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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

The satisfaction and euphoria that accompany the successful completion of any
task would be but incomplete without mention of the people who made it possible,
whose constant guidance and encouragement crowned our efforts with success.

I would like to thank Prof.Gururaj, Mr. Udaya, Mr. Sathya and Mr. Kiran for
providing me with sufficient material and guidance regarding the concepts Nuclear
and Astro physics

Last but not least, I owe a lot to my parents and my brother for their unconditional
support and encouragement to carry out my work.

Adithya B

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ABSTRACT

Big- bang marked the beginning of the universe, the universe formed, numerous
galaxies, the gases within it formed millions of stars, and the starts triggered the
formation of planets. But among the lot, one that is very special is the planet earth,
for the reason that it is the mother of life. Later was born the two legged creatures,
which could now turn up their head towards the heavens and wonder the marvels
of the universe. Due to his enormous thinking power, many of the pages of hidden
universe are turned open.

But here, in this report, I try to give a life story of one such object formed due the
action of fundamental forces - The star. Our own sun has long served as the
laboratory to research on the formation, evolution and conclusion of a star. We
have found that, the chemicals, elements and compounds, which are now found
and extracted from earth’s core, are the remnants of dead stars. Which the advent
of science and technology, man came forward and went beyond, what he could see
through his naked eye. Neutron starts, Pulsars, Black holes are some of product of
the advanced technology.

In this report, I try to give a brief description of the formation of a star from a
mass of dense cloud, its transformation from a protostar to a star, the nuclear
reactions involved with the tiniest particles, the after effect of the reaction, the
power of the gravity, various phases of a star in its life cycle, the fates of a
average, medium and small size stars, formation of pulsars, Black holes in space
and so on…

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

ACKNOWLEDGMENT 2
ABSTRACT 3
TABLE OF CONTENTS 4

1: INTRODUCTION
1.1 The celestial sphere 6
1.2 The universe 8
1.2.1 The big-bang cosmology 9
1.3 The content of the universe 10
1.3.1 Galaxies 10
1.3.2 Stars and planets 11
1.3.3 The rest of the universe 15
1.4 The forces the hold the universe 15
1.4.1 Dominant forces in the outer space 16
1.5 Summary 17

2. NUCLEAR ENERGY SOURCES

2.1 Nuclear fission 18
2.2 Nuclear fusion 20
2.3 Fusion in stars 22
2.3.1 Carbon cycle 23
2.3.2 Proton-proton cycle 23
2.4 Conversion of mass into energy in nuclear reaction 24
2.5 Condition for the nuclear reaction in stars 26
2.6 Summary 28

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3. STELLAR EVOLUTION
3.1 Gravitational consideration 29
3.1.1 Protostar 30
3.1.2 Raising temperature of protostar 31
3.1.3 Ignition of hydrogen 33
3.2 Red giants 34
3.2.1 Increase in temperature of helium core 34
3.2.2 The structure of a red giant 36
3.2.3 Helium flash 36
3.2.4 After the helium flash 37
3.3 Summary 38

4. DEATH OF A STAR
4.1 Death of a small star 39
4.1.1 Planetary Nebula 39
4.1.2 The white Dwarf 40
4.2 Death of a massive star 41
4.2.1 The supernova explosion 41
4.3 Pulsars and neutron stars 42
4.3.1 Pulsars 43
4.3.2 Neutron stars 43
4.4 Black holes in space 44
4.4.1 Formation of a black hole 44
4.5 Summary 45

5. EPILOGUE 46

6. BIBLIOGRAPHY 47

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CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION

“In the first half of the 20th century, the word universe was used to mean the whole
space-time continuum in which we exist, together with all the energy and matter within it.
Attempts to understand the universe in this sense, on the largest possible scales, are made
in cosmology, a science that has grown from physics and astronomy.”

1.1 The Celestial Sphere

On the clear dark night we are dazzled by the sight of a large numbers of stars in
the sky. We observe some of the bright stars over a period of 2-3 hours. You will
find that they show a regular motion from east to west, keeping their positions
with respect to each other constant. And it’s a well know fact that, its really due to
the rotation of earth around its axis. The starts for themselves are so far away that
their actual movements are too small to be noticed from the earth; only through
some sensitive instruments the actual distance can be measured. Thus for all
practical purpose, from on the surface of a transparent sphere centered on us,
called the Celestial Sphere.

In astronomy and navigation, the celestial sphere is an imaginary rotating sphere

of "gigantic radius", concentric and coaxial with the Earth. All objects in the sky
can be thought of as lying upon the sphere. Projected from their corresponding
geographic equivalents are the celestial equator and the celestial poles. The
celestial sphere projection is a very practical tool for positional astronomy. The
celestial sphere can be used geocentrically and topocentrically. The former means
that it is centered upon an imaginary observer in the centre of the Earth, and no
parallax effects need to be taken into account. In the latter case it is centered upon

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an observer on the surface of the Earth and then horizontal parallax cannot always
be ignored; especially not for the Moon.
In the Aristotelic and Ptolemaic models, the celestial sphere was imagined as a
physical reality rather than a geometrical projection, the celestial sphere is divided
by projecting the equator into space. This divides the sphere into the north celestial
hemisphere and the south celestial hemisphere. Likewise, one can locate the
Celestial Tropic of Cancer, Celestial Tropic of Capricorn, North Celestial Pole,
and South Celestial Pole. The directions toward various objects in the sky can be
quantified by constructing a celestial coordinate system.

Figure 1.1 The Celestial sphere

As the Earth rotates from west to east around its axis once every 23 hours 56
minutes, the celestial sphere and all objects on it appear to rotate from east to west
around the celestial poles in the same time. This is the diurnal motion. Therefore
stars will rise in the east, culminate on the north-south line (meridian) and set in
the west, (unless a star is circumpolar). On the next night a particular star will rise

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again, but with our normal clocks running a 24 hour 0 minutes cycle, it will do so
4 minutes earlier. By the following night the difference will be 8 minutes, and so
forth with every following night (or day).

The reason for this apparent mis-adjustment of our clocks is that the Sun is not
standing still on the celestial sphere, as the stars do, but moves about 1° per day
eastwards over a great circle known as the ecliptic (which is 360° or a full circle in
one year, the annual motion of the Sun). As an angle of 1° corresponds to 4
minutes in time (360° = 24 hours), we need therefore 4 extra minutes of diurnal
motion to see the Sun back on (for example) the meridian again, making the
duration of one rotation just 24 hours exactly. Normal clocks therefore indicate
solar time. Astronomers studying the movements of stars may want clocks
indicating sidereal time, going around once in 23h 56m (solar time units).
A celestial sphere can also refer to a physical model of the celestial sphere. Also
known as a star globe, this sort of celestial sphere will indicate which
constellations are visible at a given time and place.

1.2 The Universe

The term universe came from Old French univers, from Latin universa, from uni-,
combining form of unus meaning one and versus meaning turned, literally "all
turned into one" or "revolving as one".

