b l a rz , s u p ra not e 39, a t 176; s e e a l s o N a t ' l Ac a d e my of S c i e nc e s '
I ns t i t u t e of Me d i c i ne , s u p ra not e 5 (c onc l u d i ng t h a t "s t u d i e s s h ow t h a t [ t h e
c h i l d re n of l e s b i a n a nd ga y p a re nt s ] a re w e l l a d j u s t e d a nd d e ve l op me nt a l l y s i mi l a r
t o t h e c h i l d re n of d i ffe re nt-s e x p a re nt s ").
S e ve ra l s t u d i e s t h a t h a ve foc u s e d on s ma l l re p ort e d d i ffe re nc e s h a ve
i d e nt i fi e d p os i t i ve e ffe c t s on c h i l d re n of s a me-s e x c ou p l e s . Bi b l a rz &S t a c e y,
19
f i n d i n g s r e p o r t e d i n t h e y e a r s s i n c e t h a t r e vi e w wa s p u b l i s h e d p r o vi d e f u r t h e r
s u p p o r t f o r t h i s c o n c l u s i o n .
Th e s e i n c l u d e f a i r l y r e c e n t s t u d i e s u s i n g n a t i o n a l p r o b a b i l i t y s a m p l e s . On e
s u c h s t u d y u s e d d a t a f r o m t h e N a t i o n a l L o n g i t u d i n a l St u d y o f A d o l e s c e n t H e a l t h t o
c o m p a r e a d o l e s c e n t s p a r e n t e d b y f e m a l e c o u p l e s wi t h a d o l e s c e n t s p a r e n t e d b y
h e t e r o s e x u a l c o u p l e s . Th e r e s e a r c h e r s f o u n d n o d i f f e r e n c e s b e t we e n t h e t wo
g r o u p s o n m e a s u r e s o f a l a r g e n u m b e r o f ke y va r i a b l e s , i n c l u d i n g p s y c h o s o c i a l
a d j u s t m e n t , s c h o o l o u t c o m e s , s u b s t a n c e u s e , d e l i n q u e n c y , vi c t i m i z a t i o n
e x p e r i e n c e s , a n d r e l a t i o n s h i p s wi t h p e e r s .
43
A n o t h e r s t u d y u s e d d a t a f r o m t h e E a r l y Ch i l d h o o d L o n g i t u d i n a l St u d y
K i n d e r g a r t e n Co h o r t (E CL S-K ) t o c o m p a r e t h e a c a d e m i c a c h i e ve m e n t o f c h i l d r e n
g r o wi n g u p i n va r i o u s f a m i l y s t r u c t u r e s . Wh e n t h e e f f e c t s o f s i g n i f i c a n t f a m i l y
t r a n s i t i o n s (e . g . , p a r e n t a l d i vo r c e , s e p a r a t i o n , o r d e a t h ) we r e t a ke n i n t o a c c o u n t ,
c h i l d r e n i n s a m e-s e x f a m i l y s t r u c t u r e s s h o we d s l i g h t l y h i g h e r a c h i e ve m e n t l e ve l s
s u p r a n o t e 39 (n o t i n g t h e " u b i q u i t o u s f i n d i n g s o f n o d i f f e r e n c e s " i n t h e r e s e a r c h
l i t e r a t u r e b u t c o n c l u d i n g t h a t wh e n s m a l l d i f f e r e n c e s h a ve b e e n f o u n d , t h e y f a vo r
f a m i l i e s o f s a m e-s e x c o u p l e s a t l e a s t a s o f t e n a s f a m i l i e s o f h e t e r o s e x u a l c o u p l e s ).
43
J . L . Wa i n r i g h t & C. J . P a t t e r s o n , P e e r R e l a t i o n s A m o n g A d o l e s c e n t s wi t h Fe m a l e
Sa m e-Se x P a r e n t s , 44 De ve l o p m e n t a l P s y c h o l . 117 (2008); Wa i n r i g h t &P a t t e r s o n
(2006), s u p r a n o t e 40; Wa i n r i g h t e t a l . , s u p r a n o t e 39.
t h a n c h i l d r e n l i v i n g w i t h t h e i r b i o l o g i c a l mo t h e r a n d f a t h e r , a l t h o u g h t h i s
d i f f e r e n c e w a s n o t s t a t i s t i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t .
