Điện tư cho Truyền thông

Electronics for Communications
Trn Quang Vinh VNU - 2014 Slide 1

1
Introduction for transmission system
Component and Circuit for transmission
Analog Modulation
Digital modulation
Course Outline
2
Bibliography
English:

Jacob Millman, Micro-Electronics, Ed. McGraw-Hill

David Comer and Donald Comer, Advanced Electronic circuit design, Ed Wiley.

French:

Esquieu et Manneville, Systmes boucls linaires de communication et de filtrage, Ed. Dunod

Christophe More, Transmission de signaux, Ed. Lavoisier

Jean Auvray, lectronique des signaux analogiques, Ed. Dunod

Tran Tien Lang, lectronique analogique des circuits intgrs, Ed. Masson

Bildestein, Filtres actifs, Ed. Radio (ou Techniques de lingnieur)

3
Grading Policy
Exercises 15%
Midterm Exam 25%
Final Exam 60%
4
Introduction for
Information Transmission System
Part 1
5
1. Electronic system for information transmission
Transmitter
Input signal s(t), different frequency spectrums
Baseband processor (noise filter, amplification, coder, decoder, )
Modulator (carrier, mixer)
Output amplifier to a transmission channel (line, antenna)
Transmission channel and noise
Receiver
Demodulator (detector)
Baseband processor
Output signal s(t).
6
Presentation of signal in the time domain

s(t)
t
0

T = 2
A
-A
s(t) = A sin (t + ) s(t) = s(t+nT)
<
= =
t
-
0 1
0 0
) ( ) ( 1
t
t
dt t t
2. Signal and transmission channels
7
=
+ =
1
0
)) sin( ) cos( ( ) (
k
k k
t k b t k a a t s
( )
k
k
k k k k
k
k k
a
b
arctg b a C with
t k C a t s
= + =
+ =

:
cos ) (
2 2
1
0
Presentation of signal in the frequency domain
8
9
Electromagnetic waves
10

= c / f

f: Frequency (Hz)
c: Light velocity (m.s
-1
)
l: Wavelength (m)
f (Hz)
(m)
3.10
2
3.10
8
3.10
12
3.10
16
4.10
14
8.10
14
3.10
17
3.10
19
10
6
10
-4
7,5.10
-7
3,75.10
-7
10
-8
10
-9
10
-11
1

Radio communications
lectrons transport signal
IR UV X rays
rays
Optical fibers communications
photons transport signal
Radio frequency range
Tera Hertz range: interface between electrons and photons
fast developing technologies in recent years
Frequency spectrum of the electromagnetic waves
11
Spectrum range for RF communication
10 km
100 m
10 cm
1 mm
AM Radio diffusion, signals used for localization
AM Radio diffusion, signals used for localization
Television (TF1, FR2, ..), cell-phone, radars,
AM Radio diffusion, telecommunications, CB

Name
1 km
10 m
1 m
1 cm
30 kHz
300 kHz
3 MHz
30 MHz
300 MHz
3 GHz
30 GHz
300 GHz
Long waves (VLF)
GO - LW
Medium waves (LF)
PO - MW
HF Short waves
VHF waves
SHF waves
EHF waves
UHF waves
Applications
Radars, satellites
Hertzian beams, satellite TV
AF Radio diffusion, television (Canal +)
f=c/
12
Baseband-signal processing and encoding
A signal whose frequency content (i.e. its spectrum) is in the vicinity of zero
(i.e., f = 0) is said to be a baseband signal. This signal contains information but
usually not an effective means of communication transmission.
To increase the security, anti-noise characteristic, efficient information, etc. the
baseband signal is often encoded :
13
Cc phng php m ha
NRZ-L Non Return to Zero Level
Bt 0 tng ng vi khng chuyn mc u thi gian bt
Bt 1 tng ng vi chuyn mc u thi gian bt
Trong thi gian ca mt bt, tn hieu khng tr v mc 0
Khng c chuyn mc trong khong thi gian ca mt bt
NRZ-I Non return to zero invert
More reading
14
NRZ-L v NRZ-I
iu ch nh phn a mc
S dng nhiu hn 2 mc tn hiu cho mt bit
Lng cc o mc 1 (0 tng ng vi khng c tn hiu, 1 tng ng vi c
tn hiu. Tn hiu o cc gia hai bit 1 lin tip)
Gi tam phn (1 tng ng vi khng c tn hiu, 0 tng ng vi c tn hiu.
Tn hiu o cc gia hai bit 0 lin tip)
More reading
15
iu ch hai pha: Manchester
Lun lun c chuyn mc gia thi gian ca mt bt
Thp ln cao: 1, cao xung thp 0
Chuyn mc cung cp c ch ng b
Manchester
Lun c chuyn mc gia bt
0-sn m, 1-sn dng
Manchester visai
0: c chuyn mc u bt, 1 khng c chuyn mc
Chuyn mc gia bt ch phc v cho ng b
More reading
16
iu ch Manchester
More reading
17
Purpose of a communication system: convey information through a medium or
communication channel.
The information is often represented as a baseband signal, i.e. a signal whose
spectrum extends from 0 to some maximum frequency.
Disadvantage of baseband transmissions: Noise in the system, system is not able
to fully utilise the available bandwidth, radio systems operating at baseband
frequencies are very difficult, and not easy to network.
Proper utilization of the communication channel often requires a shift of the
range of baseband frequencies into other frequency ranges suitable for
transmission, and a corresponding shift back to the original frequency range after
reception.
A shift of the range of frequencies in a signal is accomplished by using
modulation, which is defined as the process by which some characteristic of a
carrier is varied in accordance with a modulating (signal).
The baseband signal is referred to as the modulating wave, and the result of the
modulation process is referred to as the modulated wave.
Modulation is performed at the transmitting end.At the receiving end, we require
the original baseband signal to be restored. This is accomplished by using a
process known as demodulation, which is the reverse of the modulation process.

4. Modulation and Frequency shifting
18
19
Whats Modulation ?
In modulation, a message signal, which contains the information is used to control
the parameters of a carrier signal, so as to impress the information onto the carrier.

v
m
(t ) : the modulating signal which bears information (message).
v
c
(t) : the carrier signal used for message transmission
v
o
(t) : the output signal of modulator.

19
Modulation and frequency shift
Whats Demodulation?
Demodulation is the reverse process (to modulation) to recover the message signal v
m
(t )
at the receiver. This process is also called as Detection.
19
Classify modulations:
Examination of v
c
(t) indicate that there are 3 types basic modulations schemes
respectively known as : AM, FM, and PM. These parameters in modulators can be
varied in Analog or Digital form of Modulation:
Continuous data Continuous carrier
Continuous data Digital carrier
Digital data - Continuous carrier
Digital data Digital carrier
20
Signal to transmit : Base band
f
S(f )
f
min
f
max
f

average
min max
min max
f f
) f f (
) f f (
>
+
>
2
f
S(f )
f
0
+ f
1
f
0
+ f
2
f

average
min max
min max
f f
) f f (
) f f (
<<
+
<<
2
Antenna designed for one frequency : f
0
and bandwidth Df
Same transmission conditions (distortions induced by transmission media)
for all the signal because Df/f
0
<< 1
Enable the FDM (Frequency Division Multiplex)

Signal to transmit : shifted to higher frequency
Advantages of data transmission by frequency shift
21
Multiplexing is a modulation method which improves channel bandwidth utilisation.
For example, a co-axial cable has a bandwidth of 100's of Mhz. Baseband speech is a only a
few kHz
Multiplexing
22
This allows several 'messages' to be translated from baseband, where they are all
in the same frequency band, to adjacent but non overlapping parts of the spectrum.
An example of FDM is broadcast radio (long wave LW, medium wave MW, etc.)
Frequency Division Multiplexing FDM
23
TDM is another form of multiplexing based on sampling which is a modulation
technique. In TDM, samples of several analogue message symbols, each one
sampled in turn, are transmitted in a sequence, i.e. the samples occupy adjacent
time slots.
Time Division Multiplexing TDM
24
Example FDM (Frequency Division Multiplex)
Commercial Talkies-Walkies
Channel 1 | Channel 2 | Channel 3 | Channel 4 | Channel 5 | Channel 6 | Channel 7 | Channel 8

446,00625 | 446,01875 | 446,03125 | 446.04375 | 446.05625 | 446.06875 | 446.08125 | 446.09375 (MHz)
12.5kHz
446.05 MHz
25
Example of data transmission by frequency shift
26
demodulator
received
signal
HF oscillator

band - pass
filter

modulator
BF oscillator
input
signal
HF oscillator

band-pass
filter

emission
reception
Transmitter
Receiver
X
X
AM radio transmitter and receiver with dual frequency shift.
27
1. Electronic Mixer
(analog multiplier)

2. Filters (low-pass, high-pass, band-pass, )

3. Oscillator and voltage-controlled oscillator

4. Amplifiers

5. Add and substrate analog signals
f
0

s(t)=V.sin(2f
0
. t)
u(t)
f= f
0
+ K u(t)
A e(t)
s(t)=A . e(t)
VCO
e
1
(t)
e
2
(t)
s(t)= +e
1
(t) - e
2
(t)
+
-
e
1
(t)
e
2
(t)
s(t) = e
1
(t) . e
2
(t)
k
Circuits for modulation and frequency shift
28
)] sin( ) [sin(
2
1
) cos( ). sin(
)] cos( ) [cos(
2
1
) sin( ). sin(
)] cos( ) [cos(
2
1
) cos( ). cos(
b a b a b a
b a b a b a
b a b a b a
+ + =
+ =
+ + =
) cos(
)) (sin(
) sin(
)) (cos(
x
dx
x d
x
dx
x d
=
=
Some trigonometric function :
Non-linear circuit elements and mathematic tools
29
Fourier transform :
) ( . ) 2 ( ) ( ) (
) ( . ) ( ) ( ). ( ) ( * ) (
) ( ). ( ) ( * ) ( ) ( . ) (
) ( 1
1 ) (
) ( ) (
) ( ) ( ) ( ) (
0
2
0
f X jf f Y FT
dt
x d
t y
f Y f X FT d t y X t y t x
d f y X f Y f X FT t y t x
f FT
FT t
f f X FT e t x
f Y b f X a FT t y b t x a
n
n
n
t f j
= =
=
=
+ +
+

+

Some properties of the Fourier transform :
30
Ph in t c th c chia lm 3 bng ln: Sng mt t ( Ground ware ), sng tri ( Sky
ware ) v sng truyn theo ng tm mt ( light of sight ) LOS.

S lan truyn sng in t trn knh truyn
Sng mt t c di tn s < 2 MHz c khuynh hng truyn theo chu vi tri t, c
dng ph bin trong cc i AM. y s ph sng a phng theo ng cong mt t
v tn hiu truyn trn ng chn tri thy c.
s bc x c hiu qu, antenna cn di hn 1/10 bc sng.
V d: Vi sng mang f
C
= 10KHz, bc sng l: = C/f
C
= ( 3.10
8
m/s )/10
4
Hz = 3.10
4
m
Nh vy, mt anten di t nht 3.000m bc x c hiu qu mt sng in t 10KHz!
5. Propagation of RF waves
31
Sng tri c di tn s 2 30 MHz. S truyn ca sng ny da vo s phn x tng ion
( ion sphere - tng in ly ) v mt t. Nh , c th truyn mt khong rt xa.
s truyn sng, gc phn x v s hao ht tn hiu ti mt im phn x tng ion ty thuc
vo f, vo thi gian trong ngy, theo ma v s tc ng ca vt en mt tri.
Ban ngy, sng b hp thu, c rt t sng tr li tri t.
Ban m, s xy ra hin tng khc x tng bc. Do s phn x nhiu ln gia tng ion v
mt t, sng tri truyn i rt xa. V th, c nhng sng tri pht ra t nhng i xa bn kia
tri t vn c th thu c trn bng sng ngn.
32
Sng truyn thng LOS cho di tn s > 30 MHz. , sng in t truyn theo ng
thng, c rt t sng b khc x bi tng ion. Sng s truyn ngang qua tng ny. Tnh cht
c dng cho thng tin v tinh.
Cch truyn LOS bt li cho vic truyn thng tin gia 2 trm mt t, khi m ng i tn
hiu phi trn ng chn tri. cong mt t s chn ng truyn LOS.
Anten pht cn phi t trn cao, sao cho anten thu
phi thy c n.
d
2
+ r
2
= ( r + h )
2

d
2
= 2rh + h
2
h
2
<< 2 rh
Nh vy: d = 2rh
Bn knh hiu dng tri t l (4/3) 3.960 miles.
Vy khong cch d = rh miles. Trong h tnh
bng feet.
33
A transmission line is a device designed to guide electrical energy from one point to another. It
is used, for example, to transfer the output RF energy of a transmitter to an antenna. This
energy will not travel through normal electrical wire without great losses.
Although the antenna can be connected directly to the transmitter, the antenna is usually
located some distance away from the transmitter.
A transmission line is used to connect the transmitter and the antenna.
The transmission line has a single purpose for both the transmitter and the antenna. This
purpose is to transfer the energy output of the transmitter to the antenna with the least possible
power loss. How well this is done depends on the special physical and electrical characteristics
(impedance and resistance) of the transmission line.