The Universe is defined as the summation of all particles and energy that exist and
the space-time in which all events occur. Based on observations of the portion of
the Universe that is observable, physicists attempt to describe the whole of space-
time, including all matter and energy and events which occur, as a single system
corresponding to a mathematical model.
The generally accepted scientific theory which describes the origin and evolution
of the Universe is Big Bang cosmology, which describes the expansion of space

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from an extremely hot and dense state of unknown characteristics. The Universe
underwent a rapid period of cosmic inflation that flattened out nearly all initial
irregularities in the energy density; thereafter the universe expanded and became
steadily cooler and less dense. There are more than one hundred billion (1011)
galaxies in the Universe, each containing hundreds of billions of stars, with each
star containing about 1057 atoms of hydrogen.

1.2.1 The Big-Bang cosmology

The most important result of physical cosmology is that the universe is expanding,
this concept is derived from red-shift observations and quantified by Hubble's
Law. That is, astronomers observe that there is a direct relationship between the
distance to a remote object (such as a galaxy) and the velocity with which it is
receding. Conversely, if this expansion has continued over the entire age of the
universe, then in the past, these distant, receding objects must once have been
closer together. By extrapolating this expansion back in time, one approaches a
gravitational singularity where everything in the universe was compressed into an
infinitesimal point; an abstract mathematical concept that may or may not
correspond to reality. This idea gave rise to the Big Bang Theory, the dominant
model in cosmology today.

Figure 1.2 The Big-Bang

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During the earliest era of the big bang theory, the universe is believed to have
formed of a hot, dense plasma, as expansion proceeded the temperature steadily
dropped until a point was reached when atoms could form. At about this time the
background energy (in the form of photons) became decoupled from the matter,
and was free to travel through space. The left-over energy continued to cool as the
universe expanded, and today it forms the cosmic microwave background
radiation. This background radiation is remarkably uniform in all directions, which
cosmologists have attempted to explain by an early period of inflationary
expansion following the Big Bang.

Others suggest that the universe had no beginning, because time goes in a loop.
However, any such ideas are at best hypothetical and much more research is
needed before anything can be concluded for certain.
1.3 The contents of the universe
We are evident that our observable universe consists of about 100 billion galaxies,
each containing on the average, about 100 billion stars of different varieties!
Number of estimated starts in the universe is therefore 1022. Since most of the
space between galaxies, and between starts within a galaxy is empty, Perhaps we
can get an idea of the vastness of the universe and our own insignificant place in
it. Although there is no strong evidence yet, there is good reason to believe that
life supporting planetary systems like ours must be plentiful in the universe, even
within out galaxies.

1.3.1 Galaxies
The Sun is just one out of more than 100 billion starts which are gravitationally
bound to form our galaxy, the Milky Way. Since we are the part of this galaxy its
difficult to make out the shape and size of the galaxy. However, astronomers have
accumulated a wealth of evidence which indicates that our galaxy has approximate
shape and dimensions schematically indicated in the Figure 1.3.

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Figure 1.3 Representation of Milky Way as seen from side

Galaxies are basically of three types, those are elliptical, spiral and irregular.
Milky Way is a spiral galaxy. The spiral galaxy nearest to us is the well known
Andromeda galaxy, designated as M31. it is about 2.2 million light years away
from us. On a clear dark moonless night, it can bee seen with the naked eye as an
oval shaped cloudy patch of light, looking very much like a nebula till its exact
nature was established late in 19th century. Good telescope show large number of
similar galaxies distributed throughout the constellation. In some constellation we
can make out clusters of such galaxies. Super clusters of galaxies are also known
to exist.
The Magellan clouds are two ‘mini’ irregular galaxies, much smaller and closer
than Andromeda. They can be seen in the southern skies. The supernova of 1987
took place in Large Magellan cloud (LMC).

1.3.2 Stars and Planets

The Sun spews out huge amount of energy in the form of electromagnetic
radiation in all directions in space. Only a small part of it is intercepted by earth,
but this has been more than sufficient to meet the energy requirements on our
planet. Despite its gigantic size in relation to the planets, the sun is just an average
size star among the billions and billions of stars spread out in this vast universe.
These stars are not distributed uniformly in the space, but are found in the clusters
or groups. A galaxy is a huge collection of stars, numbering about a hundred

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billion (1011). There are more stars in an average sized galaxy than the number of
grains of sand on all the beaches all over the earth. We discuss in more detail
regarding the formation, life cycle of a star, in this document.

Figure 1.4 Shows some of the galaxies in the universe.

As the electron revolves around its dense central nucleus, in the space this act is
reflected by the larger objects called planets. The planets are the objects which
revolve around its star due to the gravitational influence of the star. The planets
are not luminous objects, they reflect the light that fall on it, and therefore we
won’t see them twinkle in the night sky. Sun is one such starts that holds planets
in its orbit. Our own planet Earth is the unique planet among the eight of its
companion planets revolving around the star SUN. Its considered unique because

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of the existence of life on the planet and the existences of intelligent two legged
creatures who now wonder this marvelous universe.

Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune, Pluto are the 9
planets revolving around Sun. each of these planets have their own set of chemical
and physical properties. These planets along with their satellites revolving around
Sun form a system called the solar system. Sun covers 99% of the solar system,
remaining 1% is left for the planets to occupy.

Mercury is the inner most planet of the solar system. It has an orbit more elliptical
than that of any other planet, except Pluto. Its distance from the sun varies from 46
– 70 million Km. On mercury a day constitutes of 2 hours, therefore one have
never been able to get a good view of this planet. Venus is similar to that of earth
in its size and density. But the similarities and here. Its dense atmosphere, mostly
carbon di-oxide, and surface temperature of over 4000C make it an furnace where
even an unmanned spacecraft can’t survive. This orbit is closer to that of a circle
and rotates with the period of 244.5 days, but in the direction opposite to that of
any other planets. Thus Sun rises in the west and sets in the east as seen from this
planet. Mars has long been regarded as most likely planed to harbour or support
some form of life. Usually the surface temperature is less than 00C everywhere,
but can rise as high as 250C at the equator. The polar icecaps are the most
prominent feature of this planet. Mars has two very tiny satellites, called Phobos
and Deimos. Planet Jupiter and other outer planets are called as gas giants.

Jupiter is one of the largest planet of the solar system and was discovered by
Galileo. It has a period of rotation of just under 10 hours, resulting in bulging in
the equator. The most prominent feature of the planet is the Great Red Spot in the
southern hemisphere near the equator. Io, Europa, Ganimede, Callisto are some of

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the satellites of this planet, indeed they are many more. The most spectacular
object in the solar system is the planet Saturn. Its easily and always recognized by
the rings girdling the planet. Its density is less then than of water, and perhaps the
lowest in the solar system. Its large satellite Titan is the only satellites known to
have its own atmosphere. Saturn rotates with the speed slightly less then Jupiter.