44
Tw o o t h e r s t u d i e s , e a c h u s i n g t h e s a me d a t a s o u r c e , d e mo n s t r a t e t h e p i t f a l l s
o f c o n f l a t i n g p a r e n t s e x u a l o r i e n t a t i o n w i t h o t h e r v a r i a b l e s r e l e v a n t t o c h i l d r e n ' s
d e v e l o p me n t . Bo t h u s e d U. S. Ce n s u s d a t a t o c o mp a r e e d u c a t i o n a l o u t c o me s
a mo n g c h i l d r e n r e s i d i n g i n h o me s w i t h v a r i o u s f a mi l y s t r u c t u r e s . On e r e p o r t e d
t h a t c h i l d r e n i n h o u s e h o l d s w i t h s a me- s e x c o h a b i t i n g c o u p l e s h a d s i g n i f i c a n t l y
l o w e r l e v e l s o f s c h o o l p r o g r e s s t h a n c h i l d r e n o f ma r r i e d h e t e r o s e x u a l c o u p l e s .
4s
44
p o t t e r , s u p r a n o t e 35; s e e a l s o A. L. Fe d e w a & T. P . Cl a r k , P a r e n t P r a c t i c e s a n d
Ho me- Sc h o o l P a r t n e r s h i p s , 5 J . GLBT Fa m. St u d . 312- 339 (2009) (u s i n g a n
ECLS- K s u b s a mp l e a n d f i n d i n g c h i l d r e n o f s a me- s e x c o u p l e s d i d n o t d i f f e r
s i g n i f i c a n t l y f r o m c h i l d r e n o f h e t e r o s e x u a l c o u p l e s i n a c a d e mi c a c h i e v e me n t o r
s o c i a l a d j u s t me n t ). In t h e ECLS- K, p a r e n t a l s e x u a l o r i e n t a t i o n a n d r e l a t i o n s h i p
s t a t u s w e r e i n f e r r e d f r o m a s e r i e s o f q u e s t i o n s a b o u t t h e h o u s e h o l d c o mp o s i t i o n
a n d c a r e t a k e r s .
45
D. W. Al l e n e t a l . , N o n t r a d i t i o n a l Fa mi l i e s a n d Ch i l d h o o d P r o g r e s s Th o u g h
Sc h o o l , 50 De mo g r a p h y 955- 961 (2013). An o t h e r r e c e n t p a p e r b y t h e s a me a u t h o r
c o mp a r e d a c r o s s f a mi l y s t r u c t u r e s h i g h s c h o o l g r a d u a t i o n r a t e s a mo n g y o u n g
a d u l t s (a g e 17- 22) i n Ca n a d a s t i l l r e s i d i n g w i t h t h e i r p a r e n t s . D. W. Al l e n , Hi g h
Sc h o o l Gr a d u a t i o n Ra t e s Amo n g Ch i l d r e n o f Sa me- Se x Ho u s e h o l d s , 11 Re v . Ec o n .
o f t h e Ho u s e h o l d 635- 658 (2013). Th i s s t u d y i s i r r e l e v a n t t o q u e s t i o n s a b o u t
p a r e n t i n g b e c a u s e , a s t h e a u t h o r a c k n o w l e d g e d : " [ T] h i s p a p e r d o e s n o t s t u d y t h e
e f f e c t o f g r o w i n g u p i n a s a me- s e x h o u s e h o l d , b u t r a t h e r e x a mi n e s t h e
a s s o c i a t i o n o f s c h o o l p e r f o r ma n c e f o r t h o s e c h i l d r e n w h o l i v e d w i t h s a me- s e x
p a r e n t s i n 2006. " Id . (e mp h a s i s a d d e d ). Th i s n a r r o w f o c u s i s n e c e s s i t a t e d b y t h e
l a c k o f d a t a c o n c e r n i n g p a r e n t s ' p r i o r ma r i t a l h i s t o r y a n d t h e e a r l i e r f a mi l y h i s t o r y
o f t h e 17- 22 y e a r- o l d s . In a d d i t i o n , t h e s a mp l e e x c l u d e d a n y 17- 22 y e a r- o l d s w h o
w e r e n o l o n g e r r e s i d i n g w i t h t h e i r p a r e n t s , t h u s p r e c l u d i n g a me a n i n g f u l e s t i ma t e
o f a c t u a l g r a d u a t i o n r a t e s i n t h i s p o p u l a t i o n . Mo r e o v e r , t h e p a p e r ' s o w n a n a l y s e s
s h o w t h a t d i f f e r e n c e s b e t w e e n t h e 17- 22 y e a r- o l d s c u r r e n t l y r e s i d i n g w i t h g a y o r
l e s b i a n p a r e n t s v e r s u s t h o s e r e s i d i n g w i t h ma r r i e d h e t e r o s e x u a l p a r e n t s w e r e n o
21
The o t her s t u d y , ho wever , co nclu d ed t ha t t he o bs er ved d i f f er ences wer e d u e t o
p a r ent s ' s o ci o eco no mi c s t a t u s a nd d i f f er ences a cr o s s f a mi ly t y p es i n chi ld r en' s
ex p er i ences wi t h ho u s eho ld d i s r u p t i o ns a nd i ns t a bi li t y . When t hes e f a ct o r s wer e
t a k en i nt o co ns i d er a t i o n, s cho o l p r o g r es s d i d no t s i g ni f i ca nt ly d i f f er bet ween
chi ld r en o f ma r r i ed het er o s ex u a l co u p les a nd chi ld r en o f s a me- s ex co ha bi t i ng
co u p les .