6. Transmission line
34
Two-Wire Open Line Two-Wire Ribbon Type Line Twisted Pair
Shielded Pair Rigid (Air) Coaxial Line Flexible (Solid) Coaxial Lines
Waveguides
35
Characteristic impedance, Z
0
, is the ratio of E to I at every point along the line. For maximum
transfer of electrical power, the characteristic impedance and load impedance must be matched.
The velocity at which a wave travels over a given length of transmission line can be found by
using the formula:
A transmission line that is not terminated in its characteristic impedance is said to be finite.
When DC is applied to an open-ended line, the voltage is reflected back from the open end
without any change in polarity, amplitude, or shape. Current is reflected back with the same
amplitude and shape but with opposite polarity.
When DC is applied to a short-circuited line, the current is reflected back with the same
amplitude and polarity. The voltage is reflected back with the same amplitude but with
opposite polarity.
When AC is applied to an open-end line, voltage is always reflected back in phase with the
incident wave and current is reflected back out of phase.
36
After an RF signal has been generated in a transmitter, some means must be used to
radiate this signal through space to a receiver. The device that does this job is the antenna.
The transmitter signal energy is sent into space by a transmitting antenna; the RF signal is
then picked up from space by a receiving antenna.
The conventional antenna is a conductor, or system of conductors, that radiates or
intercepts electromagnetic wave energy. An ideal antenna has a definite length and a
uniform diameter, and is completely isolated in space.
The antenna must be able to radiate efficiently so the power supplied by the
transmitter is not wasted. An efficient transmitting antenna must have exact
dimensions. The dimensions are determined by the transmitting frequencies. The
dimensions of the receiving antenna are not critical for relatively low radio
frequencies. However, as the frequency of the signal being received increases, the
design and installation of the receiving antenna become more critical.
Most practical transmitting antennas are divided into two basic classifications, hertz
(half-wave) antennas and Marconi (quarter-wave) antennas.
7. Antennas
Introduction
37
Antenna
38
Curent and voltage distribution on antenna
Antenna
39
Standing waves of current and voltage on an antenna
Antenna
40
A half-wave antenna (referred to as a dipole, Hertz, or doublet) consists of two lengths of wire
rod, or tubing, each one-quarter wavelength long at a certain frequency. It is the basic unit
from which many complex antennas are constructed. The half-wave antenna operates
independently of ground; therefore, it may be installed far above the surface of the earth or
other absorbing bodies.
For a dipole, the current is maximum at the center and minimum at the ends. Voltage is
minimum at the center and maximum at the ends, as shown in figure.
A half-wave antenna
Development of
Vertical and
Horizontal Pattern
Antenna
41
A one-half wavelength antenna is the shortest antenna that can be used in free space. If we cut a
half-wave antenna in half and then ground one end, we will have a grounded quarter-wave or
Marconi antenna. This antenna will resonate at the same frequency as the ungrounded half-wave
antenna. Quarter-wave antennas are widely used in the military. Most mobile transmitting and
receiving antennas are quarter-wave antennas.
Quarter wave antennas
Mobile Antennas
Grounded Quarter-Wave Antenna Image
Antenna
42
Circuit elements for Transmission
Part 2
43
Passive devices
u(t)
i(t)
A B
u(t)
i(t)
A
B
u(t)
i(t)
u(t) = R i(t)
u(t) = Ldi(t)/dt
q(t) = C u(t)
We have: i(t) = dq(t)/dt
then i(t) = C du(t)/dt
Time domain
Z
R
= R
Z
L
= jL
Frequency domain
Z
C
= 1/jC
1. Components
44
Active devices
FET and BJT transistors

Operational amplifier
drain
source
gate
N-channel
npn-type
emitter
base
collector
-
+

V
-
V
+
V
power
-
V
power
V
S

A
d
(f)
0
0
0
0
1 1
+
=
+
=
j
A
f
f
j
A
A
d d
d
Active low-pass filter response:
f
T

0
logf
A
d
0

|A
d
|db
f
0

LM741 TL081
A
d
0 .
f
0
= f
T

45
2. Frequency Mixing circuits
x(t)
y(t)
v
out
(t) = K. x(t).y(t)
?
Mixing x(t) and y(t) multiplying x(t) by y(t)
Response of an nonlinear device : v
out
(t) = A.v
in
(t)+B.v
in
(t)
2
+C.v
in
(t)
3

Linear region: v
out
(t) = A.v
in
(t)
v
out
(t) = A.v
in
(t)
v
in
(t)
v
out
(t)
v
out
(t) =
A.v
in
(t)+B.v
in
(t)
2
+C.v
in
(t)
3

v
in
(t)
v
in
(t)
46
Need to be minimized (intermodulation terms)
nonlinear
device
y(t)
x(t) v
in
(t)
v
out
(t)
multiplication
Consequence :
Any nonlinear device
can act as a mixer
Using a non-linear device to design mixers
47
If v
in
is a signal with large amplitude:
exp
ln x(t)
v
s
(t) = K.x(t).y(t)
ln
y(t)
cant be used at frequency higher than few MHz
very sensitive to temperature variations
works only for positives signals
BUT !
s(t) = RI
s
.exp(-e(t)/V
T
)
+
-
e(t)
R
s(t)
V
I
+
-
e(t)
R
s(t)
i = Is[exp(v/V
T
)-1]
V
s(t) = -V
T
ln(e(t)/(RI
s
))
ln function : logarithmic circuit based on op-amp exp function : exponential circuit based on op-amp
Analogic multiplier based on op-amp
48
Application domain : high frequencies ( < 2 GHz)
identical transistors
v
s
= R
C
((i
4
-i
3
)+(i
6
-i
5
))
x = v
a
-v
b

y = v
d
-v
c

+
)
T
U
x
exp( 1
2
i
6
i

+ ++ +
= == =
)
T
U
x
exp( 1
1
i
4
i
+ ++ +
= == =
)
T
U
y
exp( 1
E
I
2
i

+ ++ +
= == =
)
T
U
y
exp( 1
E
I
1
i
+ ++ +
= == =
)
T
U
x
exp( 1
1
i
3
i

+ ++ +
= == =
)
T
U
x
exp( 1
2
i
5
i
+ ++ +
= == =
) v v ).( v v (
U 4
I R
v
c d b a
2
T
E C
s
= == =
The Gilbert cell
T
5
T
2
T
1
T
3
T
6
T
4
I
E
v
c
V
CC
R
C
R
C
v
s
v
d
v
a
v
b
i
3
i
1
i
2
i
4
i
5
i
6
i
3
+i
5
i
4
+i
6
49
Application domain : very high frequencies ( > 1 GHz)
RF(t)=LO(t).sign(HF(t))
RF(t)
t
HF(t)
RF(t)
LO(t)
D
1

D
2

D
3

D
4

HF(t)
t
LO(t)
t
HF(t)=A.sin(2 f
0
.t)
LO(t)=B.sin(2 f.t)
A
D
B
C
N M
Diode ring mixer
Amplitude spectrum of RF wave.
f
0
3f
0

7f
0

f
5f
0

RF(f)
50
First-order passive filters
51
3. Frequency filter
First-order active filters using op-amp
52
Conditions for generation of an electronic oscillation
Sinusoidal oscillators
4. Oscillator
To be able to analyze the oscillating conditions Blacks feedback model is used. Here
the oscillator is split into two blocks: An amplifier which is considered to be wideband
and a feedback network that is usually frequency selective as shown in figure.
The Barkhausen oscillation criteria is the condition that the system will be self-generating
and will perform continuous oscillation:
53
Armstrong generator LC
Three-point generators LC
They are known as the Colpits oscillator and the Hartley oscillator.
Sinusoidal Oscillator
54
Crystal Oscillator
High Quality factor Q = 10
4
10
5
The relative unstable is very small:
The crystal has two resonance frequencies: a
series resonance and parallel at
S
and
P.

for s = j, we have the crystal impedance:
55
RC oscillator at low-frequency
Phase-shift oscillator
Wien-bridge oscillator
The basic structure of the phase-shift
oscillator consists of a negative gain amplifier
(-K) with a three-section (third-order) RC
ladder network in the feedback. The circuit
will oscillate at the frequency for which the
phase shift of the RC network is 180 . Only at
this frequency will the total phase shift
around the loop be 0 or 360 .
56
Relaxation oscillators
Astable multivibrator
Relaxation Oscillator
57
Mono-stable multivibrator (One-shot)
58
Bistable multivibrator (Latch)
59
The VCO has its oscillation frequency controlled by a voltage input.
The frequency of oscillation is varied by the applied DC voltage, while modulating
signals may also be fed into the VCO to cause frequency modulation (FM) or phase
modulation (PM); a VCO with digital pulse output may similarly have its repetition rate
(FSK, PSK) or pulse width modulated (PWM).
Voltage-controlled harmonic oscillators generate a sinus waveform.
Voltage-controlled relaxation oscillators can generate a sawtooth or triangular
waveform.
K
VCO
: gain
Center frequency. 10 GHz or higher
The Tuning range,
2

1
Variation in output phase and frequency as a
result of noise on the control line is important.
To minimize the effect, the VCO gain must be
minimized (in conflict with the tuning range)
Tuning linearity
Voltage-controlled oscillator (VCO)
60
LC sinusoidal VCOs using varicap
Relaxation VCO using IC - 555
VCO
61
A phase-locked loop (PLL) is an electronic circuit that consist of a phase detector, a low-
pass filter, and a voltage-controlled oscillator (VCO)
Phase-locked Loop (PLL)
The PLL can be used in a wide variety of applications:
1. Frequency synthesis.
2. Frequency demodulation (detection).
The Phase Detector (PD) compares the phases of the input and output signals,
generating an error that varies with the VCO frequency until the phases are aligned,
i.e. the loop is locked.
The PD output consists of a DC component (desirable) and high frequency
components (undesirable).
The PD output is therefore filtered by a low-pass filter (LPD).
62
Analog Modulation Techniques
Part 3
63
The carrier signal v
c
(t), in continuous modulation is the sinusoidal wave.
The modulating signal v
m
(t) is the baseband signal (message signal) varies one of three
parameters of carrier to leads to 3 basic types schemes created output modulated signal
v
o
(t) known as Amplitude Modulation AM, Frequency Modulation FM, and Phase
Modulation PM.
These types of modulation are carrier/continuous wave modulation
Frequency & Phase Modulation are also known as Angle Modulation.
3.1. Introduction
64
v
m
(t) is a sinusoidal wave which is wanted to transmit:

v
c
(t) is also a sinusoidal in the high-frequency range:

where (t) is the instantaneous phase , (t) =
c
t + (t)
(t) is the deviation to the phase.
v
0
(t) is the output modulated signal :

where K(t) amplitude of the modulated signal.

If v
m
(t) creates a change on:
- K(t) Amplitude Modulation (AM)
- (t) Phase Modulation (PM)
- f
i
(t) Frequency Modulation (FM)
- (t) and K(t) at the same time Angular modulation (QAM)
Example, single-tone modulation
Introduction to analog modulation
65
Glancing signals in the time domain
Introduction to analog modulation
66
3.2. Amplitude Modulation
Outline
1. Introduction to AM
2. Double Sideband-Suppressed Carrier Modulation (DSB-SC)
3. Double Sideband Full Carrier Amplitude Modulation (DSBAM)
4. Single Sideband Modulation (SSB)
5. Quadrature-Amplitude Modulation (QAM)
6. Frequency spectrum shifting
67
Amplitude Modulation (AM) allows the baseband signal to vary the amplitude of a
carrier signal in accordance with the instantaneous voltage of the baseband signal.
In the case of single-tone transmission:
Modulating signal is the sinusoidal wave:
Carrier is the sinusoidal wave: where
c
>>
m
Modulated output signal v
0
is:

There are 4 kinds of Amplitude Modulation techniques, namely:
Double Sideband-Full Carrier maplitude modulation (DSBAM or AM)
Carrier + Upper Sideband + Lower Sideband
Double Sideband-Suppressed Carrier (DSBSC)
Upper Sideband + Lower Sideband
Single Sideband (SSB)
Only one Sideband (Upper Sideband or Lower Sideband)
Quadrature Amplitude Modulation (QAM)
Transmit simultaneously two message signals in one channel.
1. Introduction
68
Modulation index m (modulating factor) :
AM waveform in time domain
t
m = 1
t
m < 1
t
m > 1
Introduction
69
Thus, as the carrier f
c
is modulated by an information signal f
m
,
new signals at different frequencies are generated as part of the
process. These new frequencies are called side frequencies.
Frequency spectrum by the trigonometric identity:
( ) ( )
1
2
c m c m c m
cos t cos t cos t t cos t t
(
= + +

( ) ( )
2 2
c c
o c c c m c m
mV mV
v V cos t cos - t cos t = + + +
Sidebands of complex modulating signal
If the modulating signal is a complex wave, such as voice or video, a whole range of
frequencies modulate the carrier, and thus a whole range of sidebands are generated.
The upper sideband f
USB
and lower sideband f
LSB
are computed as:

The total bandwidth is simply the difference between the upper and lower sideband
frequencies:

Introduction
70
2. Double Sideband Suppressed Carrier modulation ( DSB-SC)
- v
0
(t) and v
c
(t) processes the same frequency and are in phase

- k has the dimension volt
-1

amplitude of v
0
(t) is directly proportional to v
m
(t)
S
i
g
n
a
l

(
u
.
a
.
)

m
t (rd)
v
m
(t)
3 2 0
Temporal evolution of v
0
(t) for an arbitrary signal v
m
(t)
just a voltage multipier !
It is a balanced modulator
- v
0
(t) follows v
m
(t) when the v
m
(t) signal is positive
and v
m
(t) for negative values

This modulation with suppressed carrier is not
directly used but this is the bases for more evoluated
modulations
-v
m
(t)
DSB-SC modulator
71
Time domain and frequency spectrum
DSB-SC
72
Waveform and spectrum of the single-tone AM wave.
Spectrum of complex baseband signal and its AM waves spectrum
Circuits for DSB-SC modulator
DSB-SC
73
Modulators
The carrier sine wave is considerably higher
in frequency and amplitude than the
modulating signal.
The carrier sine wave is used as a source of
forward and reverse bias for the diodes.
The carrier turns the diodes off and on at a
high rate of speed.
The diodes act like switches that connect the
modulating signal at the secondary of T
1
to
the primary of T
2
.
DSB-SC
74
DSB-AM
3. Double Sideband Full Carrier modulation (DSB-AM)
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
1 1
1 1
o c o c
max min
m
o c o c
max min
v / f v / f
m kV
v / f v / f
= =
+
Thus, is the modulation index
In fact, the message signal is not only the sinusoidal wave, so v
m
should be presented by an
arbitrary function -1 e(t) 1 :
with
k
DSB-AM modulator
75
Frequency domain and Bandwidth requirement for DSB-AM
In general, the message signal v
m
(t) will not be a single 'sine' wave, but a band of frequencies
extending up to B Hz as shown.
S
i
g
n
a
l

(
u
.
a
.
)

m
t (rad)
3 2 0
a) m < 1
1 + m e(t)
-(1 + m e(t))
S
i
g
n
a
l

(
u
.
a
.
)

m
t (rad)
3 2 0
b) m = 1
S
i
g
n
a
l

(
u
.
a
.
)

m
t (rad)
3 2 0
c) m > 1
Time domain
DSBAM
76
Power relations in DSB-AM waveform
In radio transmission, the AM signal is amplified by a power amplifier and fed to the antenna
with a characteristic impedance that is ideally, but not necessarily, almost pure resistance. The
AM signal is really a composite of several signal voltages, namely, the carrier and the two
sidebands, and each of these signals produces power in the antenna. The total transmitted
power is simply the sum of the carrier power and the power in the two sidebands P
USB
and P
LSB
:

the power in an AM signal is distributed and calculated by going back to the original AM
equation:

where the first term is the carrier, the second term is the lower sideband, and the third
term is the upper sideband.
For power calculations, rms values must be used for the voltages. Convert from peak to
rms by dividing the peak value by or multiplying by 0.707. The rms carrier and sideband
voltages are then

DSBAM
77
The power in the carrier and sidebands can be calculated by using the power formula
where P = V
2
/R is the output power, V is the rms output voltage, and R is the resistive part of
the load impedance, which is usually an antenna.
Use the coefficients on the sine and cosine terms above in the power formula:

If we express the sideband powers in terms of the carrier power, the total power becomes

Finally, we get a handy formula for computing the total power in an AM signal when
the carrier power and the percentage of modulation are known:

For 100% modulation (m = 1), the total sideband power is always one-half that of the
carrier power. When the percentage of modulation is less than the optimum 100, there is
much less power in the sidebands.

DSBAM
78
) t ( e of power the being P let
e
t cos ) t ( me ( V ) t ( v
c c o
+ = 1
[ ]
|
|
\
|
> < + > < + >= <
+ + =
) t ( e m ) t ( e
m
V ) t ( v
t cos ) t ( e m ) t ( me V ) t ( v
c
c c
2
1
2
2 2
1
2 2 1
2
2
2 2
2 2 2 2
signal carrier e c S
c
P P ) P
m
( V P
) ) t ( e
m
( V ) t ( v
) t ( e : assume
+ = + =
> < + >= <
>= <
2 2
1
2 2
1
0
2
2
2
2
2 2
e
e
carrier signal
signal
P m
P m
P P
P
: is efficiency the
2
2
1+
=
+
=
) ! power the % represents wave carrier , m (
%
60 1
30 20
<

Power with e(t)?
DSBAM
79
A square-law diode circuit for producing AM.
DSBAM
Circuits for DSB-AM modulator
80
A high-level collector modulator
DSBAM
Transistor-based circuit for producing AM.
81
DSBAM
AM modulator used linear op-amp and FET
82

In DSB amplitude modulation, two-thirds of the transmitted power is in the carrier, which
itself conveys no information. The real information is contained within the sidebands. One
way to improve the efficiency of amplitude modulation is to suppress the carrier and
eliminate one sideband. The result is a single-sideband (SSB) signal. SSB is a form of AM
that offers unique benefits in some types of electronic communication.
Advantages of SSB-AM:
- Frequency range reduced half
- High efficiency: P
eff
=1/3 P
AM
when m = 1
- Freq. range smaller (S/N)
ssb
> (S/N)
am
reduce generation power.
- Not depend on m >1 fading
- Good security due to not knowing the carrier frequency limitary used.