Figure 1.5 A view of the solar system

Uranus is the third largest planet. Its axis of rotation has a tilt of 820, i.e. the planet
is nearly in the plane of the earth’s orbit around Sun. Uranus has 15 satellites. A
ring system has also been discovered around this planet in 1977 by Prof. J.C
Bhattacharya and K. Kuppu swamy of IIA (Indian Institute Of Astrophysics,
Bangalore). Neptune is the smallest among the gas Giants. Not more about the
plane is still know. Pluto is the last and outermost planet of the solar system. Its
distance from the Sun varies from 4.4 to 7.4 billion Km. the inclination of its
orbital plane to the orbital plane of the earth is the highest for any planet, 170.
Pluto has a satellite named Charon, which is found to be very close to the orbit of
the planet.

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1.3.3 The rest of the universe
The rest of the universe contains vacuum, exotic matter, dust, asteroids,
meteorites, comets, nebulas and so on. Below is the estimated ratio of contents of
universe

• 70% vacuum energy

• 26% exotic dark matter (not made of protons and neutrons like ordinary
matter)
• 4% ordinary matter (our world, stars, galaxies)
• 0.005% radiation (light)

1.4 The forces that hold the universe

All objects in the universe, form the smallest atomic nucleus to the largest
galaxies, are held together by only three fundamental forces: The nuclear force,
The electromagnetic force, and The Gravitational force.

The most powerful among these three forces is the Nuclear force which binds
Protons and Neutrons in the atomic nuclei. This strong force of attraction pulls the
particles of the nucleus together into a very compact body with a density of one
billion tons per cubic inch. Although it is an exceedingly strong force, it has a very
short range. The nuclear force will not attract if the particles are one ten-trillion of
an inch apart. The next strongest force is the electrical force, which is
approximately 100 times weaker than Nuclear force. This force binds electrons to
nuclei to form atoms, and it binds atoms together into a solid matter. It grows
weaker with increasing distance between two particles, although unlike the nuclear
force, it does not disappear entirely at any point. The least of the fundamental
forces is the Gravitational force. The gravitational force is exceedingly weak,

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about 1038 times weaker than the force of electricity. Gravity like electricity falls
of in strength with increasing distance, but never disappears entirely.

1.4.1 Dominant force in outer space

In spite of the strength of nuclear force, it has a negligible effect on the motion of
objects in the outer space. In turn, the motion of stars, planets and other objects are
controlled by the relatively weak force of gravity. The reason behind it is, nuclear
force is confined to extremely small distance unlike force of gravity. Now the
question is, Why is the force of electromagnetism not dominant over gravity in
controlling the motion of stars and planets? This force can also extend to great
distance, just as the force of gravity dose, and it is many times more powerful. The
answer comes out by the fact that when both kind of charges, positive and
negative, are present, their effect tend to cancel. If an object has precisely the same
amount of positive and negative charges, it is electrically neutral and exerts no
electrical force at all on the objects even relatively closer.

Many electrons and atomic nuclei move freely in the space around every star or
planet. If the star or a planet picks up an excess of protons from the space around
it, it becomes positively charged, it immediately exerts a force of attraction on all
the negatively charge particle nearby. These electrons are migrated to the stars or
planets and are captured by it, the stars or a planet continues to attract particles of
opposite charge until it becomes electrically neutral. But the force of gravity
cannot be canceled in this way because there appear to be only one sign of
“gravitational charge.” Mass always pulls other mass, and two masses never repel
one another. There may be second kind of gravity or Anti-Gravity, but thus far
physicists have been unable to find evidence for it.

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1.5 Summary
In this chapter, we discuss some basic concepts of the universe. Try to define the
universe and motivate the readers towards the study of Astronomy and Astro-
physics. We hear briefly describe the concept of big-bang, the contents of this vast
universe and also some ideas as to how the objects in space are bound to each
other by three fundamental forces.

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Chapter 2
NUCLEAR ENERGY SOURCES

The amount of energy that comes out of star staggers the imagination. By using
Einstein’s law stating the equivalence of mass and energy, E=mc2, and converting
the energy radiated by sun from units of mass with the aid of this formula, we find
that almost five million tons of mass per second is radiated by sun in the form of
electromagnetic energy.

Is the Sun wasting away to nothing as the result of this loss of energy? The fossil
record indicates that life on this earth existed on earth for billions of years; hence,
the earth and the sun also must have existed for as long a time. In a billion years
the sun radiates into space 1 X 1029 grams, which is less then one part in 104 OR
one hundredth of one percent of its mass. Thus the sun has lost only an
insignificant amount of its total substance by radiating of energy from its surface.

But the 1 X 2929 grams is still an enormous amount of matter. It is equal to 17

earth masses. What force can convert all the matter in 17 earths into energy?
Asking this question is the same as asking, why the sun and stars shine so brightly.
Surprisingly, this incredible power of sun and starts are from its tiniest particles.
Laboratory research in nuclear physics revealed the existence of the only force
strong enough to convert matter into energy at the extraordinary rate at which stars
pour their energy into space. This force is the nuclear force - The strongest force
known to the mankind.

2.1 Nuclear Fission

How do nuclear forces release energy? One way is by fission, that is, by splitting
of nucleus into two or more pieces. This is the method used in atom bomb. The

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nucleus used in such a bomb is usually uranium or plutonium. The nucleus of a
uranium atom or a plutonium atom is usually like a stick of dynamite; it is
unstable, and can explode or can dis-integrate into several pieces, simultaneously
releasing large amount of energy. The energy realized when one uranium or
plutonium atom breaks up is roughly 10 million time greater than the energy
realized during a TNT explosion. These nuclei will spontaneously disintegrate if
they are left by themselves for a sufficient length of time; for example, U235, the
isotope of uranium used in the first atom bomb test near Alamogordo, New
Mexico, disintegrates spontaneously I time of 880 million years. Or these nuclei
will explode if disturbed by an incoming slow moving neutron.

Figure 2.1 Release of energy by chain reaction in Uranium.

The explosion breaks U235 nucleus into two fragments, which turn out to be the
nuclei of two medium weight substances such as Barium or Krypton. In addition
to the two main fragments of the original uranium nucleus, a few free neutrons
usually emerge at the same time. These neutrons can trigger the explosion of other
uranium nuclei, releasing more neutrons and so on, setting in motion the chain

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reaction that can yield enormous amount of energy. This is the principle of atom
bomb.
However, uranium and other substance nuclei that yield energy by fission cannot
be sources of energy within stars. For these heavy elements are present in minute
traces in a star. In the Sun for example the amount of uranium is only one ten-
billionth of one percent. If uranium is too scarce in the star then perhaps the
energy comes from some other element that is present in abundant in the stars. The
most abundant element in the stars is Hydrogen, but its impossible for fission to
take place with hydrogen as it consist of a single proton. Thus fission cannot be
the source of stellar energy.

2.2 Nuclear fusion

There is a second kind of reaction involving nuclei in which energy is released. It
is called nuclear fusion. The reaction consists in fusing two nuclei together,
instead of trying to break a single nucleus into two pieces. Two protons can be
joined in this way to form a single larger nucleus, with a large amount of energy
released in the process. Since protons- the nuclei of hydrogen are very abundant in
start, it is assumed by all astronomers that the fusions of protons are the main
source of energy in stars.