46
Ami ci emp ha s i ze t ha t t he p a r ent i ng a bi li t i es o f g a y men a nd les bi a ns a nd
t he p o s i t i ve o u t co mes f o r t hei r chi ld r ena r e no t a r ea s wher e mo s t cr ed i ble
s ci ent i f i c r es ea r cher s d i s a g r ee.47 Thu s , a f t er ca r ef u l s cr u t i ny o f d eca d es o f
r es ea r ch, t he APA co nclu d ed i n 2004 t ha t (a ) " t her e i s no s ci ent i f i c evi d ence t ha t
p a r ent i ng ef f ect i venes s i s r ela t ed t o p a r ent a l s ex u a l o r i ent a t i o n: Les bi a n a nd g a y
p a r ent s a r e a s li k ely a s het er o s ex u a l p a r ent s t o p r o vi d e s u p p o r t i ve a nd hea lt hy
envi r o nment s f o r t hei r chi ld r en" a nd (b) " r es ea r ch ha s s ho wn t ha t t he a d j u s t ment ,
d evelo p ment , a nd p s y cho lo g i ca l well- bei ng o f chi ld r en a r e u nr ela t ed t o p a r ent a l
s ex u a l o r i ent a t i o n a nd t ha t t he chi ld r en o f les bi a n a nd g a y p a r ent s a r e a s li k ely a s
lo ng er s t a t i s t i ca lly s i g ni f i ca nt when t he a na ly s es i nclu d ed a d d i t i o na l i nf o r ma t i o n
(i . e. , p a r ent s ' cu r r ent ma r i t a l s t a t u s a nd ho u s eho ld i ns t a bi li t y d u r i ng t he p r evi o u s 5
y ea r s ). I d . (Mo d e13, Ta ble 8 o f t he Ap p end i x ).
46
Ro s enf eld , s u p r a no t e 35.
47 To t he ex t ent t ha t Ap p ella nt s a nd a mi cu s cu r i a e i n s u p p o r t o f Ap p ella nt s
s u g g es t s t ha t s a me- s ex p a r ent i ng ma y ha ve neg a t i ve ef f ect s o n chi ld r en, t hei r
p o s i t i o ns d o no t r ef lect t he cu r r ent s t a t e o f s ci ent i f i c k no wled g e.
22
t h o s e o f h e t e r o s e x u a l p a r e n t s t o fl o u r i s h . "48 S i m i l a r l y , t h e AAP h a s co n cl u de d t h a t
" [ t ] h e r e i s e x t e n s i v e r e s e a r ch do cu m e n t i n g t h a t t h e r e i s n o ca u s a l r e l a t i o n s h i p
be t we e n p a r e n t s ' s e x u a l o r i e n t a t i o n a n d ch i l dr e n ' s e m o t i o n a l , p s y ch o s o ci a l , a n d
be h a v i o r a l de v e l o p m e n t . Ma n y s t u di e s a t t e s t t o t h e n o r m a l de v e l o p m e n t o f
ch i l dr e n o f s a m e-ge n de r co u p l e s wh e n t h e ch i l d i s wa n t e d, t h e p a r e n t s h a v e a
co m m i t m e n t t o s h a r e d p a r e n t i n g, a n d t h e p a r e n t s h a v e s t r o n g s o ci a l a n d e co n o m i c
s u p p o r t s . "
49
Th e N a t i o n a l As s o ci a t i o n o f S o ci a l Wo r ke r s h a s s i m i l a r l y de t e r m i n e d t h a t
" [ t ] h e m o s t s t r i ki n g fe a t u r e o f t h e r e s e a r ch o n l e s bi a n m o t h e r s , ga y fa t h e r s , a n d
t h e i r ch i l dr e n i s t h e a bs e n ce o f p a t h o l o gi ca l fi n di n gs . Th e s e co n d m o s t s t r i ki n g
fe a t u r e i s h o w s i m i l a r t h e gr o u p s o f ga y a n d l e s bi a n p a r e n t s a n d t h e i r ch i l dr e n a r e
t o h e t e r o s e x u a l p a r e n t s a n d t h e i r ch i l dr e n t h a t we r e i n cl u de d i n t h e s t u di e s . "50 I n
a do p t i n g a n o ffi ci a l Po s i t i o n S t a t e m e n t i n s u p p o r t o f l e ga l r e co gn i t i o n o f ci v i l
m a r r i a ge fo r s a m e-s e x co u p l e s , t h e Am e r i ca n Ps y ch i a t r i c As s o ci a t i o n o bs e r v e d
t h a t " n o r e s e a r ch h a s s h o wn t h a t t h e ch i l dr e n r a i s e d by l e s bi a n s a n d ga y m e n a r e
l e s s we l l a dj u s t e d t h a n t h o s e r e a r e d wi t h i n h e t e r o s e x u a l r e l a t i o n s h i p s . "5i