Introduction
4. Single Sideband Modulation (SSB-AM)
83
The first step in generating an SSB signal is to create a DSBSC wave with no power is wasted
on the carrier. The second step is to filter out the wanted sideband (USB or LSB).
SSB - AM
with v
m
(t) = V
m
cos
m
t, we may write:
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
m m
o C c c m c m
V V
v t V cos t cos t cos t
2 2
= + + +
The SSB filter removes the LSB (say) and the output is
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
m
o C c c m
V
v t V cos t cos t
2
= + +
For SSBSC, output signal =
( ) ( ) ( )
2
m
o c m
V
v t cos t = +
SSB AM modulator
v
m
(t)
v
c
(t)
v
o
(t)
84
t
t
t
Modulating
voltage
Carrier-suppressed
waveform DSBSC
Single-sideband
waveform SSB
Single-tone SSB-AM
SSB - AM
85
Sideband spectrum of SSB-AM
SSB - AM
86
Power in SSB
the total power in the DSB signal is

Hence, if P
c
and m are known, the carrier power and power in one sideband may be
determined. Alternatively, since SSB signal =

then the power in SSB signal (Normalised Average Power) is

2 2 2
1
2 4 4
T c c c c
m m m
P P P P P
| |
= + = + +
|
|
\
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
2
m
o c c c m
V
v t V cos t cos t = + +
2
2 2 2
2 2 8
2 2
c c m m
SSB
V V V V
P
| |
= + = +
|
\
Power in SSB signal =
2 2
2 8
c m
V V
+
SSB - AM
87
SSB modulator using the filtering method
Balance
modulator
C
0
2 10 MHz
Balance
modulator
Filter Filter
C
0
1
100 kHz
A
m
300 3400 Hz
100.3 103.4 kHz 10.1003 10.1034 MHz
Eliminating one side band from a suppressed carrier signal.

Two examples:

- A telephone company wish to transmit the upper sideband:

0
= 60 kHz;

= 300 3400 Hz.

- with higher carrier frequency, it become very difficult due
to more severe filter requirements.
= 600 Hz / 10 MHz of
0
0.006%
0
SSB - AM
88
SSB modulator using the phase-shift method
Balance
modulator
-90 -90
~ ~
Balance
modulator
+
Mcos
m
t
M sin
m
t
V
c
sin
c
t
V
c
cos
c
t
mE
0
cos(
c
-
m
)t
mE
0
/2[cos(
c
-
m
)t cos (
c
+
m
)t]
mE
0
/2[cos(
c
-
m
)t + cos (
c
+
m
)t]
SSB - AM
89
Applications of DSB and SSB
Both DSB and SSB techniques are widely used in communication. SSB signals are still
used in some two-way radios. Two-way SSB communication is used in marine applications,
in the military, and by hobbyists known as radio amateurs (hams). DSB signals are used in
FM and TV broadcasting to transmit two-channel stereo signals and to transmit the color
information for a TV picture.
An unusual form of AM is that used in TV broadcasting.
Vestigial sideband transmission of a TV picture signal.
90
5. Quadrature Amplitude Modulation (QAM)
QAM (quadrature amplitude modulation) is a method of combining two AM
signals into a single channel, thereby doubling the effective bandwidth. QAM is
used also with pulse amplitude modulation (PAM) in digital systems, especially in
wireless applications.
In a QAM signal, there are two carriers, each having the same frequency but
differing in phase by 90 degrees (one quarter of a cycle, from which the term
quadrature arises). One signal is called the I signal, and the other is called the Q
signal.
Mathematically, one of the signals can be represented by a sine wave, and the other
by a cosine wave.
The two modulated carriers are combined at the source for transmission. At the
destination, the carriers are separated, the data is extracted from each, and then the
data is combined into the original modulating information.
91
s(t) = V
1
e
1
(t) cos(
c
t) + V
2
e
2
(t) sin(
c
t)

+
+

s
1
(t)
s
2
(t)
-90
QAM Modulator
Spectrum
QAM
92
t t
V m
t t
V V
t
V
t
V V V
t t t V V t t V V t V t s
c
c
c
c
c
c c c
c c c c c c c

2 sin cos
2
2 cos cos
2
2 cos
2
cos
2 2

sin cos cos cos cos cos ) (
2
2
1
1
1
1
2 2
2
1 1
2
1
+ + + + =
+ + =
t t
V V
t
V
t t
V V
t
V V
t t V V t t t V V t t V t s
c
c
c
c
c
c c
c c c c c c c c

2 sin cos
2
2 sin
2
2 cos cos
2
cos
2

sin cos sin cos cos sin cos ) (
1
1
2
2
2
2
2
2 2 1 1 2
+ + =
+ + =
V
c
(
1
+
L
+
R
)

V
c
(L - R)
Example, a QAM mono-tone modulation

Carrier :

Message signal 1:

Message signal 2:
93
Demodulator
QAM
/2
s
r
(t)
p
r
(t) = A
1
cos(2f
0
t + )
s
1
(t)
s
2
(t)
d
1
(t) = e
1
(t) + ... X
X d
2
(t) = e
2
(t) + ...
k
k
( )
( )
+ + =
+ + =
) sin( sin ) ( cos ) ( ) (
) cos( sin ) ( cos ) ( ) (
0 1 0 2 2 0 1 1 2
0 1 0 2 2 0 1 1 1

t kA t t e V t t e V t s
t kA t t e V t t e V t s
+ =
=

cos
2
) (
sin
2
) (
) (
sin
2
) (
cos
2
) (
) (
2 2 1 1 1 1
2
2 2 1 1 1 1
1
t e V kA t e V kA
t d
t e V kA t e V kA
t d
94
6. Frequency shifting
The basic operation involved in single-sideband modulation is in fact a
form of frequency translation.
SSB modulation is sometimes referred to as frequency changing, mixing,
or heterodyning.
The mixer consists a product modulator followed by a band-pass filter.
Band-pass filter bandwidth: equal to that of the modulated signal s
1
(t)
used as input.
Frequency shift
95
Due to frequency translation performed by the mixer : We may set
The band-pass filter rejects the unwanted frequency and keeps the desired
one.
Mixing is a linear operation operation.
Frequency shift
96
Frequency shift structure
modulator
BF oscillator HF oscillator
Filter band-
pass
Input
signal
- Modulation with a first frequency
- Shift of the spectra to the adapted channel with a mixer
(the second operation is realized via a second multiplier)
Frequency shift
97
Frequency shift of a modulated signal with a sine carrier
k
c(t) = C
1
cos(
1
t)
s(t)
B is the bandwidth of s(t)
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
1
0 1 0 1
2 2 2 2
2
k' C
s' t K t cos f f t t cos f f t t
(
= + + + +

f
+B+f
H
f
B
f
H
-B+f
H
|S(f)|
+B-f
B
-B+f
B
0

If |f
0
-f
1
| > B spectrum of s(t) is formed with two componantes :
- one centered at : f
B
= |f
0
-f
1
| shifted to the lower frequencies
- the second centered on : f
H
= f
0
-f
1
shifted to the HF frequencies
The desired band is then selected with a band-pass filter

Frequency shift
98
Amplitude modulation and Frequency shift
m e(t)
f x 8.8
196
156 & 196
BP 15
20
176
0 5
20 25 156 196
20
191 196 201
15
AM modulation is between 440 and 490 kHz and the carrier waves are ranging
from 30 kHz to 3 MHz.
Design of an transmission setup with amplitude modulation and mixer 8.8
Frequency shift
99
There are 2 main methods of AM Demodulation:

Envelope or non-synchronised detection

Synchronised or coherent demodulation.
3.3. AM Demodulation Analog modulation
100
1. Envelope or non-synchroned detection
101
R
C
s(t) u(t)
demodulation : the ideal case m < 1
0
2
1
2
1
f
RC
F
M

>> >>
Received signal :
|A(f)|
f
F
M
0 -F
M
baseband

R C
s(t)
u(t)
B
u
1
(t)
u(t)
C
0
(1+m)
s(t)
t
C
0
(1-m)
-C
0
(1-m)
-C
0
(1+m)
t
Bm C
0

-Bm C
0

s(t) = C
0
(1+m e(t)) cos(
c
t) with m = A
0
k
Envelope Detection
102
M
2
0
F m 2
m 1
RC
f 2
1
< <<
When m is in the lower range (i.e. m < 0.5) the

In practice RC as to be defined as follow :
S
i
g
n
a
u
x

(
u
.
a
.
)

m
t (rd)
2 0
a) m = 0,5
0
S
i
g
n
a
u
x

(
u
.
a
.
)

m
t (rd)
2 0
b) m = 0,9
0
Envelope Detection
103
For small signal Square Law Detector
For small AM signals (~ millivolts) demodulation depends on the diode square law
Characteristic.
The diode characteristic is of the form i(t) = av + bv2 + cv3 + ..., where

i.e. DSBAM signal
( ) ( )
C c
v V m t cos t
(
= +

Envelope Detection
104
i.e.
=
=
=
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
( )
2
C c C c
a V m t cos t b V m t cos t ... + + + +
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
2
2 2
2
C c C C c
aV am t cos t b V V m t m t cos t ...
| |
+ + + + +
|
\
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
2
2
1 1
2 2
2 2
C c C C c
aV am t cos t bV bV m t bm t cos t
| |
| |
+ + + + +
|
|
\
\
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
( )
2
2 2
2
2
2 2 2 2
C
C C
C c c
bV m t bm t
bV V
aV am t cos t b cos t ... + + + + + +
'LPF' removes components.
Output signal = ( )
2
2
C
C C
bV
aV bV m t + +
i.e. the output contains m(t)
Envelope Detection
105
Example,
Demodulation of an AM signal by a crystal radio
106
2. Synchronised or Coherent Detection
Synchronous Detection
Detector structure
m(t)
V
x
(t)
s
out
(t)
k
v
c
(t) = V
c
cos(
c
t)
Local oscillator
(synchronous)
AM
input
Analysing this for a DSBAM input : AM input =
( ) ( ) ( )
C c
V m t cos t +
V
x
= AM input LO =
= =
( ) ( )
2
C c
V m t cos t
(
+

( ) ( ) ( )
c c c
V m t cos t cos t
(
= +

( ) ( )
1 1
2
2 2
C c
V m t cos t
| |
(
+ +
|

\
( )
( ) ( )
( )
2 2
2 2 2 2
C C
c c
m t m t
V V
cos t cos t + + +
The AM input has been 'split into two' 'half' has moved or shifted up to :
and half shifted down to baseband,

and

( )
( ) ( )
2 2 2
2
c c c c
m t
f cos t V cos t
| |
+ |
|
\
2
V
c
( )
2
t m
107
The signal spectrum
from 'modulator to V
x'
108
Analysis
Synchronous detection should use for both signals of DSB-AM and DSBSC
Detect for AM input signal of DSB full carrier
The equation for DSB is
diminished carrier or suppressed carrier to be set.
where V
C
allows full carrier (DSBAM),
Hence, V
x
= AM Input LO
Since

( ) ( )
C c
V m t cos t
(
+

( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
x C c c
V V m t cos t .cos t = + + +
( ) ( )
1
2
cos Acos B cos A B cos A B
(
= + +

( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
2
C
x c c c c
V m t
V cos t cos t t
+
(
= + + + + + +

( )
( ) ( ) ( )
2
2 2
C
x c
m t
V
V cos t cos t
| |
(
= + + + + + |

|
\
( ) ( ) ( )
( )
( ) ( )
( )
( )
2 2
2 2 2 2
C C
x c c
m t m t
V V
V cos t cos t cos t cos t = + + + + + + + + +
109
The LPF with a cut-off frequency f
c
Hz will remove the components at 2
c
(i.e.
components above
c
) and hence
Obviously, if
and

we have, as previously
Consider now if is equivalent to a few Hz offset from the ideal LO:
The output, if speech and processed by the human brain may be intelligible, but would
include a low frequency 'buzz' at , and the message amplitude would fluctuate. The
requirement = 0 is necessary for DSBAM.

( )
( )
2 2
C
out
m t
V
V cos( t ) cos t = + + +
0 =
0 =
( )
2 2
C
out
m t
V
V = +
( )
( )
( )
2 2
C
out
m t
V
V cos t cos t = +
Consider now that = 0 but 0, i.e. the frequency is correct at
c
but there is a
phase offset. Now we have
'cos()' causes fading (i.e. amplitude reduction) of the output.
( )
( )
( )
2 2
C
out
m t
V
V cos cos = +
110
The 'V
C
' component is not important, but consider for m(t),
if (90
0
),

i.e.

(180
0
),

if i.e.