One might ask how two protons can be joined together, since a nucleus consisting
of two protons does not exist. The answer is that at the very moment of collision
between the two protons, one of them sheds its positive charge of electricity in the
form of a positive electron, also called a positron. The removal of the positive
from the proton leaves behind a neutron which is locked to the other proton to
form a deuteron. The positron, accompanied by a mass-less, electrically neutral
ghost-like particles known as the neutrino, carries off most of the nuclear energy
released in the fusion as shown in the Figure 2.2

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Figure 2.2 Fusion of two protons
p (Proton) A positively charged particle, relatively massive; it
is the nucleus of the hydrogen and one of the two
basic building blocks of heavier nuclei.
n (neutron) Electrically neutral particle about the same mass as
proton; it is the other basic component of atomic
nuclei
d (deuteron) A particle composed of a proton and neutron bound
together, containing the same energy as that of
protons but double its mass; it is nucleus of heavy
hydrogen or deuterium.
-
e or e (electron) A negatively charge, relatively light particle. About
1/1840 times the mass of proton.
+
e (positron) Similar to electron with same mass but positively
charged
ν (neutrino) A mass-less, charge-less particle; it is produced in
some nuclear reaction, generally with a positron or
electron, and carries off some of the energy released
in the reaction; because it has no electric charge and
no mass, the neutrino can pass through large amount
of matter, such as the entire body of a star.
γ (gamma) A photon or packet of electromagnetic radiation
similar to an ordinary photon, but having extremely
high energy and corresponding short wavelength
Table 2.1 A list of particles appearing in nuclear reaction.

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Nuclear physicists have developed useful shorthand for nuclear reaction like the
one shown above. Suppose we let the symbols d, n, e+, and v represent,
respectively, the deuteron, proton, neutron, positive electron or positron, and
neutrino. Then the reaction in which two protons fuse to from a deuterons can be
written:
P + P
d + e+ + ν
In order to see the reason for the release of energy in nuclear fusion, let us
consider what will happen when two protons approach one another on a collision
course and come within range of a the nuclear force of attraction. Immediately
they are seized by this very strong attractive force, and rush violently towards one
another; when they collide, owing fuse together, forming a single, heavier nucleus
in place of the two separate protons that existed before. At the same time, the
energy of their violent collision is released to the surroundings in the form of heat
and light. It turns out that the amount of energy released in this way, by the fusion
of two protons, is nearly as great, per pound of protons, as the energy released per
pound of uranium in the fission of uranium

2.3 Fusion in stars

The fusion of protons into deuterons is the first in a series of step in which heaver
elements are built up from lighter ones in the interior of stars. The continuing
succession of nuclear reaction manufactures all the other elements of the universe
out of the basic ingredient hydrogen.

The conversion of hydrogen to helium can take place in two methods, one by
carbon cycle in which carbon acts as a catalyst and the other is proton-proton
cycle, which is believed to be more effective in releasing solar energy than that of
carbon cycle

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2.3.1 Carbon cycle
12
6C + 1H1
7N13 + Energy
13
7N
6C13 + 1e0
13
6C + 1H1
7N14 + Energy
14
7N + 1 H1
8O15 + Energy
15
8O
7N15 + 1e0 + Energy
15
7N + 1 H1
6C12 + 2He
4

Summing up all the above equation, we have the carbon cycle as

“4 1H1
2He4 + 2[1e0] + Energy”

These means, four protons combine together to yield a helium nucleus and two
positrons together with the emission of energy of about 24.69 MeV. It may be
noted that the initial carbon atom remains even at the end of the reaction. It thus
acts as a catalyst.

2.3.2 Proton-proton cycle

2[1H1] + 2[1H1]
2[1H2] + 2[1e0] + Energy
2[1H1] + 2[1H2]
2[2He3] + Energy
2[2He3]
2He4 + 2[1H1] + Energy

Summing up all the above equation, we have the proton-proton cycle as

“4[1H1]
2He4 +2[1e0] +Energy”

The electrical barriers acting in carbon cycle are much higher than those acting in
the proton-proton cycle, the barrier is a basic carbon-proton reaction being six
tuimes higher than proton-proton barrier. As a result, the proton-proton cycle

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dominates at low temperature, and carbon cycle does not become important until
higher temperature is reached. It is evident that about 10% of sun’s energy is
contributed by carbon cycle and the remainder by the proton-proton cycle. Around
2x1019 Kg of hydrogen is converted to helium annually; sun has to emit energy for
5 billion years.

Figure 2.3 Nuclear fusion

2.4 Conversion of mass into energy in nuclear reaction

The amount of energy released during nuclear fusion or nuclear fission is so great
that it causes an appreciable reduction in the masses of the nuclei that are left
behind. According to Einstein’s law on the equivalence of mass and energy.
E = mc2 ;
When an amount of energy E is given off in a nuclear reaction, the mass of the
nucleus that is left behind must be smaller by the amount E/c2, where c is the
speed of light. For example consider a reaction where two protons combine to
form a deuteron:
p + p → d + e+ + ν
If we add the masses of two protons on the let hand side, and compare the total
masses of the deuteron and positive electron (positron) on the right hand side, we

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find that the total mass after the reaction is smaller then the mass after the
reaction:

2 × mass of proton = 2 × 1.67243 × 10-24 g = 3.34486 × 10-24

Mass of deuteron 3.34321 × 10-24 g

+ Mass of positron = + 0.00091 × 10-24 g = 3.34412 × 10-24 g

Difference in mass = 0.00074 × 10-24 g

The difference, 7.4 × 10-28 g, represents the mass that has disappeared in some way
during the course of the reaction. This difference seems very small. However, if it
is compared it with the masses of the fundamental particles, we see that the
missing mass is nearly as great as the mass of an electron.

In some way, the equivalent of nearly an entire electron has disappeared during the
reaction. This seems impossible. Matter simple cannot disappear into nothing; at
least, it never dose in ordinary experience. In fact, the conclusion that matter is
indestructible became so firmly established in the early years of science that by the
beginning of the nineteenth century it had been adopted as one of the basic
principles of physics. It was called the law of conservation of mass. Yet the law
was wrong; and the fact it is wrong is proved simply looking at the Einstein’s
formula for the equivalence of mass and energy. Einstein’s formula says that mass
alone cannot be conserved; if anything, it must be the sum of mass and energy that
can be conserved.

Many experiments have proven that this is correct law. The sum of mass and
energy is indestructible. In any event occurring anywhere in the world, the total of

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the masses and the energies of the particle taking part in the event remains
unchanged, regardless of the way in which the particles themselves are changed.
In this way, an object can literally disappear from the universe, or another object
can appear where there was none before; the law of physics do not place any
limitations on such conjuring act; but they do require that whenever an object ,
large or small, vanishes, an amount of energy equal to mc2 must appear in its
place.