48 APA, R e s o l u t i o n o n S e x u a l O r i e n t a t i o n , Pa r e n t s , a n d C h i l dr e n (2004).
49
AAP, s u p r a n o t e 3 (ci t a t i o n s o m i t t e d).
s o
N AS W, Po l i cy S t a t e m e n t , s u p r a n o t e 4.
s l
Am . Ps y ch i a t r i c As s n , Po s i t i o n S t a t e m e n t . S u p p o r t o f Le ga l R e co gn i t i o n o f
S a m e-S e x C i v i l Ma r r i a ge (2005); s e e a l s o Am . Ps y ch o a n a l y t i c As s ' n . , Po s i t i o n
S t a t e m e n t : Pa r e n t i n g (2012); Am . Me d. As s n , Po l i cy H-60. 940, Pa r t n e r C o-
Ado p t i o n .
23
V. Denying the S ta tu s of Ma rria ge to S a me-S ex Cou ples S tigma tiz es Them.
The foregoing s hows tha t the a rgu ments a bou t ga y men a nd les bia ns
a dva nced in s u pport of la ws a ga ins t s a me-s ex ma rria ge a re contra dicted by the
s cientific evidence a nd reflect a n u nrea s oned a ntipa thy towa rds a n identifia ble
minority. In depriving ga y men a nd les bia ns of members hip in a n importa nt s ocia l
ins titu tion, thes e la ws convey the S ta tes ' ju dgment tha t committed intima te
rela tions hips between people of the s a me s ex a re inferior to heteros exu a l
rela tions hips . This is the es s ence of s tigma .
A s tigma tiz ed condition or s ta tu s is one tha t is nega tively va lu ed by s ociety,
fu nda menta lly defines a pers on' s s ocia l identity, a nd dis a dva nta ges thos e who ha ve
it.52 S tigma ha s been cha ra cteriz ed a s "a n u ndes ired differentnes s ."53 It is
ma nifes ted in s ocia l ins titu tions , inclu ding the la w, a nd in individu a l beha viors .
La ws tha t a ccord ma jority a nd minority grou ps differing s ta tu s highlight the
perceived "differentnes s " of the minority a nd thereby tend to legitimiz e preju dicia l
a ttitu des a nd individu a l a cts a ga ins t the dis fa vored grou p, inclu ding os tra cis m,
52
S ee E. Goffma n, S tigma (1963); B.G. Link & J .C. Phela n, Conceptu a liz ing
S tigma , 27 Ann. Rev. S oc. 363 (2001); J . Crocker et a l., S ocia l S tigma , in 2 The
Ha ndbook of S ocia l Ps ychology 504 (D.T. Gilbert et a l. eds ., 4th ed. 1998 ); Am.
Med. As s n, Policy H-65.973, Hea lth Ca re Dis pa rities in S a me-S ex Pa rtner
Hou s eholds (recogniz ing tha t "exclu s ion from civil ma rria ge contribu tes to hea lth
ca re dis pa rities a ffecting s a me-s ex hou s eholds ").
s 3
Goffma n, s u pra note 52, a t 5.
24
h a r a s s m e n t , d i s c r i m i n a t i o n , a n d v i o l e n c e . La r ge n um be r s o f l e s bi a n , ga y, a n d
bi s e x ua l p e o p l e e x p e r i e n c e s uc h a c t s o f p r e j ud i c e .
s 4
S t a t e l a ws ba n n i n g r e c o gn i t i o n o f s a m e- s e x m a r r i a ge s a r e i n s t a n c e s o f
i n s t i t ut i o n a l s t i gm a . Th e "a v o we d p ur p o s e a n d p r a c t i c a l e ffe c t " o f t h e s e l a ws "a r e
t o i m p o s e a d i s a d v a n t a ge , a s e p a r a t e s t a t us , a n d s o a s t i gm a " o n s a m e- s e x c o up l e s .