The phase inversion if = may not be a problem for speech or music, but it may be
a problem if this type of modulator is used to demodulate PRK
However, the major problem is that as increases towards
the signal strength
output gets weaker (fades) and at
the output is zero
2
=
0 =
2
cos
|
\
| ( )
0 =
2
cos
2
t m
= V
out
|
\
|
2
=
( )
( ) ( ) t m = cos
2
t m
= V
out

2
( ) 1 = cos
2
111
Thus the requirement for = 0 and = 0 is a 'strong' requirement for DSB amplitude
modulation.
112
The equation for SSB with a carrier depending on V
C
is
i.e. assuming
Hence
=
( ) ( )
2
m
C c c m
V
V cos t cos t + +
( ) ( )
m m
m t V cos t =
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
2
m
x C c c m c
V
V V cos t cos t cos t
| |
= + + + +
|
\
( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
2
2 2
2
4 4
C C
c
m m
c m m
V V
cos t cos t
V V
cos t cos t
+ + + + +
+ + + + +
Detect for AM input signal of SSB
113
-

f

f 0
f

f + F
M

f - F
M
|D(f)|
The Local Oscillator (LO) must be synchronised or coherent, i.e. at the same frequency and
in phase, with the carrier in the AM input signal. If the LO is not perfectly synchronised to
the carrier, it will be mixed between high and low frequencies after passing low-pas filter.
Requirement for carrier recovery
If the AM input contains a small or large component of the carrier frequency, the LO may be
derived from the AM input as shown below.
Conclusion :
Carrier recovering is required
115
When the PPL is stabilized both frequencies at the input of the phase comparator are equal
) ( ) (
0
t av f t f
i
+ =
) ( cos ) ( t A t y
y
=
cos ) (
2
1
aV t av
dt
d
= =
+ + =
(
+
t
y y
const du u me A akA t A akA
t
0
0 0
) (
4 2
) (
tan ln

)
2
2 cos( ) (
0
+ = t f Y t y
VCO

dt
d
f
dt
d
t f
i
2
1
0
2
1
) ( + =
=
0
f f
c
<<
2 /
y r
A kA V =
[ ] cos ) 4 cos( ) (
0
+ + = t f V t u
Instantanous
frequency of sr , fc
[ ] ) ( 1 ) (
0
t me A t A
r
+ =
Carrier recovering using PLL
with
If chose

Systems without the emission of the carrier wave. Recover the carrier wave is then needed :
Phase lock loop (PLL) or Quadratic filter.
X
VCO
s
r
(t)
y(t) v(t)
u(t)
116
Quadrature filtering
0 2f
m
2f
0
2f
0
- 2f
m
2f
0
+ 2f
m
V
a
(f)
4f
m
f
m
f
f
Q
2
0
=
* Basis : assume a pure sinusoidal signal : e(t) = cos (2f
m
t)
PLL
Zero level
comparator
:2 p
r
(t)
sinus => square
w(t)
k
s
r
(t)
Centr 2f
0
Q grand
v(t)
w(t)
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) t f 4 cos t f 4 cos 1 t f 4 cos 1
4
kA
) t ( v
0 m m
2
r
+ + + =
s
r
(t) = A cos(2f
m
t) cos(2f
0
t)
y(t), 2 f0
117
* General case : e(t)
0 2F
m
2f
0
V
a
(f)
f
2F
M
2f
0
- 2F
m
2f
0
+ 2F
m
PLL
Centered on 2f
0
s(t)
:2 p
r
(t)
Zero level
comparator
sinus => square
Demodulated
AM output
118
Outline
1. Introduction
2. Phase modulation
3. Frequency modulation
4. FM detection
3.4. Angle modulation Analog modulation
119
Phase and frequency modulation are examples of the angle modulation.
Before 1980, the main purpose of phase modulation is the generation of
frequency modulated wave for FM generators of commercial purpose.
In the last 25 yeas, the phase modulation becomes the important thing for the
transmission of digital data.
Frequency modulation also to be applied for digital transmitters and is one of
two modulation forms which have signification in the century of 21.
1. Introduction
120
Phase modulation
) t sin M k t cos( V v
m p c c out
+ + =
0
v
out
is the phase-modulated voltage.
M sin
m
t is the sinusoidal modulating signal
c is the carrier frequency
k
p
is constant determined by the circuit parameter
When the maximum value of V
m
is applied to the modulator, the largest phase deviations
occur.
Then m
p
= k
p
M
max
is called the phase modulation index.
Structure of a phase modulator consists of the modulating input signal and the
carrier. The output phase modulated signal has a constant amplitude with a phase angle
varies proportional to the amplitude of the modulating signal.
Introduction
121
zero phase signal
Advancing phase signal
time
) sin (
0
t M k t
m p c
+ + =
t M k
dt
d
m m p c

cos + = =
m p
M k =
m p
Mf k f =
Frequency deviation depends on both: amplitude and also frequency of the modulating
signal !!
A change in phase is also to a change in
frequency.
Differentiating the argument or
instantaneous phase with respect to
time change in phase, we have a
frequency deviation:

The instant radian frequency is found
from:

The unmodulated frequency (M=0) is
c
, whereas the modulated frequency deviates
from this value in both the positive and negative directions by a maximum value of:
Introduction
122
t cos M k f f
m f c
+ =
M k f
f
=
m
f
m
f
f
M k
f
f
m =
=
Index of modulation:
Bandwidth: (Carsons rule): ) ( 2
m
f f BW + =
Frequency modulation
Frequency modulation occurs when the frequency of a carrier signal changes in accordance
to a modulating signal.
For almost communication system, the frequency deviation is linearity depend on to the
amplitude of the modulating signal.
The expression for frequency of an FM signal with sinusoidal modulation is:

The frequency deviation of the FM signal is
the maximum change in frequency and:
Frequency Deviation depends on only the amplitude of modulating signal:
The index of modulation for a tone-modulated FM signal is defined as the maximum
frequency deviation of the waveform divided by the modulation frequency:

where k
f
is constant and M is magnitude of the
modulating signal applied to the frequency
modulator.
Introduction
123
During each cycle of the modulating signal, v
m
, the frequency of v
out
moves from f
c
to f
max
,
then back to f
c
, then to f
min
then back to f
c
. The magnitude of v
out
remains constant.

The frequency deviation:

For FM, a change in modulating frequency , f
m
, does not change f as it would in PM.
An increase in modulating signal amplitude, M, increase f
max
, decrease f
min
, and there by
increase f.
For a typical f
c
of 100.1 MHz in commercial FM, the maximum frequency deviation, limited by
the FCC, is f
max
= 75 kHz. Thus, f
max
= 100,175 kHz and f
min
= 100,025 kHz. The maximum
frequency change is less than 0.1%.
min max
f f f f f
c c
= =
Introduction
124
2. Phase modulation
) t sin M k t cos( C v
m p c out
+ + =
0
m
p
= k
p
M
max

Using 2 quadrature sinusoids of the same frequency create a resultant sinusoid
with phase shift
) sin( + = t D v
c
t A v
c
sin
1
=
t B v
c
cos
2
=
2 2
B A D + =
A
B
actg =
t t m V v
c m c
cos )] cos 1 ( [
2
+ =
t t kM V v
c m c
cos )] cos 1 ( [
2
+ =
the phase will be modulated in accordance with M cos
m
t. The constant k is a
function of the amplitude modulator and kM equals m, the index of modulation.
Phase modulators based on amplitude modulators
The phase varies linearly with the applied modulating signal. The maximum phase shift is
given by the index of phase modulation, which is:
125
Phasor representation
of signals
With the index of modulation for AM signal 100% then results in a phase
deviation only of 7
A
t kM V
actg
m c
) cos 1 (
+
=
The phase modulator must exhibit a linear relationship between the phase angle
and the modulating signal. It is adapted when actg

A
t kM V
m c
) cos 1 (
Phase modulator
126
V
c
(1 - kM)
V
c

V
c
(1 + kM)
v
v
1

v
2

carrier
signal
modulating
signal
-90
phase shift
amplitude
modulator
Adder
amplitude
limiter
v
1

v
2

v
v
out

Phase modulator
- Limitation of the output amplitude
- The operating range is narrow: with the index of modulation for AM
signal 100% then results in a phase deviation only of 7
Phase modulator
127
Circuit for large-deviation phase modulator
Circuit used a varistor (silicon-carbide voltage variable resistor). The modulator
allows linear phase shifts of 50 or greater and does not require an amplitude
limiter.

Phase modulator
128
The frequency modulator should produce a frequency deviation
that is a function of the amplitude of the modulating signal, but is
independent of modulation frequency.

The phase modulator produce an output with a frequency that is
dependent on both modulation signal amplitude and frequency.

If a modulating signal is integrated and then applied to a phase
modulator, a frequency-modulated signal results, with a frequency
deviation that is not a function of modulation frequency.

3. Frequency modulation
129
The indirect method of frequency modulation
Using the phase modulator with the frequency deviation do not depend on
frequency of the modulating signal
m p
M k =
t f M k f f
m m p c
cos + =
Phase
modulation
t M k f f
m f c
cos + =
Frequency
modulation
M k f
f
=
t
M
m
m
sin
1
1
1
M k
M
k
p m
m
p
= =
Frequency modulator
130
If a modulating signal is integrated and then applied to a phase modulator, a frequency-
modulated signal results, with a frequency deviation that is not a function of modulation
frequency
= = t
M k
tdt M k e
m
m
I
m I I

sin cos
M
1
= k
I
M
Frequency modulator
131
The Armstrong or Indirect method of FM waveform generation
Frequency modulator
132
The direct method of FM generation
- Frequency reference signal is produced from the crystal oscillator
- dc error signal is a result of the frequency comparison between VCO and reference
Frequency modulator
133
1. Convert the frequency variation of the signal into an
amplitude variation and then applies an AM detector.
2. Use Phase-Locked Loop for FM detection if an
accurate frequency reference is available
Two ways:
3.5. FM detection
134
Foster-Seeley discriminator
Resonance
Off resonance
FM Detection
135
FM detector using the phase-locked loop PLL
PLL used as an FM detector
FM Detection
136
2 kind of Phase Comparator:
- Multiplier (balanced modulator) then low-pass filter
- Change to square-waveforms then XOR gate then LF or Integrator

FM Detection
137
FM Receiver
(max)] [ 2
m
f f BW + = ) ( 2
m
f f BW + =
FM Detection
138
Spectrum of baseband signal applied to FM modulator
An FM stereo transmitter
FM Detection
139
FM Detection
140
FM Detection
141
Digital Modulation Techniques
Part 4
H truyn thng s
Definition: the purpose of digital modulation is to convert an information bearing
discrete-time symbol into a continuous-time waveform.
Why Digital ?
Increase System Capacity (compression, more efficient modulation)
Error control coding, equalizers, etc. possible to combat noise and interference =>
lower power needed
Reduce cost and simplify designs
Improve security (encryption possible)
Basic concepts

Data rate : rate at which data can be communicated . In general it is the baud rate
(the number of symbols per second). In binary transmission, data rate is bit rate
(the number of bit per second).
Each symbol represents n bits, and has M signal states, where M = 2
n
. This is called
M-ary signaling.
Channel Capacity (C): The maximum rate at which data can be transmitted over a
given communication path, or channel, under given conditions the maximum rate of
information transfer through a baseband channel is given by:
Capacity f
b
= 2 B log
2
M bits per second,
where B = bandwidth of modulating baseband signal.
Bandwidth (B) : The bandwidth of the transmitted signal as constrained by the
transmitter and the nature of the transmission medium (Hertz)
Noise (N) : Impairments on the communications path
Bit error rate (BER) - rate at which errors occur : Error = transmit 1 and receive 0;
transmit 0 and receive 1.
Nyquist Bandwidth :
- For binary signals (two voltage levels) : C = 2B;
- For multilevel signaling (M-ary signaling) : C = 2B log
2
M
Shannon Bound for AWGN non-fading channel : C = B log
2
(1+ S/N)
Cc thng s c bn
SNR l t s gia cng sut tn hiu v cng sut tp m. Khi nim ny dng chung cho
c thng tin s ln analog. i vi thng tin s th SNR c th hin c th qua t s
E
b
/N
o
.
SNR (digital com.) = P
s
/P
n
vi P
s
v P
n
ln lt l cng sut tn hiu hu ch v cng sut
tp m. P
s
= E
s
/T
s
vi E
s
l nng lng ca mt symbol cn T
s
l rng thi gian ca
symbol.
Khi ghp n bt thnh mt symbol, E
s
= n.E
b
, vi E
b
l nng lng mt bt. Do
P
s
= n.E
b
/T
s
.
Cng sut tp m P
n
= W
s
.N
o
, vi W
s
l rng bng tn hiu truyn bng cc symbol cn
N
o
l mt ph cng sut mt pha ca tp m cng trng chun.
Tuy nhin W
s
= 1/T
s
, do vy ta c: P
s
/P
n
= [n.E
b
/T
s
]/[W
s
.N
o
] = n. E
b
/N
o
.
Trong n ph thuc vo s iu ch tn hiu nhiu mc, trnh ph thuc vo kiu
iu ch, t s tn/tp (SNR) trong thng tin s c th hin thng qua t s E
b
/N
o
.
T s tn hiu trn tp trong thng tin s E
b
/N
o
Given any modulation scheme, it is possible to obtain its signal constellation.
Represent each possible signal as a vector in a Euclidean space spanned by an
orthonormal basis.
If we know the signal constellation, we can estimate the performance in terms of the
probability of symbol error or probability of bit error given the noise parameters.
Probability of error depends on the minimum distance between the constellation points.
The receiver implementation can affect the performance.
Coherent detection
Receiver will exploit the exact knowledge of the phase of the carrier to detect
the signal better.
Non-coherent detection
Involves making some approximations to the phase information that results in
a loss in performance. However, it simplifies the circuitry.
In symbol detection decode incoming signal as closest symbol in the signal
constellation space
Symbol Detection
Signal Constellation
Constellation Diagram used to represents possible symbols that may be selected by a
given modulation scheme as points in 2-D plane
X-axis is related to in-phase carrier: cos(
c
t)
The projection of the point on the X-axis defines the peak amplitude of the in-
phase component
Y-axis is related to quadrature carrier: sin(
c
t)
The projection of the point on the Y-axis defines the peak amplitude of the
quadrature component
The length of line that connects the point to the origin is the peak amplitude of the
signal element (combination of X & Y components)
The angle the line makes with the X-axis is the phase of the signal element
Sng mang analog vi tn s thch hp c th tryn i xa trong mi trng truyn dn
(nh dy ng, cp ng trc, hay khong khng).
Cc k thut iu ch s da trn bin i sng mang analog c phn loi c bn nh sau:
iu ch ng b gm:
- ng b nh phn: ASK (t c dng), PSK, FSK
- ng b hng M: ASK hng M, PSK hng M, FSK hng M.
iu ch khng ng b gm:
- Khng ng b nh phn
- Khng ng b hng M
Phn loi k thut iu ch s
One binary digit represented by presence of carrier, at constant amplitude.
Other binary digit represented by absence of carrier. Commonly, one of the
amplitudes is zero.
Pulse shaping can be employed to remove spectral spreading.
ASK demonstrates poor performance, as it is heavily affected by noise and
interference.
v
d
(t)
s
ASK
(t)
data
ASK signal
Carrier

Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK)
Ph tn s ca tn hiu ASK
Mch iu ch ASK
Data
Sinusoidal Carrier
Modulated Signal
Mch gii iu ch ASK
LPF
f
1
v f
2
lch so vi tn s sng mang f
c
mt lng bng nhau nhng ngc du.
B = 2([f
2
f
1
]/2 + f
b
), trong f
b
= tc bit.
v
d
(t)
s
FSK
(t)
data
FSK signal
Frequency Shift Keying (FSK)
Trong k thut ny i lng mang thng tin 1, 0 l hai tn s f
1
v f
2
ca sng mang. Cp
sng sin biu din c m t l:

Hiu 2 tn s sng mang c tnh l : f
2
- f
1
= 1/T
b
= tn s bit.
Tn hiu FSK m t y l tn hiu pha lin tc (khi chuyn bit t tn s ny sang tn s khc,
khng c s nhy pha v chu k bit lun l bi ca chu k sng mang).
Tp hm c s s l:
Do 2 tn s l trc giao vi nhau (c th kim tra bng php ly tch phn tch 2 hm ny
trong khong thi gian bit s bng zero) v cc h s s
ij
tng ng l:

H FSK c trng bng khng gian tn hiu 2 chiu v 2 im symbol (N = 2, M = 2).

Ch khong cch Euclid gia 2 vect l
D liu s : v
d
(t) c iu ch vi
1
v
d
(t) = 1 v
d
(t) c iu ch vi
2
.
Tn hiu c iu ch:
v
FSK
(t) = cos
1
t.v
d
(t) + cos
2
t(1-v
d
(t)) =
Ph tn s ca FSK
FSK c pha gin on:
FSK c pha lin tc:
Trong iu ch FSK, tn s tc thi ca sng mang c c thay i ty thuc d
liu s bng gc.
u im: FSK t chu nh hng sai lch hn ASK do my thu nhn nhng tn s ring
nn t chu nh hng ca nhiu kim.
Nhc im: FSK c ph rng gp i ph ASK.
ng dng: over voice lines, in high-freq. radio transmission, etc.
Ch l trong s ny cc gi tr 1 hoc 0 nhnh trn th qui tc ngc li nhnh
di qua b o (inverter).
Mch iu ch FSK
Mch gii iu ch FSK
Vect quan st c (sau khi tn hiu qua knh) c 2 thnh phn l:
Khng gian quan st c chia thnh 2 vng (hnh v) c x
1
> x
2
v vng x
2
> x
1
a vo mt bin mi l l = x
1
- x
2
khi :

V x
1
v x
2
l cc bin c lp thng k (do gn vi 2 hm trc giao) c phng sai = N
0
/2 nn
var[l] = var[x
1
] + var[x
2
] = N
0
.
Gi s 0 c truyn, hm kh nng sau knh s l:

V x
1
> x
2
tng ng l > 0, nn:

i bin tch phn sang z vi:

c:

Cui cng khi xt thm P
e1
mt cch tng t ta c
D liu nh phn c biu din bi 2 tn hiu sng mang vi pha khc nhau trong BPSK. in
hnh hai pha ny l 0 v . Trong 0 t < T
b
v E
b
l nng lng tn hiu/bit.