According to Einstein’s equation, every reaction that releases energy must involve
a corresponding loss of mass. This is true for a chemical reaction, such as the
explosion of nitroglycerin or burning of coal, as much as it is for the explosion of
nuclear bomb. In both the cases the masses do not balance before and after the
reaction, because some mass is always carried out in the form of energy. In the
case of chemical reactions the amount of mass that is carried out as the form of
energy cannot be measure directly with that precision, thus Einstein’s formula was
not discovered by laboratory experiments prior to the advent of his theory.

2.5 Condition for the nuclear reaction in stars

Since nuclear fusion yields an enormous amount of energy per pound of fuel, why
is it not used as an energy source in the everyday life? Energy has been released
through nuclear fusion for brief moments in the explosion of the hydrogen bomb,
but no one has yet succeeded in fusing nuclei in such a way that the energy can be
harnessed for constructive purpose. The difficulty is that enormous temperature,
ranging up to tens of millions of degrees, are needed to produce a significant
amount of energy by nuclear fusion.
The need for a high temperature is connected with the electrical forces between
nuclei. Two protons, for example, repel one another electrically because each
proton carries a positive electric charge. But if the protons approach within a very
close distance of each other, the electrical repulsion gives way to the even stronger

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force of nuclear attraction. However, the proton must be closer together than one
10-trillionth of an inch for the nuclear force to be effective. Under ordinary
circumstances, the electrical repulsion serves as close an approach as this. In a
collision of exceptional violence, however, the protons may pierce the barrier
which separates them, and come within the range of their nuclear attraction.
Collision of the required degree of violence begins to occur frequently in a gas
when the temperature of gas reaches 10 million degrees Kelvin.

Once the electrical barrier between two protons is pierced in a collision, they pick
up speed as the result of their nuclear attraction and rush towards each other,
fusing together in the reaction described in earlier. The fusing of two protons into
a single nucleus is the only first step in the series of reactions by which nuclear
energy is released during the life time of the star. In subsequent collision, two
additional protons are joined to the first two to forma nucleus containing four
particles. Two of the protons shed their positive charges to become neutrons in the
course of the process. The result is a nucleus with two protons and two neutrons.
This is the nucleus of the helium atom. Thus, the sequence of reactions transforms
protons, or hydrogen nuclei, into helium nuclei.

Helium dose not fuse into heaver nuclei at the ordinary stellar temperature of 10
million degrees because the helium nucleus, with two protons, carries a double
charge of positive electricity, and, as a consequence, the electrical barrier between
two helium nuclei is stronger than the repulsion between two protons. A
temperature of 100 million degree Kelvin is required to produce collision which
will pierce the helium barrier. If the temperature in the start will reach this level
the helium nuclei will fuse in groups of three to form carbon nuclei, releasing
more nuclear energy in the process.

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The fusion of hydrogen to form helium id the first and longest stage in the history
of stars, occupying about 90% of its life time. In the second stage, which takes up
most of the remaining 10% of star’s life, three nuclei of helium combines to form
the nucleus of the carbon atom? Afterwards, the nuclei of oxygen and other still
heavier elements are fabricated, at an increasingly rapid pace, until all elements
have been built up. In this way the elements of the universe are manufactured out
of hydrogen nuclei at the center of the star during the course of its life. These facts
of nuclear physics complete the essential body of information needed for an
understanding of the life of stars.

2.6 Summary
Here we try to explain the concept of energy, and the source of energy in the stars.
The reactions involved in nuclear fusion and nuclear fission. Also we discuss the
reason for why nuclear fission is not the source of stars energy. The conditions
required to start with the series of reaction and thus formation of elements in the
core of a star. The chapter gives a detailed description about the reactions taking
place in a star, and it should help in understanding the life cycle of a star explained
in the coming chapters in easy way.

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Chapter 3
STELLAR EVOLUTION

The star’s existence begins with the tedious cloud of matter that fill all of space. If
the atoms in such a cloud together by accident, the force of gravity pulls the atoms
closer together, forming a condense pocket of gas. The continuing gravity will
condense it further, as the result the temperature at the center rises, this raise of
temperature as it reaches a critical value the hydrogen starts converting into
helium, releasing vast amount of energy in the form of heat and light. The energy
passes to the surface and is radiated into to the outer space.

3.1 Gravitational consideration

Gravitational force is the force that is responsible for all the activities happening in
this universe. Even though it is the weakest force known to the man kind, its
amazing property of extending for a great distance has caused life on this planet
earth.

The life cycle of star begins with the accretion of hydrogen and helium in the
galaxies wandering in the interstellar space. As the atoms pass one another,
however, each atom exerts a small gravitational attraction on its neighbors, which
counters the tendency of the atoms to separate, if the gravitational attraction were
sufficiently strong, it would hold them together and prevent them from dispersing
again into space. The effect of gravity would convert the pocket of gas from a
temporary condensation to a permanent one. But suppose that there are a large
number of atoms. Because the force of gravity extends over great distances, each
atom feels the gravitational pull of all the other atoms in the pocket. If the number
of atoms is sufficiently large, the combined effect of all these minute pull of
gravity will be powerful enough to prevent any of the atoms in the pocket of gas to

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leave the pocket and fly away in to the space. The pocket now is a permanent
entity, held by mutual attraction of all atoms within it upon one another.

This is the heart of the theoretical explanation of the birth of stars. According to
the theory, a star is conceived when a condensed pocket of gas forms by accident
in outer space, and when the number of atoms in the pocket of gas is so great that
their own gravity holds them together permanently. The pocket is not yet a star,
but it will become one a little later. This cluster of atoms, formed by accident and
held in the grip of its own gravity, is called a protostar.

3.1.1 Protostar
How large must a cluster of atoms be before its own gravity is strong enough to
hold it together permanently? If three or four are not enough, will a million atoms
or a trillion atoms suffice? Theoretical astronomers, using pencil and paper and the
laws of physics, have calculated the number of atoms that are necessary. The
result shows that the answer depends strongly on the temperature of the gas, which
controls the speed at which the atoms move about. Clearly, the higher the
temperature and the higher the speed of atoms, the more difficult it is for gravity to
hold them together.

Under almost all conditions in space, however, the required number of atoms is
much larger than any of the numbers we have mentioned. Under average
conditions the theoretical results is about 1057 atoms are required. This is a
staggeringly large number. It is found that a comparison of the number 1057 with
the number of grains of sand in all the beaches of the world; but even that
seemingly uncountable number is only a mere 1025. in fact, the number of neutrons
and protons contained in the nuclei of all the atoms of the entire earth is only 1051.
The trouble is that no number on earth can possibly match this number; it is

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number that responds to the building blocks of objects the size of stars, not objects
the size of planets.

Figure 3.1 A protostar in the process of accretion

If we translate the 1057 atoms into grams, assuming that each atom is hydrogen, we
find that the cloud weights approximately 1033 grams, which is roughly the mass
of the sun. Thus, it turns out that the number of atoms theoretically required to
hold a pocket of gas together in space has a mass equal to the mass of an average
star such as the sun. This agreement provides evidence that the theory is correct-
that the process of gravitational condensation we have discussed is, in fact, the
way in which stars are born in space.