Un i t e d S t a t e s v . Wi n d s o r , 133 S . C t . 2675, 2693 (2013). Th e y c o n v e y t h e S t a t e s '
j ud gm e n t t h a t , i n t h e r e a l m o f i n t i m a t e r e l a t i o n s h i p s , l e ga l l y un i t e d s a m e- s e x
c o up l e s a r e i n h e r e n t l y l e s s d e s e r v i n g o f s o c i e t y' s ful l r e c o gn i t i o n t h a n h e t e r o s e x ua l
c o up l e s . By d e v a l ui n g a n d d e l e gi t i m i z i n g t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p s t h a t c o n s t i t ut e t h e v e r y
c o r e o f h o m o s e x ua l o r i e n t a t i o n , t h e s e l a ws c o m p o un d a n d p e r p e t ua t e t h e s t i gm a
h i s t o r i c a l l y a t t a c h e d t o h o m o s e x ua l i t y.
s 4
A s ur v e y us i n g a n a t i o n a l l y r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s a m p l e o f ga y, l e s bi a n , a n d bi s e x ua l
a d ul t s fo un d t h a t 21 %h a d be e n t h e t a r ge t o f a p h ys i c a l a s s a ul t o r p r o p e r t y c r i m e
s i n c e a ge 18 be c a us e o f t h e i r s e x ua l o r i e n t a t i o n ; 18% o f ga y m e n a n d 16% o f
l e s bi a n s r e p o r t e d t h e y h a d e x p e r i e n c e d d i s c r i m i n a t i o n i n h o us i n g o r e m p l o ym e n t .
G. M. He r e k, Ha t e C r i m e s a n d S t i gm a- R e l a t e d Ex p e r i e n c e s Am o n g S e x ua l
Mi n o r i t y Ad ul t s i n t h e Un i t e d S t a t e s , 24 J . I n t e r p e r s o n a l V i o l e n c e 54 (2009). I n
a n o t h e r s ur v e y wi t h a n a t i o n a l l y r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s a m p l e , 30% o f l e s bi a n , ga y,
bi s e x ua l , a n d t r a n s ge n d e r r e s p o n d e n t s s a i d t h e y h a d be e n t h r e a t e n e d o r p h ys i c a l l y
a t t a c ke d be c a us e o f t h e i r s e x ua l o r i e n t a t i o n o r ge n d e r i d e n t i t y; 26% o f ga y m e n
a n d 23% o f l e s bi a n s s a i d t h e y h a d be e n t r e a t e d un fa i r l y by a n e m p l o ye r be c a us e o f
t h e i r s e x ua l o r i e n t a t i o n . Pe w R e s e a r c h C e n t e r , s up r a n o t e 12; s e e a l s o G. M. He r e k
e t a l . , Ps yc h o l o gi c a l S e que l a e o f Ha t e- C r i m e V i c t i m i z a t i o n Am o n g Le s bi a n , Ga y,
a n d Bi s e x ua l Ad ul t s , 67 J . C o n s ul t i n g &C l i n i c a l Ps yc h o l . 945, 948 (1999).
25
CONCLUSION
The judgments below, f i ndi ng the Mi chi gan, Kentucky and Tennessee laws
banni ng same-sex marri age unconsti tuti onal, should be af f i rmed.
June 16, 2014
26
R esp ectf ully submi tted,
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I c e r t i f y t h a t on June 1 6 , 201 4, I c a use d t h e f or e g oi ng Br i e f of t h e Ame r i c a n
Psy c h olog i c a l Assoc i a t i on, Ame r i c a n Ac a de my of Pe di a t r i c s, Ame r i c a n
Psy c h i a t r i c Assoc i a t i on, Na t i ona l Assoc i a t i on of Soc i a l Wor ke r s, a nd
Ke nt uc ky Psy c h olog i c a l Assoc i a t i on a s Ami c i Cur i a e t o be e le c t r oni c a lly f i le d
v i a t h e Cour t ' s CM/ECF Sy st e m. Counse l f or a ll p a r t i e s w i ll be se r v e d v i a t h e
Cour t ' s CM/ECF sy st e m a t t h e e ma i l a ddr e sse s on f i le .
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