Nu tn s sng mang bng mt s nguyn ln tc bit: f
c
= m f
b
= m/T,
vi m l s nguyn, f
b
l tc bit d liu (data bit rate) th pha ban u ca mi bit s chnh xc
l 0 hay (hnh a). Nu khng th biu thc ca s
1
v s
2
s khng chnh xc v pha nh trn (hnh
b). iu kin ny l cn thit m bo xc xut li bit l cc tiu. Tuy nhin nu f
c
>> f
b
th
iu kin ny c th c b qua.
Phase Shift Keying (PSK hay BPSK)

Trong biu chm sao, cc tn hiu ny c biu din trong h ta 2 chiu vi cc hm:

vi :

Ta ca 2 symbol s l:
u tin, lung d liu a(t) c to bi cc d liu nh phn:

trong a
k
{+1, -1} v p(t) l xung ch nht c bin n v trong khong [0,T].
Sau a(t) c nhn vi sng mang hnh sin Acos 2f
c
t.
Mch iu ch BPSK
Mch gii iu ch BPSK
Tn hiu chun phi c ng b vi tn hiu thu c v pha v tn s. Tn hiu ny
c pht ra bi b hi phc sng mang CR (carrier recover).
Khi khng c n (A = 1), li ra ca b tch phn l:

Nu f
c
= mR
b
, s hng th hai bng 0, nh vy tn hiu a(t) c hi phc hon ho.
Nu f
c
mR
b
, s hng th hai khc 0, tuy vy, nu fc >> R
b
th s hng ny c th b qua
so vi s hng th nht.
Tnh xc sut li bit
chia khng gian thnh 2 vng: 1) vng gn v 2) vng gn

T tnh c xc sut li loi 1 (pht 0 li quyt nh l 1 ti ni thu),
Vng quyt nh k hiu l 1 (tn hiu s
1
(t)) l Z
1
vi 0 < X
1
< vi
y, x(t) l tn hiu thu c sau knh.

Hm xc sut iu kin l:

Do :

i bin tch phn:

Ta c:

Tng t c th tnh c xc sut li pht 1 m thu c 0 c gi tr cng nh vy.
Mt ph cng sut PSD (power spectral density) ca tn hiu PSK:

Bit rng PSD ca cc sng s khng tng quan thng tng ng vi mt ph nng
lng ca xung chia cho di k hiu (symbol).
Vi xung c bn hnh ch nht:

Chuyn i F ca n l:

Nh vy PSD ca tn hiu bng gc PSK l:

T kt qu cho thy bng thng ca tn hiu l:
B = 2 /T = 2 f
b

So snh cc gi tr P
b
ca cc tn hiu PSK v FSK.
The error function (also called the Gauss error function) is a special function (non-
elementary) of sigmoid shape which occurs in probability, statistics and partial
differential equations. It is defined as:

The complementary error function, denoted erfc, is defined as:

which also defines erfcx, the scaled complementary error function

(which can be used
instead of erfc to avoid arithmetic underflow
.

Differential PSK (DPSK)
Gii iu ch PSK yu cu phc hi tn hiu d liu my thu da vo sng mang chun c
pha tuyt i bit. iu ny i hi my pht phi gi mt tn hiu my thu tham kho
pha phc hi sng mang.
My thu PSK vi phn (DPSK) khng cn tn hiu sng mang chun. N dng s thay i
ca d liu iu ch sng mang ch khng phi chnh d liu. thc hin vic ny, so
snh d liu hin hnh vi d liu vo trc , nu hai tn hiu ny ging nhau ta c mt
pha ca sng mang v nu chng khc nhau ta c mt pha ngc li. Ni thu v pht phi
tha thun vi nhau v bit tham kho u tin trc khi pht d liu tn hiu c phc
hi ng nh pht i.
Mch iu ch DPSK

Mch gii iu ch DPSK
Tn hiu ra mch tch phn l:

Khi khng c n v suy knh:

vi s
k
v s
k-1
l cc k hiu hin ti v trc .
Li ra b tch phn l dng nu tn hiu vo ging trc , ngc li l m. C ngha l
b gii m lm mt quyt nh da trn s sai khc gia 2 tn hiu. Do d liu thng
tin phi c m ha nh l s khc bit gia cc tn hiu ln cn, l chnh xc nhng
g m b m ha khc bit thc hin.
Nu bt 1 c chn lm chun th quy tc m ha vi sai l:

Ngc li, bin i t d
k
sang a
k
:

Nu d
k
v d
k-1
nh nhau, chng i din cho 1 dy a
k
, ngc li l 0. So snh cc chui
{d
k
} v {a
k
} trong bng. Dy {d
k
} c iu ch vo sng mang vi pha 0 hoc . Li ra
l dy bit ca bn tin.

T l li bit P
b
ca dy li ra b gii m ph thuc vo tc bit P
b,d
ca dy m ha
trong gii iu ch l:

Thay gi tr P
b,d
vo ta c:

P
b
ca DPSK v PSK
iu ch PSK hng M (M-ary PSK)
Trong MPSK, mt symbol c biu din bi (n = log
2
M ) bit d liu. Trong M l
hng ca iu ch.
Tp tn hiu M-ary PSK c nh ngha nh sau:
si(t) = A cos (
c
t+
i
) vi 0 t T , i = 1, 2, , M
trong :
Tn s sng mang c chn l bi ca tc k hiu (symbol rate).
Thng M c chn l s m ca 2 (v d: M = 2
n
, n = log
2
M). Do vy dy s liu
nh phn c chia thnh cc nhm c n bit. Mi nhm c biu din bi 1 k hiu
(symbol) c pha ban u xc nh.
Vit li biu thc s
i
:

trong l cc hm trc giao c s, v:

trong A = A
2
T l nng lng k hiu
Biu chm sao do c 2 chiu. Mi tn hiu s
i
(t) c biu din bi mt im (s
i1
, s
i2
)
trong ta
Ta cc ca tn hiu l vi cc im tn hiu nm trn vng trn bn knh
c tm ti gc ta .
M Grray thng c dng trong biu din tn hiu ca MPSK bi l 2 tn hiu lin k
trong trng hp ny ch khc nhau 1 bit. Khi mt k hiu b li, c nhiu kh nng xy ra
tn hiu ln cn trn chm sao,, do ch mt trong cc bt vo l b li.
Hnh di l chm sao 8-PSK
dng m Gray. Lu rng PSK
(BPSK) v QPSK l MPSK vi M
= 2 v M = 4.
Trn ton trc thi gian, tn hiu MPSK l:

trong :

y,
k
l mt trong M pha c xc nh bi nhm n bit vo v p(t) l xung ch nht n
v trong khong[0,T]. Biu thc ca s(t) chng t rng tn s sng mang l bi ca thi
gian k hiu pha ban u ca tn hiu trong bt k chu k k hiu no l
k
.
V rng tn hiu MPSK l 2 chiu nn vi cc M 4, cc b iu ch c thc hin kiu
trc giao. Vi cc M khc nhau, ch c kt cu ca b phn tch bit l thay i. Mi nhm n
bit li vo iu khin b phn tch cp cho knh I (ng pha) v Q (vung pha) cc tn hiu
v mc cho cc ta ngang v dc ca th chm sao. i vi trng hp QPSK, b
phn tch n gin ch l b bin i ni tip song song.
Mch iu ch MPSK.
Hiu sut bng thng c nh ngha l t s vn tc bit (bps) trn bng thng yu cu (Hz).
Thng thng khi vn tc bit tng th bng thng tng, tuy nhin trong cc cch iu ch khc
nhau t s hai i lng ny c th khc nhau, do ngi ta dng hiu sut bng thng
nh gi cht lng ca h thng (hiu sut cao ng ngha vi tn dng c bng thng).
Nguyn nhn ca vic dng iu ch M hng MPSK l n cho php tng hiu sut bng thng
ca tn hiu ln n ln. V d vi QPSK (n = 2) bng thng knh truyn ch cn bng so vi
PSK.
Hiu sut bng thng:
V d, vi ASK c vn tc bit 2400bps, tn s sng
mang l 1200Hz, bng thng s l 2400 Hz vy :

Vi QPSK 2400bps, iu ch vn tc ca knh I v Q
s l 1200 bps, tn s mang l 600Hz, bng thng cn
thit ch l 1200 Hz vy:
V tp tn hiu MPSK ch c 2 hm c s nn my thu ng b MPSK c th dng 2 b
nhn nh hnh sau:
Mch gii iu ch MPSK.
P
s
ca MPSK (ng lin nt) v ca DMPSK
(ng t nt).
4-PSK (QPSK) l loi mch MPSK thng c dng nht do n khng chu nh hng ca t s
li bit BER khi tng hiu sut s dng bng thng.
V QPSK l trng hp c bit ca MPSK nn:

trong : Nh vy, c 4 pha ban u l:
Trong ta chm sao, c th biu din 4 tn hiu ny bi 4 vector (im):
vi i = 1, 2, 3, 4.

iu ch 4-PSK (QPSK)
- B tch bit (bit splitter) : chuyn dng d liu vo theo hai ng I v Q.
- Nhng bit vo I s iu ch sng mang c pha ban u v nhng bit vo Q s iu ch
sng mang c lm lch pha 90 .
- V cc d liu vo c th l bit 1 hoc 0, nn tn hiu li ra mch nhn I c th l
sin
c
t hoc - sin
c
t v li ra Q c th l cos
c
t hoc -cos
c
t, cc tn hiu ny c
tng hp mch tng cho ra 1 trong 4 tn hiu c bin bng pha ban u
khc nhau.
Mch iu ch QPSK
cos
c
t
-cos
c
t
sin
c
t
-sin
c
t
sin
c
t + cos
c
t -sin
c
t + cos
c
t
-sin
c
t - cos
c
t
sin
c
t - cos
c
t
(10)
(00)
(11)
(01)
Dng sng QPSK
Mch phc hi sng mang cho li sng sin
c
t t tn hiu nhn c, tn hiu ny c cho
thng vo mch nhn knh I v c lm lch pha 90 trc khi vo mch nhn knh Q.
Tn hiu ra cc mch nhn c a vo mch lc thng thp loi b thnh phn tn
s cao. Cc thnh phn DC s c tng hp mch tng cho li dng d liu. Gi s
tn hiu vo l tn hiu nhn c, th d : r(t) ~ (cos
c
t - sin
c
t )
Tn hiu ra mch nhn knh I l:
sin
c
t ( cos
c
t - sin
c
t) = 1/2sin2
c
t - 1/2(1-cos2
c
t)
Tn hiu ra sau mch lc l in th dc m, tng ng bit 0
Tn hiu ra mch nhn knh Q l:
cos
c
t ( cos
c
t - sin
c
t) = -1/2sin2
c
t + 1/2(1+cos2
c
t)
Tn hiu ra sau mch lc l in th dc dng, tng ng bit 1
Mch t hp bit s cho li d liu nh pht : 01 (vit theo th t ab)
Gii iu ch QPSK
Xc sut li bit trung bnh cho mi knh l:

V li ra ca b gii m l li ra dn knh I v Q nn tc li bt bng s bng gi tr
ny trn mi knh. Mi k hiu biu din cho 2 bit trn mi knh nn mt li k hiu
xy ra nu bt k knh ny c li/ Do xc sut li k hiu l:

Vi trng hp m Gray v c SNR ln:

S ph thuc P
b
(E
b
/N
o
) ca
QPSK so vi PSK c ch ra
trn hnh.
Tc truyn thng thng ca
QPSK l 2400 bps v vy
mch iu ch tc ca knh I
v Q l 1200 bps. Tc bin
i ln nht ca tn hiu tng
ng vi chui lin tip cc bit 1
v 0, chui ny c biu din
bi tn hiu hnh vung tn s
600 Hz, tn hiu hnh vung bao
gm tn s c bn v cc ha tn
bc l.
iu ch vi sai QPSK (DEQPSK)
Trong DEQPSK, cc nhm bit thng tin (dbit) c biu din bi cc lch pha
i
, t k
hiu ny ti k hiu khc. C cc php gn pha khc nhau gia v cc nhm bit. Mt
trong cc kh nng nh trong bng:

Quy tc lp m nh sau:

trong : I
k
(0,1) v Q
k
(0,1) l cc bit thng tin tng ng l v chn
u
k
(0,1) v v
k
(0,1) l cc bit knh I v Q c m ha.
Cp (I
K
,Q
k
) v (u
k-1
,v
k-1
) c dng sinh ra cp (u
k
,v
k
) dng iu khin pha tuyt i
ca sng mang.
B iu ch DEQPSK v c bn ging nh trong QPSK c thm b lp m vi sai trn mi
knh cho tn hiu trc khi i vo b nhn vi sng mang.Bng m ha vi sai cho DEQPSK:
Gii m DEQPSK
V c bn nh gii m QPSK nhng phi thm vo b gii m vi sai sau khi c
gii iu ch. Quy tc gii m l:

V d kt qu mt bng gii m DEQPSK:

S b gii m ng b DEQPSK ng b:

Xc sut li bit c tnh xp x:
Offset QPSK (OQPSK) l cch iu ch da trn nguyn tc ca QPSK nhng to s
lch pha ca hai tn hiu trn hai knh I v Q bng cch cho mt tn hiu tr mt bit so
vi tn hiu kia.
Vic lm ny khin cho s chuyn trng thi ca tn hiu knh ny (th d knh I)
lun lun xy ra ngay im gia ca tn hiu ca knh kia (knh Q), nh vy trong
mt cp bit IQ bt k ch c s thay i ca mt bit duy nht v iu ny a n kt
qu l cc tn hiu ng ra tng hp ch lch pha 0 hoc 90 ch khng phi 180
nh QPSK.
im thun li ca OQPSK l gii hn c s lch pha ca tn hiu ra v trnh c
cc xung t bin khi phc hi tn hiu nh phn.
Tn hiu OQPSK c th c biu din nh sau:

V OQPSK ch khc QPSK mt chu k tr nn mt ph cng sut v cc ch tiu v
sai s cng nh ca QPSK.
iu ch OQPSK (Offset QPSK)
c th so snh cc tn hiu cc li ra, xt chui tn hiu vo nh hnh (a) v chui
tn hiu ca 2 knh I v Q trong hai trng hp QPSK hnh (b) v OQPSK hnh (c).
V tn hiu tng hp cc li ra tng ng (a) v (b)
C th hiu cc hnh (a) v (b) nh sau:
- Nu 2 bit trn 2 knh I v Q khc nhau hon ton th cc tn hiu tng t tng ng khc
nhau 180
o

- Nu 2 bit trn 2 knh I v Q ch khc nhau mt bit th cc tn hiu tng t tng ng khc
nhau +90
o
hoc -90
o
.
im bt li ca phng php OQPSK l s thay i pha ca tn hiu ra xy ra trong tng
khong thi gian T (ch khng phi 2T), do vn tc iu ch (baud rate) v bng thng ti
thiu ca knh truyn tng gp i so vi phng php QPSK .
iu ch /4- PSK
/4-PSK l loi m vi phn DQPSK, nhng khc vi DQPSK quy tc m ha vi sai:

trong uk l bin ca u(t) trong k hiu th k, v.v Ik v Qk ly gi tr (-1,1). Nu
ban u u0 = 1 v v0 = 0 th uk v vk c bin l 1,0 v 1/ .
Tn hiu ra b iu ch s l:

y: ph thuc vo d liu c m ha,v :
Mi quan h v pha gia 2 k hiu lin tip bng:
trong l lch pha c xc nh bi
d liu vo.
Thay vo phng trnh trn ta c:

Bng sau cho kt qu xc nh
k
theo d liu vo:

Thy rng:
- cc thay i v pha l bi s l ca /4 (khng c pha 90 cng nh 180)
- Thng tin v s bin i pha
k
ch khng phi pha tuyt i
k
.
- Trong biu chm sao, gc ca mt vector i
vi hng dng ca trc u l pha ca k hiu
k.
- Mt k hiu c biu din bi () ch c th tr
thnh cc k hiu c biu din bi (x) v
ngc li.
B gii m ng b /4-QPSK nh hnh, trong d b gii m vi sai c thc hin trn
cc pha tn hiu vo. B gii m DEQPSK khng thch hp y do nhm bit (dbit) c
gn khc nhau.