3.1.2 Raising temperature of protostar

how does a protostar; a tenuous collection of hydrogen atoms drawn together out
of the cold gas of space; become the dense, flaming sphere of gas we call a star?

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Figure 3.2 The view of an Orion nebula, where numerous starts are expected to take birth.

The answer depends again on the force of gravity which draws every atom in the
proto star towards the center of the cloud. The continuing action of gravity, pulling
all the atoms towards the center, causes the protostar to shrink in size. As it
becomes smaller, its density increases. The force towards the center is not a
mysterious or an unfamiliar phenomenon. Every object on the face of the earth is
attracted towards the center of the planet by the force of planets gravity. In case of
the earth, the solid surface prevents us form falling to the center. A protostar,
however, is not solid; it is a globe of gaseous matter, and its atoms are unimpeded
by the resistance of a solid surface. These atoms literally fall towards the center of
the protostar. The protostar collapses under its own gravitation.

As the atoms in the protostar move towards its center they pick up speed. Because
the average speed of the atoms in a gas determines the temperature of that gas, the
contracting protostar with its accelerating atoms gets hotter at the beginning, the

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temperature of the protostar is same as the temperature of the interstellar gas out of
which it formed. This temperature is roughly about 100 K. At this temperature the
average speed of an atom of hydrogen is 1 mile per second. As the gas cloud
contracts under its own gravity, the temperature at the center mounts steadily
eventually reaching 50, 000 K. At the temperature of 50, 000 K, the hydrogen and
the helium atoms at the center of the protostar collide with sufficient violence to
dislodge all its electrons from its orbits around the nuclei. The original gas of
atoms, each consisting of an electron circling around a nucleus, becomes a mixture
of two gasses, one composed of electron and the other of the nuclei.

At this stage the globe of gas has contracted from its original size, which was
trillions of mils in diameter, to a diameter of 100 million miles. When the
temperature near the center of the protostar is 50000K, the protons in the interior
of the globe of gas move at a speed of 20 miles per second. This velocity is still far
from adequate to penetrate the electrical barrier and initiate a chain of nuclear
fusion. In a sense the true birth of the star has not yet occurred but the protostar
has already become a luminous object because of heat liberated due to collapse.

After still more time has passed, the protostar has shrunk to 50million miles, its
internal temperature has risen to 150000K, and its surrounding temperature has
risen to3500K. At this stage, protostar is a highly luminous object and makes its
debut on the Hertzsprung-Russell diagram. Protostar should emit enough
radiations in the visible region of the spectrum to be seen with a telescope.
However the protostar stays in the visible region for relatively short time
therefore, astronomers see them very rarely.

3.1.3 Ignition of Hydrogen

Suppose we concentrate on the 10million mark in the evolutionary track. The
protostar has been collapsing since its formation, rapidly at first, and then more

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slowly as the density increased while atoms moving towards the center have met
with increasing resistance. After 10 million years the protostar has shrunk from its
trillions of miles of diameter to 1.5 million miles. This diameter is close to the size
of our sun. at the same time, the temperature at the center of the protostar has risen
to 10 million K. 10 Million K marks a critical threshold in the life of a collapsing
protostar. Why is this temperature critical? At this temperature, for the first time,
the protons at the center of the proto star are finally moving and colliding at
speeds great enough to penetrate the electrical barrier and come with in the reach
of the Nuclear force of attraction. At this point the nuclear fusion sets in, at the
center of the spear and the protostar has now become a star.

The surface temperature of the new born star is 4500K and its luminosity is half
the luminosity of the sun. The release of the nuclear energy at its center the star
becomes somewhat hotter and more luminous 27million years after he collapse the
protostar began, it comes to a resting placer. Here it lives its most of the life in a
balance between the invert pressure created by the force of gravity and the
outward pressure generated by the force of nuclear energy.

3.2 Red giants

The helium produces by the fusion of hydrogen atom accumulates the center of a
star, where most of the reactions take place. When an appreciable amount of the
hydrogen with in the star has been converted into helium and its center is filled
with a core of pure helium, the star begins to show pronounced signs of age.

3.2.1 Increase in temperature of helium core

The first major change involves the condition in the helium core. At this point in
the life time of the star, the temperature of the core is not high enough to fuse
helium into heaver elements. Because there is no nuclear burning at the center, no

Adithya 34
energy is released there. The central region of the star, which had been supported
against gravitation collapse by the release of nuclear energy, no longer possesses
the means for sustaining itself from the inward force of gravity. Under the
influence of gravity the helium core shrinks, and its temperature rises, just as
temperature of the entire star rose when it was collapsing at the beginning of its
life. The center of the star now consists of core of helium that is collapsing and
steadily heating up. The rest of the star is a shell of hydrogen surrounding the
helium core. As the core gets hotter, it heats the hydrogen immediately
surrounding it; this hydrogen commences to burn vigorously to form helium.

The structure of the star is now different from that during the birth. Formerly
hydrogen was burnt at the center, while now it consists of nonburning helium. As
the helium core becomes hotter as it contracts, the nuclear reaction rate in the shell
increases. However when the fire goes out at the center of the star, the helium in
the core contracts and heats up. The higher the temperature in the core, in turn,
raises the temperature of the immediately surrounding hydrogen. The end result is
that the hydrogen in the shell around the core blazes more brightly than hydrogen
in the center did before. As its size increases and its luminosity remains constant,
the amount of energy radiated at each square centimeter of the surface drops, and
the surface temperature drops to a value between 3000 K and 4000 K. A star a
surface temperature in this range is distinctly red in color.

As the time proceeds the helium core continues to collapse and its temperature
continues to rise. Eventually the burning of hydrogen in the shells, hence affecting
the brightness of star. The envelope of star absorbs some of this radiation and
expands even more rapidly. The rate of energy release within the star is now
hundreds of greater than it was. The star, still red in surface color, has become
brilliantly luminous; it has become a red giant.

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3.2.2 The structure of a red giant
Red giants are very old stars. The core of helium at the center of the red giant is
enormously compressed, with a density equal to one ton per cubic inch. One-
quarter of the mass of the entire star is packed into the core, although its radius is
only one one-thousand of the radius of the star. This core has a diameter of 20,000
miles – about twice the size of the earth. But it weighs nearly 100,000 times as
much. Around the core lies a thin shell of burning hydrogen is an enormously
distended and very tenuous envelope of hydrogen gas, 100 million miles across.
The average density of the hydrogen gas, 100 million miles across. The average
density of the hydrogen gas in the envelop is one millionth of an ounce per cubic
inch. This density would be very good vacuum in a physics laboratory on the
earth. To bring out particular structure of red giant, suppose that if reduce the size
of a typical red giant by a factor of about one trillion. Then the star is a sphere the
size of a basket ball, but the helium core, containing one-quarter of the mass of the
star, is just a dot at the center.

