BE906

Biomaterials and Biocompatibility

Lecture 1
Biomaterial. Introduction

Dr Alexander Galloway
Dr Patricia Muoz-Escalona
Growth of Engineering Materials
Materials
Alumina
Silicon carbide
Cement and concrete
Ceramics and
glasses
Boro-silicate glass
Soda glass
PE, PP, PS
PVC, PMMA, PC
Epoxy, polyester
Polymers and
elastomers
Butyl rubber
Isoprene
Steels
Cast irons
Al-alloys
Metals and alloys
Polymer,
Metal matrix,
Ceramic composites
Hybrid materials
Foams, sandwiches
Wood, bone

Cu-alloys
Ni-alloys
Ti-alloys
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Organising information: the MATERIALS TREE
Family

Metals
& alloys





Polymers
& elastomers

Hybrids
Structured
information
Unstructured
information
Class
Glass

Technical
ceramic

Non-technical
ceramic
Ceramics
& glasses
Member
Alumina
Alumina
nitride

Boron
carbide

Silicon
Tungsten
carbide

Material records
Attributes
Boron carbide
Density
Mechanical props.
Thermal props.
Electrical props.
Optical props.
Corrosion props.
Documentation
-- specific
-- general
Kingdom
Materials
data-table
Silicon
Density
Mechanical props.
Thermal props.
Electrical props.
Optical props.
Corrosion props.
Documentation
-- specific
-- general
Alumina
Density
Mechanical props.
Thermal props.
Electrical props.
Optical props.
Corrosion props.
Documentation
-- specific
-- general
Structured information for Alumina
Unstructured information for Alumina
The world of manufacturing processes
Joining
Welding
Primary
shaping
Heater Screw
Granular Polymer Mould
Nozzle
Cylinder
No.8-CMYK-5/01
Injection moulding
Secondary
shaping
Machining
Surface
treating
Casting
Rolling
Rapid
prototyping
Adhesives
Fasteners
Heat treating
Polishing
Surface coatings
Drilling
Turning
Milling
Organising information: the PROCESS TREE
Kingdom
Processes
data-table
Family
Joining

Shaping

Surfacing

Class

Casting
Deformation
Moulding
Composite
Powder
Rapid prototyping
Member
Molding
Injection
Tape casting
Pressing
Attributes
Process records
Pressing
Material
Shape
Size Range
Min. section
Tolerance
Roughness
Economic batch
Documentation
-- specific
-- general
Structured
information
Unstructured
information
Structured information for pressing
Unstructured information pressing
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Age hardening ALUMINUM ALLOYS

The material
The high-strength aluminum alloys rely
on age-hardening: a sequence of heat
treatment steps that causes the precipitation
of a nano-scale dispersion of intermetallics
that impede dislocation motion and impart strength.

General properties
Density 2500 - 2900 kg/m^3
Price 1.423 - 2.305 USD/kg

Mechanical properties
Young's modulus 68 - 80 GPa
Elastic limit 95 - 610 MPa
Tensile strength 180 - 620 MPa
Elongation 1 - 20 %
Hardness - Vickers 60 - 160 HV
Fatigue strength at 10
7
cycles 57 - 210 MPa
Fracture toughness 21 - 35 MPa.m^1/2

Thermal properties
Thermal conductor or insulator? Good conductor
Thermal conductivity 118 - 174 W/m.K
Thermal expansion 22 - 24 strain/C
Specific heat 890 - 1020 J/kg.K
Melting point 495 - 640 C
Maximum service temperature 120 - 170 C

Electrical properties
Electrical conductor or insulator? Good conductor
Adding the science
Youngs modulus

Definition.

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.

Measurement

.
.

Origins

.
.

Definition,
Measurement,
Science
Thermal expansion

Definition.

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.

Measurement

.
.