Gi s A
k
= 1, tn hiu gii iu ch l hai mc (1/ ) tt c thi gian ly mu. Gia
cc khong l 3 mc (0, 1). Trn biu , cc tn hiu () ng vi 2 mc v (x) ng
vi 3 mc. Khi tn hiu l 2 mc, chuyn mch v tr A v vic tch sng ging nh
QPSK. Khi tn hiu l 3 mc, chuyn mch v tr B, tn hiu c bin i thnh 2 mc
theo cng thc:
D thy kt qu bin i l s quay vector (x1k, y1k)
i +/4 v khuch i bin ln Ni cch khc
quay vector (x) ti vector () bn cnh v nhn bin
ln , tc l tng cng sut tn hiu ln gp i.
Tuy vy, cng sut n cng tng gp di do n trn 2
knh l khng tng quan nhau. Do BER cng vn
nh trong gii m ng b QPSK.
Tn hiu v c gii m bi mt b gii m DEQPSK, sau c a qua b
bin i song song ni tip . Xung nhp nhn c t nhp k hiu chia hai. Pha ca
nhp ng h ny c ng b vi chuyn mch chn tn hiu ly mu.

Trong iu ch QAM c bin v pha ca sng mang u thay i
Mch iu ch QAM 8 pha
Trong mch iu ch ny a,b xc nh cc tnh ca tn hiu ra mch bin i, ring bit c
uc a thng vo hai mch bin i m khng qua mch o nh PSK 8 pha, nu c =1
c hai li ra c bin cao v nu c = 0 c hai li ra c bin thp. Nh vy, vi QAM 8
pha, cc tn hiu cc li ra ca mch bin i lun c cng bin , gin v tr cc
im c trng cc tribit cho hnh sau.
iu ch QAM (iu ch bin trc giao - Quadrature Amplitude Modulation)
Cc tn hiu ra ca QAM 8 pha c 2 bin v 4 pha khc nhau.
So snh cc cch iu ch QAM v PSK ngi ta thy QAM tt hn v mt t s
tn hiu nhiu. Th d vi h thng QAM 16 pha xc sut li l 10
-8
trong lc PSK
16 pha xc sut ny l 10
-4
. Do trong cc h thng truyn vi vn tc cao ngi
ta thng dng cch iu ch QAM hn.
Mch iu ch QAM 16 pha
Trong s , mch chia bit chia t hp 4 bit theo hai knh vo hai mch bin i 2 ra 4
mc, cc bit a,b xc nh cc tnh tn hiu ra v cc bit c,d xc nh bin
a,b = 0, tn hiu ra m c,d = 0 bin = 0,22 V
a,b = 1 tn hiu ra dng c,d = 1 bin = 0,821 V
Mi li ra ca mch bin i c th c 1 trong 4 tn hiu 0,22 hoc 0,821. Mch LPF
loi b cc ha tn cao. Cc tn hiu sau vo mch iu ch cn bng nh trong cc
phn trc v li ra ta c 1 trong 16 tn hiu, cc tn hiu ny nhn 3 gi tr bin v
12 gc pha khc nhau, khong cch cc gc pha l 30 .
Vi cch iu ch QAM 16 pha, mi 4 bit tng ng mt tn hiu ra nn vn tc bit bng 4
ln vn tc baud. Nu chn vn tc baud l 2400 baud/s tha bng thng ca knh thoi th
vn tc bit l 9600 bps v hiu sut bng thng l 4 bps/Hz. Trong trng hp ny bng thng
tn hiu trong khong t 500 Hz (1700 Hz - 1200 Hz) n 2900 Hz (1700 Hz + 1200 Hz)
Trong gin trn gc A xc nh bi:
Th d vi t hp cc bit li vo nh trong hnh l
1001, ta c cc kt qu sau:
Li ra knh I : +0,22 V
Li ra knh Q : -0,821 V
Li ra mch iu ch knh I : +0,22 cos
c
t
Li ra mch iu ch knh Q : -0,821sin
c
t
Li ra mch lc di thng : 0,22 cos
c
t -0,821sin
c
t
Tn hiu ra tng ng c xc nh trn gin bi
du X.
Phc hi sng mang
Vi k thut iu ch FSK vic phc hi sng mang khng cn thit.
Tuy nhin, iu ch PSK hay QAM tng t vi k thut iu ch trit sng mang, do
cn thit phi c mch phc hi sng mang my thu. Hn na, sng mang c phc hi
phi c tn s v pha ging nh my pht mch gii iu ch my thu hot ng hu
hiu.
S khi mt mch phc hi sng mang cho trng hp iu ch BPSK cho nh hnh.

Tn hiu nhn c my thu l +cos
c
t hoc -cos
c
t, sau khi qua mch lc di thng (
hn ch di tn) s qua mch bnh phng cho li ra cos
2
c
t. Dng bin i lng gc
ta c:
cos
2
c
t =(1/2)(1+cos2
c
t)
Tn hiu ny li qua mch lc loi b thnh phn mt chiu, cn li tn hiu tn s 2
c
,
tn hiu ny li qua mch chia tn c sng mang. Vng kha pha trong mch c tc
dng gi pha ca tn hiu ra khng b lch so vi tn hiu vo.
i vi cc tn hiu iu ch PSK bc cao hn (4-PSK, 8-PSK, 16-QAM . . .) th mch
gii iu ch s nng tn hiu vo ln theo cc ly tha bc cao hn. D nhin mch s phc
tp hn.
BIN IU XUNG
Pulse Modulation Techniques
Part 5
i mt sng cha tin analog thnh tn hiu ri rc, trc thi gian phi c ri rc
ho. S i trc thi gian lin tc thnh mt trc ri rc c thc hin nh phng
php ly mu.
nh l ly mu ( nh l Shannon) chng t rng: Nu bin i F ca mt hm thi
gian l zero vi |f| > f
m

v nhng tr gi ca hm thi gian c bit vi t = n T
S

(vi
mi tr nguyn ca n ) th hm thi gian c bit mt cch chnh xc cho mi tr ca t.
iu kin hn ch l T
S

< 1/2f
m
.
Ni cch khc, s(t) c th c xc nh t nhng tr gi ca n ti mt lot nhng thi
im cch u nhau.
Tn s ly mu, k hiu l f
S

= 1/T
S

, f
S
> 2f
m
Nh vy, tn s ly mu t nht phi 2 ln cao hn tn s ca tn hiu c ly mu.
Nhp ly mu ti thiu, 2 f
m
, c gi l nhp ly mu Nyquist. Th d, nu mt
ting ni c tn s max 4 kHz, n phi c ly mu t nht 8.000 ln/sec. Ta thy rng
khong cch gia nhng thi im ly mu th t l nghch vi tn s cao nht ca tn
hiu ( f
m

).
Ly mu tn hiu
Gii thiu v iu ch xung
nh l ly mu gi ra mt k thut i mt tn hiu analog s(t) thnh mt tn
hiu ri rc. Ta ch cn ly mu tn hiu lin tc ti nhng thi im ri rc, th d
mt danh sch cc s c ly mu s(0), s(T), s(2T)... Trong T< 1/2f
m
.
truyn tn hiu ri rc mu ho , danh sch cc s s c c trn mt
telephone hoc c vit trn mt mnh giy gi FAX.
C th iu ch vi thng s ca mt sng mang ty vo danh sch cc s. Tn
hiu c iu ch sau c truyn trn dy hoc trong khng gian (nu bng
tn n chim cho php ).
V thng tin c dng ri rc, nn ch cn dng tn hiu mang sng ri rc (thay v
dng sng sin lin tc nh trc).
Nu chn mt chui xung tun hon lm sng mang. Cc thng s c th lm thay
i l bin , b rng v v tr ca mi xung. S lm thay i mt trong ba thng
s y s a n 3 kiu iu ch::
- PAM ( Pulse Amlitude Modulation): iu ch bin xung .
- PWM ( Pulse Width Modulation): iu ch rng xung.
- PPM ( Pulse Position Mod: iu ch v tr xung.
Hnh di v mt sng mang s
c
(t) mt tn hiu cha tin s(t) v tn hiu PAM s
m
(t).
ta thy ch c bin ca xung sng mang b thay i, cn dng xung vn gi
khng i.
Nh l s
m
(t) khng phi l tch ca s(t) vi s
C
(t).
Ta gi s
m
(t) trong trng hp ny l PAM nh phng ( flat top PAM ) hoc PAM ly
mu tc thi (Instantanous Sampling PAM )
iu ch bin xung PAM
Nu ly tch ca s
C
(t) v s(t), ta c kt qu l sng PAM v nh hnh di. , chiu
cao cc xung khng phi l hng m thay i theo ng cong ca s(t). Trng hp
ny, ta gi l PAM ly mu t nhin (Natural Sampling ).

By gi ta ly bin i Fourier ca PAM xc nh knh sng cn thit. Trc ht
l xem trng hp ca PAM ly mu t nhin. Da vo nh l ly mu. Khai trin
s
C
(t) thnh chui F. Ri nhn vi s(t). Kt qu thu c l 1 tng gm nhiu sng
AM vi cc tn s sng mang l tn s cn bn v cc ho tn s
C
(t).
Bin i F ca PAM ly mu t nhin
Ph tn s ca PAM

Xc nh bin i F ca PAM nh phng th kh hn. n gin ta xem h thng ly
mu s (t) bng mt chui xung lc l tng. Ri nh dng mi xung lc thnh dng
xung nh mun, trong trng hp ny l mt xung vung nh phng.
Bin i F ca tn hiu ly mu li vo ca b lc c tm t nh l ly mu.
Chui F ca chui xung lc c nhng tr C
n
bng nhau vi mi n.
Bin i F ca sng c ly mu xung lc v hnh di
Hm truyn mch lc nh hnh sau:
Bin i F ca output ca mch lc l tch ca bin i trn y vi hm truyn ca mch
lc. Nh rng phn tn s thp ca n khng phi l mt phin bn b mo ca S(f).
Bin i F ca PAM nh phng
Th d 1: Mt tn hiu cha tin c dng: s(t) = sint/t
c truyn bng cch dng PAM. Sng mang l chui xung tam gic tun hon nh
hnh di. Tm bin i F ca sng bin iu.
Li ra ca mch ly mu bng xung lc l tng c bin i F.
Trong S(f) l bin i F ca sint/t. Bin i ny l mt xung nh hnh v.
Mch lc phi thay i mi xung lc thnh mt xung tam gic. p ng xung lc ca
chng l mt xung tam gic m bin i ca n l:
Cui cng, bin i F ca sng PAM c cho bi tch ca S
(f).H(f)
Sng PAM chim tt c nhng tn s t zero n v hn. Nh vy, n b xem l
khng th truyn c hiu qu trong khng kh cng nh Multiplexing.
V phn c ngha nht ca bin i F ca sng PAM nm xung quanh tn s zero,
ta thng dng AM hoc FM gi sng PAM. l, ta xem sng PAM nh l tn
hiu cha tin v n bin iu mt sng mang hnh sin. Nhng ti sao ta phi thc
hin mt bin iu kp, m khng truyn tn hiu gc bng AM hoc FM ? Hy nh
l tn hiu gc khng c dng analog lin tc m l tn hiu ri rc.
Sau khi bin iu AM hoc FM vi sng PAM, kh bng tr nn rt rng. V l do
ny bin iu xung c kt hp vi AM hoc FM thng khng c truyn theo
cng cch thc nh tn hiu bin iu khc. N thng truyn trn cp ng trc,
vn c kh nng truyn mt khong rng ca tn s. i khi n cng c truyn
qua khng kh ti tn s microwave. Tn s ny cao kh bng rng khng b
xem nh l s qu cng sut ( over powering ) i vi sng mang.
Nhn xt
Mch iu ch PAM
Nhng mch cng dng bin iu AM u c th dng iu ch PAM ly mu
t nhin. Ch cn loi b lc dy thng t khi iu ch (hnh a). Hnh b ch khi iu
ch dng cu diode.

Khi iu ch cho PAM phng nh th n gin hn cho PAM ly mu t nhin. Ta
ch cn dng mt mch ly mu v gi ( Sample and Hold ). Mch ny c l tng
ho nh hnh sau.

S
1

ng tun hon ti nhng thi im ly mu. T C np in n tr mu mi khi S
1
ng v ri

ngt. V t khng c ng phng in, nn s gi tr gi mu v to nn
ng phng ca nh sng PAM. Khi S
2

ng, t s phng in n zero.
Cn tnh trc t v mch in t sao cho thi gian np tht nhanh v ta cng chn
mch c tng tr ra tht nh hng s thi gian phng in ngn.
Mach gii iu ch PAM
Tch sng PAM ly mu t nhin da trc tip vo nh l ly mu. S hi phc tn
hiu analog gc t phin bn mu ho ca n cn mt LPF.
Tch sng PAM nh phng cn thm mt s vic. Dng mch S/H phc hi mt
dng sng hnh bc thang xp x vi dng sng tn hiu gc. t thi gian gi bng
chu k ly mu. Kt qu v hnh di. Hm bc thang c th c lc bi mt LPF
dng sng c trn phng, gn ging vi dng sng gc.
Do c c bin i F ca sng PAM nh phng bng cch nhn bin i F ca tn hiu
mu ho cho H(f) (l hm truyn ca mch lc). Phn bng gc ca bin i F c dng
S(f)H(f). Vy s(t) c th c hi phc t s
m
(t) bng cch dng mt mch lc LPF m
hm truyn ca n th v hnh di. Mch lc vi hm truyn 1/H(f) c xem nh l
mt mch cn bng v n trit nhng hiu qu ca s to dng xung.
Tch sng kiu ly mu v gi mu cn mt thng tin v thi gian ng b vi i
pht. l, my thu phi ly mu sng nhn c ti nhng thi im ly mu lc u.
Thng tin v thi gian c th ly sng thu c. Hoc n cng c th c gi theo
(analog) di dng nhng xung nh du (Marker Pulse).
Nu sng thu c c thi gian tng, cc sn tng c th c d bng mt mch vi
phn. Xung rng kt qu c th c dng thc hin thi im ly mu.
Ngc li, xung nh du tun hon c th c chen vo tn hiu truyn. Cc xung nh
du c bin ln hn xung tn hiu, nn chng c th c nhn dng d dng ti my
thu.