3.2.3 Helium flash

The helium core becomes more and more compressed with the passage of time,
and temperature continues to rise. Therefore, the red giant becomes more and
more luminous. Finally, the helium core reaches the critical threshold temperature
of 100 million K. when the core reaches 100 million K, the helium nuclei begin to
fuse, producing carbon and oxygen nuclei. At this point the helium at the core is
packed in with a very high density, equal to many tons per cubic inch. Because the
core is also very hot, the helium atoms are entirely stripped of their electrons. The
core further contracts and becomes as dense as a steel ball. The electrons wont
have any free space to move about. At this stage the as the temperature of the core
raises. The rise in temperature should cause an expansion of the core. The
expansion should cause a drop in the temperature and therefore, in the nuclear
reaction rate. The drop of nuclear reaction rate should stop the expansion of the

Adithya 36
helium core. The star should then live on burning helium at the center at the rate
sufficient to balance the inward attraction of gravity.

But nothing of that sort happens to the core of red giant. It has the properties of a
solid steel sphere, like all solids it expands only a considerable amount. The
helium nuclei burn raising the temperature in the core. The temperature stays high;
at the high temperature, helium nuclei burns even faster. It becomes hotter and
hotter. The core becomes so hotter that it literally explodes. This happens with in
few hours after the onset of helium fusion. This explosion is termed as helium
flash.

3.2.4 After the helium flash

The explosion changes the internal structure of the star in a way that causes the
luminosity to decline. Up to the point at which the explosion occurred, the
luminosity of red giant is fueled by furious amount of hydrogen burning in the
surrounding shell. As soon as the core explodes the temperature drops, and the
temperature of the surrounding shell also drops. Therefore the rate of hydrogen
burning in the shell decreases. The diameter of the star decreases at the same time,
for, with its nuclear energy sources greatly decreased, the red giant lacks the
source needed to keep its envelope distended. Relieved of the enormous outward
pressure created by the intense hydrogen burning in the shell, the envelop
commences to collapse under its own gravity.

When the starts to descend from the red giant region, the helium in the core is not
burning vigorously, because its temperature has been greatly reduced by the
expansion of the core that followed the helium flash. During the course of the
star’s decent, however, the helium in the core is again slowly but steadily
compressed of gravity, because there is no nuclear energy source within it to
sustain it against ties inward force. As always, the compression heats the core, and

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its temperature rises. After several thousand years, the temperature gets high
enough to start a very small amount of helium burning at the center of the core. By
the end of 10, 000 years, the temperature of the core has risen enough. Helium
burning has accordingly become great enough.

Eventually, the helium burning will consume all the helium in to carbon and
oxygen, leading to the carbon and oxygen core. While the shell is now formed of
helium not hydrogen. The process repeats in more rapid way. The entire move
towards the red giant stage is completed in few million years. When the core of
carbon accumulates at the center of a star, and it enters a red giant for the second
time, the star is very close to the end of its life.

3.3 Summary
We discuss in detail the formation of protostar the formation of a star from the
protostar. Further we deal with the life cycle of the star starting with ignition of
hydrogen fusion to the formation of carbon core. The red giant phase of the star.
The numerous phenomenon the star passes through.

Adithya 38
Chapter 4
DEATH OF A STAR

4.1 Death of small star

The dividing line between small and large star is about four solar masses. Consider
a star whose mass is less than 4 solar masses, in the star’s previous approach to the
red giant region, its ascent was terminated by the onset of helium flash. We would
expect the second ascent to be terminated in a similar manner by the onset of
carbon flash, that is, an explosive rapid onset of carbon burning; However a
carbon flash cannot take place in a star which is not massive enough to attain the
temperature required to ignite carbon. According to evidences the temperature
required for the onset of carbon burning is 600,000 K. calculations show that the
star to attain the temperature required for the onset of carbon burning, it must have
the mass greater than 4 solar masses. For a small star, it continues in the red giant
stage, hence increasing its diameter. Eventually, the outer layer of the star
becomes so red – that is, so cool – that the nuclei in these layers begin to capture
electrons to become neutral atoms. The formation of neutral atoms continues
unchecked until a substantial part of star’s mass is in form of neutral atom rather
than separate electron and nuclei.

4.1.1 Planetary Nebula

Countless photons are created by the formation of neutral atom, and then absorbed
shortly thereafter on their way out of star. Their absorption heats the layer outside.
The heat generated due to the absorption of photons in the outer layer is modest
compared to the heat developed due to nuclear reaction at the center. The envelope
heated expands in to the outer space cooling the temperature of the outer shell
even more. The cooling of the shell accelerates the process of formation of more
neutral atoms. As the more neutral atoms form the more photons are liberated; and

Adithya 39
more heat, hence more expansion. The shell continues to expand unchecked.
Finally it reaches the stage where the star completely blows its outer shell in to the
outer space leaving behind the dense white-hot object - the core. Surrounded by
the softy glowing diffused shell of gas – the blown of envelope. Such an object is
called the planetary nebula, for the reason that it looked similar to a planet in the
night sky. However the luminosity of a planetary nebula is unaffected due to the
constant burning of helium in the core. Now the star consists of carbon- oxygen
core surrounded by helium shell.

4.1.2 The white dwarf

Now the star begins its contraction from planetary nebula to white dwarf. The star
is now composing of a carbon -oxygen core surrounded by the helium burning
shell. The temperature at the core at this point is still not sufficient enough for the
onset of carbon burning. Therefore no source of nuclear energy at the center
causing the attraction of gravity and keeps the star collapsing. If there were no
electrons in the star the star would have contracted until the temperature of 600
million K, and hence carbon core would have fused but this is not the case, since
the core consists of numerous amount of electrons the particular in compressibility
comes into play, as it did in the earlier stage of the stars life just before helium
flash. No one knows what happens to the star between this point and the white-
dwarf stage.

Once the star reaches the white dwarf point the course becomes clear. The star is
exceedingly dim in comparison to the earlier stage of its life. Medium sized star
would be 100 times fainter at this point. The diameter of the star is very much
small and the shrunken star is exceedingly dense. Into its relatively small volume,
no more than that of a good sized planet, is packed an enormous mass, hundreds of
thousands of times greater than the mass of earth. A match box filled with the
material from this dense star would weigh 10 tones.

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Although the star is very faint its surface is quite hot, with the temperature ranging
up to 30000 K. such star small, dense and exceedingly faint, but white hot at the
surface are called white dwarf. A man attempting to land on a white dwarf would
weigh 150 million pounds, he and his spacecraft will literally be flattened by the
enormous force of the white dwarf’s gravity. The white dwarf shrinks very little in
radius. Slowly the white dwarf radiates the last of its heat into space, moving
downward in luminosity and temperature as it does so. Progressively the white
dwarf changes its color from white to yellow and then to red, until it fades to a
cold, dark lump of matter and enters the grave yard off the star.

4.2 Death of Massive Star

For the star whose mass is greater than the four solar masses a different awaits.
Because the weight of the star is so great, its collapse generates an enormous
amount of heat. It has been found that the temperature at the center of such a star
can reach a critical value of 600Million K.