Nh trng hp ca PAM, cng c sng mang l mt chui xung tun hon. Hnh di ch
mt sng mang cha bin iu, mt tn hiu cha tin s(t) v sng bin iu PWM. rng
ca mi xung bin iu thay i tu theo tr mu tc thi ca s(t). Tr mu ln hn s lm
rng xung bin iu rng hn. V rng xung thay i, nn nng lng ca sng cng thay
i. Vy khi bin tn hiu tng, cng sut truyn cng tng.
iu ch rng xung PWM (Pluse Width Modulation)
Cng nh trong trng hp FM, PWM l mt php iu ch phi tuyn. Xem mt th d
n gin minh chng iu . Gi s tn hiu cha tin l mt hng, s(t) = 1. Sng
PWM s gn nhng xung c rng bng nhau, v mi tr mu th bng vi mi tr mu
khc. By gi nu ta truyn s(t) = 2 theo PWM, th ta li c mt chui xung c rng
bng nhau, nhng rng ca chng ln hn khi truyn s(t) = 1. Nguyn l tuyn tnh s
cho kt qu l rng xung ca trng hp sau gp i trng hp trc. Nhng y
khng phi nh vy, nh hnh di. Nu ta gi s tn hiu s(t) bin i chm ( ly mu
vi nhp nhanh hn so vi nhp Nyquist ) th cc xung ln cn s c rng hu nh bng
nhau. Vi gi thit ny, c th phn gii xp x cho sng bin iu, theo chui Fourier.
Mi s hng ca chui l mt sng FM, thay v l mt sng sin thun tu.
Ta s trnh by mt dng ca khi bin iu v mt dng ca khi hon iu cho PWM.
Trong c hai, ta u dng sng rng ca chuyn i gia thi gian v bin . iu ny
tng t nh cch thc cho FM, ta thy rng cch d nht bin iu mt tn hiu l
trc tin i n thnh AM. Tn hiu rng ca c dng v hnh.
Mch iu ch PWM
Gii iu ch PWM c thc hin bng cch tch phn sng PWM trong mi khong
thi gian. V chiu cao ca xung th khng i, tch phn t l vi rng xung. Nu
output ca tch phn c ly mu v gi ti tr gi cui ca n, kt qu s l mt sng
PAM.
Trc tin tn hiu s(t) c ly mu v
gi c s
1
(t).
Tn hiu rng ca b di xung 1 n v
to nn s
2
(t). Tng ca s
1
(t) v s
2
(t) to
nn s
3
(t) v vo mch so snh. Nhng
khong thi gian m s
3
(t) dng l
nhng khong m rng t l
vi tr gi mu gc. Output ca mch
so snh l 1 khi s
3
(t) dng v l 0 khi
s
3
(t) m. Kt qu l s
4
(t), l mt sng
PWM. rng xung c th c hiu
chnh bng cch tng gim s(t). Trong
hnh v, ta gi s rng bnh thng s(t)
nm gia 0 v 1.
S hon iu c thc hin bng cch
tch phn sng PWM trong mi khong
thi gian. V chiu cao ca xung th
khng i, tch phn t l vi rng
xung. Nu output ca tch phn c
ly mu v gi ti tr gi cui ca n,
kt qu s l mt sng PAM.
PPM c li hn PWM v mt trit nhiu v cng khng c vn cng sut thay i
theo bin tn hiu.
Mt tn hiu cha tin s(t) v sng PPM tng ng v hnh.
iu ch v tr xung PPM (Pulse Position Modulation)
Nu tr gi mu ln hn s c
xung tng ng di xa hn (so
vi v tr khng bin iu ca
n).
Mt sng PPM c th c
suy t mt sng PWM. S lin
h gia chng l, trong khi v
tr ca xung thay i trong
PPM th sn ca xung thay
i trong PWM. Gi s ta d
mi sn iu khin ca
PWM, (ly o hm v xem
nhng xung m).
By gi nu ta t mt xung c
rng khng i ti mi
im ny, kt qu l sng
PPM. c v ra nh hnh.
R rng, c PWM v PPM u rt phc tp so vi PAM. Chng phc tp hn v cn
c nhng tnh cht khc. Trong cc h phn knh theo thi gian TDM, ta phi bo
m rng cc xung mu ln cn khng c ph nhau. Nu cc xung di t do hoc
rng hn (nh trong PPM v PWM), ta khng th chen vo mt cch n gin cc
xung khc trong khng gian m tin chc rng khng c s tc ng qua li s xy ra.
Khong cch cn thit phi c gi c th truyn cc tr mu ln nht. iu
ny lm gim s knh khi Multiplex.
Truyn thng m ha s (coded and decoded communication)
C 3 l do chnh cn phi m ho s thng tin :
1. Knh truyn ( thng l khng kh ) b nhim bi qu nhiu tn hiu in, khin cho s
thng tin khng c nhiu tr nn rt kh khn. Tn hiu lun b lm sai lc do nhiu v
cc dng giao thoa khc. Nhng k thut sa sai s mo do nhiu thng khng hiu
qu nhiu. Vy khi thu c mt tn hiu b lm thay i bi nhiu v cc tn hiu khc,
phi c nhng bin php tch nhiu ra khi tn hiu. iu ny cn n vic tn hiu phi
c nhng dng c trng phn bit. Nhng hu ht tn hiu Analog khng c dng
nh th.
2. Do s thay i cc tn hiu thng tin ngy nay khng ch l tn hiu audio (c tn s b
gii hn trong di tn nhy cm ca tai ngi), l nhng thng tin d liu khc bit
xa vi sng audio. Nn nhng yu cu t ra cho 1 h thng vin thng hin nay th
phc tp hn rt nhiu so vi h vin thng truyn tn hiu ting ni.
3. Mc d vic xy dng mt mch Analog th d hn so vi mt mch digital, nhng so
vi tin b ca ngnh in t bn dn v cng ngh IC lm o ngc li. L do th
ba, khng ch v cc mch digital th ng tin cy hn m trong nhiu trng hp rt r
hn. Vic ch to d dng cc IC digital cho cc mch phc tp m ra nhng kh
nng bao qut hn.
Bc th nht chuyn i mt tn hiu analog lin tc thnh dng digital l i tn hiu
thnh mt danh mc cc s. ( iu ny c thc hin bng cch ly mu hm thi gian).
Danh mc cc s kt qu biu din cho nhng tr lin tc. l mc d mt mu no c
th trng ra nh l mt s lm trn, nhng thc t n s c tip tc nh mt s thp phn
v hn.
Danh mc cc s analog sau phi c m ho thnh cc Code Words ri rc. Bin php
trc nht hon tt vic l lm trn mi s trong danh mc. Th d, nu cc mu nm
trong khong t 0 n 10V, mi mu s c lm trn n s nguyn gn nht. Vy cc t m
( code words ) s rt ra t 11 s nguyn ( t 0 n 10 ).
S chuyn i A/ D c xem nh l s lng t ho ( quantizing ). Trong s lng t ho
u n, cc tr lin tc ca hm thi gian c chia thnh nhng vng u n, v mt m s
nguyn c kt hp cho mi vng. Nh vy, tt c cc tr ca hm trong mt vng no
u c m ho thnh mt s nh phn ging nhau.
Lng t ha tn hiu Bin i ADC
Lng t ho 3 bit theo hai cch khc nhau.
Hnh a, ch khong cc tr ca hm c chia lm 8 vng cnh nhau. Mi vng kt hp vi mt
s nh phn 3 bit. Chn 8 vng v 8 l lu tha ca 2 ( = 2
3
). Tt c t hp 3 bit u c dng,
lm hiu qu ln hn.
Hnh b ch s lng t ho bng cch dng s lin h ca input v output. Trong khi input th
lin tc, output ch ly nhng tr ri rc. B rng ca mi bc khng i. V s lng t ho th
u n.
Th d v A/D
Cc mch bin i A/D

1. Lng t ho m, m ln lt ng vi s nhn c thng qua mi mc lng
t.
2. Lng t ho ni tip, to ra mt t m, tng bit mt. l, chng bt u vi bit
c trng s ln nht ( MSB ) v lm vic n bit c trng s nh nht ( LSB ).
3. Lng t ho song song, to ra cng lc tt c cc bit ca mt t m hon chnh.
ADC m bc thang:
ADC ni tip (xp x tim cn)
Hnh di ch s khi ca lng t ho ni tip 3 bit, cc input nm trong khong t 0 n 1.
Cc hp hnh thoi l cc b so snh. Chng ta so snh input vi mt tr c nh v cho mt output
nu input vt qu mt tr c nh v mt output khc nu ngc li. S khi ch hai
ng output c th, c t tn l YES v NO.
Nu khong ca input ca cc tr mu khng l 0 n 1V, tn hiu s c chun ha ( c di
ri khuch i hoc gim ) c nhng tr nm trong khong . Nu cn s bit nhiu hn (
hoc t hn ) cc khi so snh c thm vo ( hay bt ra ). S khi so snh bng s bit m ho.

b
2
l bit th nht ca tr mu c m ho. Bit c trng s ln nht (MSB)
b
0
l bit th ba, cng l bit cui, bit c trng s nh nht (LSB).
Th d: Gii thch hot ng ca hnh ng vi 2 tr mu ca input: 0.2 v 0.8 V.

Gii:
Vi 0,2 V. S so snh th nht vi 1/4 c p s l No. Vy b2 = 0 so snh th 2 vi
1/4 cng c li p l No.Vy b
1
= 0. So snh th ba, Yes.Vy b
0
= 1. Do , m nh
phn cho 0,2V l 001.
Vi 0,8V. So snh th nht vi 1/2, Yes b2= 1 ta tr vi 1/2 , c 0,3. So snh th
hai vi 1/4 , Yes b1 = 1 v ta tr vi 1/4 c 0,05. So snh th ba vi 1/8 , No
b0 = 0. Vy m cho 0,8V l 110.

C th thc hin c h thng n gin ha nh hnh di:
li ra ca khi 1/2, t mt khi X2 ri hi tip kt qu v khi so snh th nht. Tn
hiu mu c th qua s nhiu ln t c s bit ca chiu di ca t m ha.
111
110
101
100
011
010
001
000
111

101

011

001
110

010
100
FS
FS/2
0
CLK B nh
XXTC
Vin
DAC
C
M s li ra
Tn hiu
iu khin
Stop
ADC song song
Th d, mch chuyn i A/D song song 3 bit, v mi bc ca tin trnh l 1V.
Cu chia in th lp ra cc mc in th tham kho cho mi mch so snh. Ta thy c 7
mc m cc tr gi l 1, 2, 3, 4, 5,6,7 Volt. in th tng t vo c a vo mi li vo
ca cc mch so snh.
Mch ADC song song khng cn xung ng h, v n khng c mch m ng b
hoc nhng thao tc tin trnh tun t. Tin trnh i gn nh tc thi, ngay khi t
th vo. Thi gian chuyn i tu thuc duy nht s tr ca cc mch so snh v mch
m ho.
Bin i s-tng t DAC Digital to Analog Converter D/A
B bin i D/A c nhim v bin i mt m s li vo thnh tn hiu tng t tng ng
li ra. M s thng l m nh phn.
c tuyn chuyn i
Th d vi mt b chuyn i D/A :
- S bit : n = 3
- Gi tr ln analog cc i (gi
tr th tng ng ton thang FS), th
d: 8 V.
- Nh vy, i lng li ra tng t
khng lin tc m ch nhn 1 trong 8
gi tr tng ng vi mt t hp m
nh phn li vo t 000 n 111.
Vy gi tr li ra s t 0 FS n 7/8
FS.
- ln mi n v (nc0 in p ra
tng ng vi s bin thin (dch) i
1 bit (gi l 1 LSB), s l bng
Do :
n
FS
2
chnh xc ca mt DAC n bit s l
n
2
1
D/A kiu R-2
n
R.
D/A kiu R-2R.
V N l t o, c th d dng tnh c cc in tr tng ng v pha bn phi cc
im A, B v C u bng R d cc cng tc l 1 hay 0.
0
0 0
2
1
2R
V
B I
ref
=
1
1 1
2
1
2R
V
B I
ref
=
2
2 2
2
1
2R
V
B I
ref
=
Do vy dng li ra:
+ + =
2
2
1
1
0
0
2 2 2 2
B B B
R
V
I
ref
Biu thc chng t dng li ra b bin i D/A t l vi m nh phn li vo
Cc cng tc in t S3, S2, S1, S0 chu s iu khin ca cc tn hiu d3, d2, d1 v
d0 tng ng: khi d
i
=1 th S
i
ni vi V
ref
, khi d
i
= 0 th S
i
ni xung t.
R
PCM l mt p dng trc tip chuyn i A/D.
Gi s bin ca mi xung trong mt h PAM th c lm trn n mt mc c
th. Gi s, trc ht tn hiu bng gc analog c lm trn cho dng sng hnh bc
thang nh hnh di. K , ly mu hm bc thang v truyn cc mu theo cch
bin iu bin xung ( PAM ). S lm trn c hiu nh l s lng t ho, v n
s gy ra mt error ( nhiu lng t ho ). l, s xp x bc thang th khng
ging ht hm gc v s sai bit gia chng l mt error.
Bng t vng cc cao ca xung PAM c thu gn ch bao gm cc mc lng
t ring bit. Mt xung thu nhn c s so snh vi cc xung c th c truyn v
n c gii m thnh t vng ging nht vi tn hiu thu c. Vi cch ny, nhng
error nh c sa sai.
Tin trnh lng t ho
iu ch m xung PCM (Pulse Coded Modulation)
PCM l mt p dng trc tip chuyn i A/D.
Gi s bin ca mi xung trong mt h PAM th c lm trn n mt mc c
th. Gi s, trc ht tn hiu bng gc analog c lm trn cho dng sng hnh bc
thang nh hnh di. K , ly mu hm bc thang v truyn cc mu theo cch
bin iu bin xung ( PAM ). S lm trn c hiu nh l s lng t ho, v n
s gy ra mt error ( nhiu lng t ho ). l, s xp x bc thang th khng
ging ht hm gc v s sai bit gia chng l mt error.
Bng t vng cc cao ca xung PAM c thu gn ch bao gm cc mc lng
t ring bit. Mt xung thu nhn c s so snh vi cc xung c th c truyn v
n c gii m thnh t vng ging nht vi tn hiu thu c. Vi cch ny, nhng
error nh c sa sai.
Tin trnh lng t ho
iu ch PCM
Trong mt h thng PCM, t vng ca cc tn hiu truyn ch cha hai s 0 v 1. Cc mc
lng t ho c m ho thnh cc s nh phn. Vy, nu c 8 mc lng t ho, th nhng
tr c m ho thnh cc s nh phn 3 bit. Ba xung s c cn gi mi tr lng t. Mi
xung biu din hoc 0 hoc 1. iu ging nh khi nim ca ADC. Hnh di biu din
s(t) v dng sng ca PCM 2 bit v 3 bit.
Lng t ha khng u (Nonuniform Quantization )
Hnh a, v s lng t ho u n. Khong ca cc tr mu c chia thnh nhng
vng lng t m mi vng c cng c vi cc vng khc. Th d, vi s lng t
ho 3 bit ta chia ton th cc tr mu thnh 8 vng bng nhau.
Trong mt vi trng hp, ta li c th dng s lng t ho khng u n. Cc
khong lng t ho th khng hon ton cng c vi nhau nh hnh b. Hm lng
t ho hnh b c tnh cht l cc khong cch gia cc mc lng t th khng u.
V nhng mc output th khng phi l im gia ca mi khong
Lng t ha u
Lng t ha phi tuyn:
Mc lng t khng u
Gim mo tn hiu
Companding
Nn v gii nn (Companding)
p ng ca tai ngi th khng tuyn tnh. V vy, ta c th dng cch lng t ho
khng u: Cc bc lng t ho nh nhng mc thp v cc bc lng t ho
ln hn nhng mc cao hn.
Dng ph bin nht ca lng t ha khng u l " companding " thut ng ny ly t
cc thut ng " compressing & expanding " ( nn & gii nn).
Vic x l nh hnh di, tn hiu gc c nn bng cc dng 1 linh kin phi tuyn
khng nh. Sau , tn hiu b nn c lng t ho u n. Sau khi c truyn i,
tn hiu c gii m v phi c bung li bng cch dng mt hm phi tuyn ngc
li vi hm dng khi nn.

Trc ht, ta phn gii tin trnh nn. Trc khi lng t ha, tn hiu b lm bin dng
bi 1 hm tng t nh thy hnh. N nn nhng tr ln ca input trong lc n lm tng
nhng tr nh hn. Nu mt tn hiu analog a vo mch nn, ri output c lng t
ha u n, th kt qu s tng ng vi s lng t ha vi cc bc bt u nh v
dn ln hn i vi cc mc tn hiu cao hn. Ta chia output ca mch nn lm 8 vng
bng nhau. Hm c dng chuyn i cc gii hn ca nhng vng ny thnh honh
( biu din tn hiu vo khng b nn ). Nh l cc vng trn trc 1 bt u nh v ln
hn khi nhng tr ca s gia tng.
Phng thc nn
p dng tiu biu nht ca Companding l truyn ting ni. Bc M v Nht s dng mt
ng cong chun, gi l " Compading " theo lut . Chu u c kiu khc hn, gi l
A- law Compading.

Cng thc nn .law :

Thng s nh ngha l cong ca hm. Tr thng dng nht: = 255.

Nn theo lut . (. Law
Compeding ).
Thut ton nn lut
Thut ton lut A
L mt thut ton nn-gin tn hiu tiu chun c s dng trong cc h thng vin thng s
ca Chu u nhm nhm ti u ha h thng, v d nh gim di ng ca mt tn hiu tng
t lng t ha v m ha nh phn tn hiu ri truyn i. Thut ton ny tng t nh thut
ton lut c s dng Bc M v Nht Bn.
Gi s cho tn hiu u vo x, phng trnh biu din lut A c dng nh sau:

Vi A l tham s nn. Ti Chu u, gi tr ca A c chn l A = 87.7; nhng gi tr A = 87.6;
cng c s dng.
Lut A khai trin theo hm ngc c dng:

Cch m ha theo lut A lm gim rng di ng ca tn hiu, do tng hiu qu m ha v
kt qu l t l tn hiu trn mo cao hn so vi t l tn hiu trn mo c c bng m ha tuyn
tnh vi mt s lng bit nht nh.
So snh lut A vi lut
Thut ton lut to ra mt di ng ln hn mt t so vi lut A gi tr t l mo cao
hn i vi cc tn hiu nh. Theo quy c, lut A c s dng cho mt kt ni quc t
nu t nht mt quc gia s dng n.
Trong k thut bin iu m ho ngun tin bng phng php PCM, mi tr mu
c m ho bng mt s nh phn. M nh phn ny c kh nng biu din cc tr
mu o c trong ton th phm vi ng ny. V d nh nu ta bt u vi mt tn
hiu nm trong khong t 5 n +5 V, m phi c kh nng ch nh c cc tr
mu trong khong 10 V. Kt qu nhiu lng t ph thuc vo khong ng ny.
Nu ta c th bng cch no thu nh khong ng cp trn, tn hiu nhiu
c th c ci thin (v d nh sai s lm trn c gim xung). Cc dng ngun
tn hiu m ho thay i lun phin hot ng da trn nguyn l ny.
iu ch Delta
iu ch delta l mt k thut n gin thu nh khong ng cc s c m ho.
Thay v truyn mi tr mu c lp, ta s truyn hiu s gia mt mu v mu trc
. Nu vic ly mu vi nhp Nyquist, hiu s ny c mt khong ng rng gp
i cc mu nguyn thu. Bi v vi nhp Nyquist, mi mu s c lp vi mu trc
. Hai mu k nhau c th nm bin nh nht v ln nht. Tuy nhin, nu ta
ly mu tc cao hn nhp Nyquyst, cc mu ny c lin quan vi nhau v
khong ng ca s khc nhau gia hai mu, nh hn so vichnh bn thn ca mu
. Nu kt qu ly mu mt tc nhanh hn (nhng thu nh khong ng), ta c
th truyn thng tin bng cch dng mt vi bt nh phn (ging nh lng t ho
nhiu).
Bin iu Delta lng t ho hiu s ny bng cch ch s dng mt bit. V d nh
bt 1 s c gi nu hiu s l dng v bt 0 c gi nu hiu s l m. S khc
nhau gia hai mu c m hoch bng mt trong hai mc. Ta gi hai kh nng
l + hoc - . Ti mi thi im ly mu, dng sng c lng t ho ch c th
hoc l tng hoc l gim bng s .
Hnh trn trnh by mt dng sng analog in hnh v kt qu lng t ho ca n.
V dng sng c lng t ho, ch c th hoc l tng hoc l gim bi ti mi
im ly mu nn ta ly gn ng cc tr bc thang cho dng sng analog.
Nu bc thang di tr mu analog, ta s tng chiu dng (v c gi l mt
bc ln). Nu nc thang trn tr mu, ta s tng theo chiu m (c gi l mt
bc xung). Cc bit c truyn trong v d trn hnh l:
1 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0
H thng thu s ti to li bc thang gn ng trc tip t thng tin nh phn nhn c.
Nu nhn c gi tr1, khi hon iu s tng ln mt bc theo chiu dng. Cn nu
nhn c gi tr 0, s gim mt bc tng ng (tng theo chiu m).
S din gii trn dn n mt b lng t ho n gin s dng b so snh
(comparator) v khi pht hm bc thang (staircase generator). B bin i A/D c
trnh by nh hnh di.
im quan trng dng bin iu delta c hiu qu l s chn la thng minh hai
thng s: c bc (size step) v tc ly mu. Nhng thng s ny phi c chn sao
cho tn hiu bc thang gn vi dng sng analog thc t. Bi v tn hiu c mt tn s
trn xc nh, nn ta bit c tc nhanh nht khi n thay i. Tuy nhin, tnh ton
tc nhanh nht c th ca tn hiu, tn s ly mu v/hoc c bc phi tng. Vic
tng tn s ly mu dn n kt qu trong dng sng bin iu delta phi kh bng rng
hn. Tng c bc s lm tng sai s lng t ho.
iu ch Delta thch nghi
iu ch delta thch nghi l mt phng php cho php iu chnh c bc tu vo cc
c im ca tn hiu tng t. Tiu ch ca n l, h thng thu c kh nng thch nghi
vi cc c bc mt cch chnh xc ging nh h thng pht. Nu khng, thit b thu
khng hi phc tn hiu c pht gc lng t ho (hmbc thang). V s truyn mt
chui bit nh phn lin tip, c bc phi c tt t chui bit ny (ngoi tr trng hp
ta gi mt tn hiu iu khin ring bit).
Nu trong chiu di chui bit cha s lng cn bng gia cc bit 1 v cc bit 0, ta c
th gi s rng bc thang dao ng xung quanh mt tn hiu analog thay i chm. Trong
nhng trng hp nh th, ta nn gim c bc. Ngc li, nu cc bit 1 hoc 0 vt
qu trong chui bit, c ngha l bc thang ang c gng ui bt hm. Trong nhng
trng hp nh vy, ta nn tng c bc ln.
Trong thc t, kim sot c bc c thc hin bi b tch hp s (digital intergrator).
B tch hp ny s tnh tng s bit qua mt s chu k nht nh. Nu tng b lch khi s
cn bng cc bit 0 v 1, c bc s c tng ln. Thc cht tng cc bit s c i
sang mt gi tr in th tng ng ri chuyn sang b khuch i c li thay i.
li c gi tr nh nht khi in th vo tng ng vi s cn bng ca bit 1 v 0 trong
chu k. V ta ni rng y l b khuch i iu khin c bc.
Thut ton Song
Thut ton Song so snh bit truyn vi bit trc . Nu hai bit ny ging nhau, c
bc tng ln mt lng c nh . Cn nu hai bit ny khc nhau, c bc gim i mt
lng tng ng . V th c bc lun thay i v n c th rt ln khng gii hn nu
cn thit. Minh ho iu ny cho mt hm bc li vo hnh. Mt hm bc li vo
trnh by trng hp c bit v s khng xy ra trong thc t bi v mt hm bc c
tn s hu hn. Ch rng mt dao ng tt dn xy ra, s ko theo s thay i nhanh
chng trong tn hiu.
Thut ton Space Shuttle l s ci bin ca thut ton Song hn ch giao ng tt
dn. Khi mt bit hin ti ging vi bit trc , c bc s tng mt tr c nh .
iu ny ging nh thut ton Song. Tuy nhin, khi cc bit ny khc nhau, c bc
o li tc, n mt gi tr nh nht ca n l . iu ny, tng phn vi thut ton
Song m kch thc bc gim hng v zero ti mi chu k ly mu t l vi
. Thut ton Space Shuttle c minh ho hnh cho hm dc ng vo ging nh
hnh trn.
Minimum Shift Keying (MSK) is a modified form of continuous phase FSK. Here, in this
case, the spacing between the two carrier frequencies is equal to half of the bit rate which is
the minimum spacing that allows the two frequencies states to be orthogonal.
In MSK phase ramps up through 90 degrees for a binary one, and down 90 degrees for a
binary zero.
Minimum Shift Keying (MSK)
An MSK signal can be said to be derived from either an OQPSK signal by replacing a
square pulse by cosinusoidal pulse or alternatively from an FSK signal. The
information capacity of an MSK signal is equal to that of QPSK signal but due to the
cosine pulse shaping the bandwidth requirement is lesser than that required by QPSK. It
achieved smooth phase transitions thus providing a constant envelope. It has lower out
of band power and can be said to be more spectrally efficient than the QPSK modulation
technique.
It is a special type of continuous phase frequency shift keying (CPFSK).
The peak frequency deviation is equal to 1/4 the bit rate.
MSK has a modulation index of 0.5 : K
MSK
= 2 F / Rb
The name Minimum Shift Keying (MSK) implies the minimum frequency separation
that allows orthogonal detection as two FSK signals VH(t) & VL(t).

MSK is a spectrally efficient modulation scheme and is particularly attractive for use in
mobile communication systems because of its possesses properties such as :
o constant envelope.
o Spectral efficiency.
o Good BER performance.
o Self-synchronizing capability.

MSK uses changes in phase to represent 0's and 1's, but unlike most other keying, the
pulse sent to represent a 0 or a 1, not only depends on what information is being sent, but
what was previously sent. The pulse used in MSK is the following:
(t) depends not only from the symbol being sent (from the change in the sign), but it can be seen that is
also depends on (0) which means that the pulse also depends on what was previously sent. Assume the
data being sent is 111010000, then the phase of the signal would fluctuate as seen in the figure left (a).
If it assumed that h = 1/2, then the figure simplifies. The phase can now go up or down by increments of
pi/2, and the values at which the phase can be (at integer intervals of Tb) are {-pi/2, 0, pi/2, pi}. The above
example now changes to the graph right (b). The figure illustrates one feature of MSK that may not be
obvious, when a large number of the same symbol is transmitted, the phase does not go to infinity, but
rotates around 0 phase.
MSK better than QPSK
Even though the derivation of MSK was produced by analyzing the changes in phase, MSK
is actually a form of frequency-shift-keying (FSK) with

(where f1 and f2 are the frequencies used for the pulses). MSK produces an FSK with the
minimum difference between the frequencies of the two FSK signals such that the signals
do not interfere with each other. MSK produces a power spectrum density that falls off
much faster compared to the spectrum of QPSK. While QPSK falls off at the inverse square
of the frequency, MSK falls off at the inverse fourth power of the frequency. Thus MSK can
operate in a smaller bandwidth compared to QPSK.
Block diagram of MSK modulator.
Gaussian Minimum Shift Keying (GMSK)
GMSK is a form of continuous-phase FSK, in which the phase is changed
between symbols to provide a constant envelope. Consequently, it is a
popular alternative to QPSK.
The RF bandwidth is controlled by the Gaussian low-pass filter bandwidth.
The degree of filtering is expressed by multiplying the filter 3dB bandwidth
by the bit period of the transmission, ie. by BT.
As BT is lowered the amount of intersymbol-interference introduced
increases and this results in either a fixed power penalty or an irreducible
error floor.
GMSK allows efficient class C non-linear amplifiers to be used, however
even with a low BT value its bandwidth efficiency is less than filtered
QPSK.
An MSK signal is generated by applying a half sinusoidal pulse in place of a square pulse. If a
Gaussian pulse shape is used instead then the resultant digital modulation technique is an
improved version of the MSK digital modulation technique in the sense of bandwidth and
spectral efficiency and is termed as GMSK digital modulation technique (Gaussian Minimum
Shift Keying). Moreover, the major advantage in this technique is the sufficiently lower side
lobe levels and the narrower main lobe as compared to a QPSK and MSK pulse.
The OFDM is a modulation scheme having multicarrier transmission techniques here the
available spectrum is divided into many carriers each one being modulated at a low rate data
stream. The spacing between the carriers is closer and the carriers are orthogonal to one
another preventing interferences between the closely spaced carriers hence OFDM can be
thought of as a combination of modulation and multiplexing techniques, each carrier in a
OFDM signal has very narrow bandwidth so the resulting symbol rate is low which means
that the signal has high tolerance to multipath delay spread reducing the possibility of inter
symbol interferences (ISI) which is the requirement for The higher is the transmission rate,
the large will be the bandwidth of the signal as compared with the coherence bandwidth of
the propagation channel, at this stage the different spectral components present in the signal
will experience different fading characteristics, this frequency selective fading has to be
characterized using appropriate techniques in order to achieve acceptable error rate at the
detection or output in order to achieve characterization in frequency selective fading the basic
approach is to partition the signal into frequency bands, each one of which is narrow as
compared to the coherence bandwidth of the channel and subsequently each of this signal
component is then modulated onto a different sub carrier and the signal components are sent
parallel over the channel. Hence, each signal component will now experience non-
frequency-selective fading because now the high rate serial data sequence is converted into a
number of lower rate parallel sequences and then each of them is modulated onto a sub
carrier, the effective method to achieve this is orthogonal frequency division multiplexing
(OFDM).
Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing (OFDM)

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Electronics for Communications

Trn Quang Vinh VNU - 2014 Slide 1

When m is in the lower range (i.e. m < 0.5) the

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