4.2.1 The Super Nova Explosion

The massive star with a core of carbon and oxygen surrounded by helium burning
shell begins to contract under its own weight, again as a small star. In the massive
star; well before the core contracts to the size of a white dwarf, the temperature
reaches 600 million K which is a critical value for the onset of carbon burning. In
the burning process Neon, Magnesium and other elements are formed as per the
reaction

C12 + C12
Ne20 + He4

C12 + C12
Mg24 + γ

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The supernovas occurred by the detonation of carbon core. For stars in the
intermediate mass of about 4 to 8 solar masses a violent detonation occurs as soon
as the carbon burning begins. This detonation is similar to the helium flash, but
more violent. The pressure generated by the detonation of the carbon core causes
the star to explode. The exploding star is called the supernova. In the after math of
the super nova. The dense debris is spelled out to the space carrying the elements
in the star a manufactured during its life cycle. At the original place of the star
there remains a small compressed star.

A second kind of supernova. If the mass of the star is very great, greater than
8solar masses, the carbon flame ceases to occur, because the density at the center
never reaches the point where incompressibility can cause the flame. Instead,
carbon starts burning at the core and increasing the temperature in the core,
eventually the burning of oxygen also sets in forming heaver and heaver elements
until the core of the star becomes iron. At this point the process stops, for iron is a
very special element. The nuclear reaction involving iron do not radiate energy,
instead absorbs the most of the energy cooling the temperature of the star causing
the gravity to contract the core more and more rapidly.

As the consequence of the collapse, the material of the collapsing star piles up,
creating very high pressure and densities. When the density of the core is so high
that the neighboring nuclei touch each other, the star collapses no further leading
to a violent explosion occurs. The energy realized during such a supernova is far
more then the collective energy realized by the galaxy as a hole.

4.3 Pulsars and Neutron stars

In either cases of supernova a cloud flies around from the scene of the event. We
know that the gas mixes with primordial gases until its identity is lost. But what
happens to the center of the star of the supernova. This was unknown until 1967.

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4.3.1 Pulsars
Astronomers found unexpectedly that certain places in the skies were emitting
short, rapid bursts of radio waves at regular intervals. Each burst lasted no more
than one hundredth of a second. The rapid succession of bursts seemed like a
speeded up, celestial Morse code. The interval between the successive bursts was
about 1 second. In fact, it did not change by more than one part in 10million. No
star or galaxy had ever before been observed to emit signals as bizarre these.

At first it was thought that intelligent beings from a different world were trying to
contact through Morse code, later it was found that the signals were more natural
than artificial. The first clue to answer was the sharpness of the pulses. When an
object in space emits a burst of radio waves, the waves from different parts of the
object arrive to the earth at different times, blurring the sharpness of the pulse. The
smaller the object the less blurred the pulse and shorter the duration; from the fact
that each pulse lasted for one hundredth of a second they calculated that the pulses
were not more than 10 miles in radius.

This is the startling conclusion. Until then scientists thought that the white dwarf-
about 5000 miles in radius- was the smallest, densest star in the universe. How
could an object as massive as sun be only 10 miles in radius? The matter in this
compressed object is one billion times denser than the matter in the white dwarf,
i.e. a match box filled with the material of this object would weigh 10 billion
tones.

4.3.2 Neutron Stars

Several theoretical astronomers pointed out that when a large star collapses and
explodes as a super nova, the pressure on the core of the star compresses it so
severely that individual electrons and protons combine to form neutrons. A ball of
pure neutrons hence forms at the center of the star, only 10 miles in radius, but

Adithya 43
with large part of the star’s original mass packed into it. The scientists called this
ball of neutrons as the neutron star.

Explanation of pulses of neutron stars: Why do neutron stars emit the sharp,
regularly repeated bursts of radiation from which they derive their other name of
pulsar? Scientists believe that a neutron star, like sun and most of the stars, is
subjected to violent surface storms that spray particles and radiations into space.
Each storm occurs in a localized area on the surface of the neutron star and sprays
radiations in a narrowly defined direction. When the earth lies in the path of one of
these storms the radio telescopes on earth picks up the signals and indicate the
presence of the pulsars which is in fact a neutron star. As the neutron stars spins
the stream of radiations from its surface sweeps through the space like light from a
revolving light house. This would prove the fact that the neutron stars spin
numerous numbers of times a second.

4.4 Black Holes in Space

With the realization of the connection between the neutron stars, pulsars, and the
supernovas, many astronomers felt that it would mark the end of a star. But recent
evidence has generated an amazing fact that the neutron stars are not the ultimate
state. The core of a star may be squeezed beyond the 10 mile limit to about 2
miles. At that point the theory of relativity predicts the sudden occurrence of an
extraordinary phenomenon.

4.4.1 Formation of a black hole

According to Einstein’s theory, a ray of light should possess mass. If Einstein is
right, a ray of light emitted from a star is pulled back by its own gravity. When a
star is normal in size; about 1 million miles in diameter, the force of gravity on its
surface is not strong enough to keep the light rays from escaping and they leave

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the star although, with less energy. But if the matter of the star is squeezed into
very small volume the force of gravity is very great. This can happen to the core of
a star after supernova. Suppose the core several times massive as sun is squeezed
into a radius of few miles, the gravity at the surface now is billions of times than
the former, the tug of that enormous force prevents the light from leaving the
surface of the star; in other words the escape velocity needed is far more greater
than the speed of light (3x108 meters/sec). Thus the star is invisible and is called as
a black Hole in space.

4.5 Summary
The chapter completely deals with the end of any stars life cycle. It was
considered that the formation of a white dwarf and the supernova marks the end of
stars life, but evidences proved that, this is the case with only the average and
small size stars. Massive stars have a different fate. The chapter deals with the end
of small, average and large size stars. It also introduces the reader with the concept
of black hole in space.

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Chapter 5

EPILOGUE
When a supernova explosion occurs and the outer layers of the star are sprayed out
to space, they mingle with fresh hydrogen to form a gaseous mixture containing all
the chemical elements. Later in the history of the galaxy, other stars are formed
out of the clouds of hydrogen enriched by the product of many supernovae. The
sun is one of such stars that contain debris of countless supernovae dating back to
the earliest years of the galaxy. The planets thus formed around such stars also
contain the debris; and the earth, in particular, is composed almost entirely of it.
We owe our corporeal existence to events that took place billions and billions of
years ago, in the stars that lived and died long before the solar system was born.

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 BIBLIOGRAPHY
[1]. Robert Jastrow, Malcolm Thompson, Astronomy: Fundamentals and
frontiers, third edition, January, 1974
[2]. Dr. S.N. Prasad, RCE, Mysore, A text book of science, 2003.
[3]. A text Book of Physics, V. Ranganayaki, M.Y. Viswanatha Sastry, M.
Gururaj.
[4]. www.wikipedia.org
[5]. Britannica, Encyclopedia – 2004.

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