Origins

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.
Mechanical attributes Minimum Maximum
Density Mg/m
3
Youngs modulus GPa
Elastic limit MPa
Thermal attributes
Max. service temp. C
T-expansion 10
-6
/K
T-conductivity W/m.K
Electrical attributes
Good insulator
Poor insulator
Poor conductor
Good conductor
A limit stage
Graph stage
Limit stage
Tree stage
Screening
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Electrical resistivity ( mW.cm)
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)

Ceramics
10
1
100
0.01
Proces
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Join
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Cast
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Composite
Powder
Prototype
A tree stage
Introduction
Metallic Elements:
Mg - magnesium
Al - aluminium
Ti - titanium
Fe - iron
Na - sodium
Zr - zirconium
Non-Metallic Elements:
C - carbon
Si - silicon
S - sulphur
N - nitrogen
B - boron
O - oxygen
What is a ceramic?
Ceramics can be a combination of:
Non-metallic and non-metallic elements
Metallic and non-metallic elements
Keramikos -- Burnt stuff
Traditional Ceramics
Clay based products
e.g. pottery, porcelain, bricks and tiles
Applications of Ceramics
Ceramics are refractory polycrystalline compounds:
Usually inorganic
Highly inert
Hard and brittle
High compressive strength
Generally good electric and thermal insulators
Good aesthetic appearance
Advanced Ceramics
Developed to fulfil a particular need
Improved temperature resistance
Improved mechanical properties
Special electrical properties
Improved chemical resistance
Applications of Ceramics
Properties of Ceramics
Intrinsic Properties:
Melting point
Youngs modulus
Coefficient of thermal expansion
Extrinsic Properties:
Mechanical strength
Dielectric constant
Electrical conductivity
Intrinsic Properties
Determined by:
Chemical composition
Atomic structure

Extrinsic Properties
Determined by:
Microstructure
Grain size
Shape of grain
Volume fraction of phases
Porosity








Dense Microstructure Porous Microstructure

Microstructure
Property Desired Microstructure
High Strength Small grain size
Uniform microstructure
Flaw free
High Toughness Duplex microstructure with high
aspect ratios
High creep resistance Large grains
Absence of amorphous grain
boundary phases
Production Process
Dense Polycrystalline Ceramic
Firing
Shaped Powder Form (Green Body)
Forming
Mixing
Powder
Forming Methods
Plastic Forming
Extrusion
Injection moulding

Pressing
Die pressing
Isostatic pressing
Casting
Slip casting
Tape casting
Pressing
Die Filling
Requires good flow characteristics
Powder Compaction
Initial structure contains large and small voids
Ejecting the Powder Compact
Elastic compression during pressing is released
resulting in strain recovery (springback)

Additives
Plasticisers
Softens the binder in the dry state and increases the
flexibility of the green body
Plasticiser molecules get between the polymer chains of
the binder
Softening the binder also decreases the green strength
Binders
Provide bridges between particles
Aid granulation
Provide strength in the green body
Additives
Lubricants
Reduce friction between particles
Reduce friction between particles and die wall
Leads to high and more uniform packing density


Dispersants
Stabilise the slurry
Prevents particles sticking together
- Absorbed onto particles which increases the repulsive forces by electrical
charging
Additives must be removed prior to sintering
Pressing
Die Pressing (uniaxial pressing)
Simultaneous uniaxial compaction and shaping of
powder in a rigid die

Advantages:
Good dimensional control due to
rigid die
Disadvantages:
Agglomeration of dry powder
Non-uniform transmission of
applied pressure
Pressing
Isostatic Pressing
The application of a uniform pressure to the powder
contained in a flexible rubber container





Advantages:
Less powder movement
No die walls
Ability to press relatively complex
shapes to a uniform density
Disadvantages:
Inferior dimensional control
2 classes of isostatic pressing
Wet bag pressing
Dry bag pressing
Pressing
Wet bag Pressing
a. The powder is placed in a watertight die with flexible walls
b. The die is immersed in a liquid in the high-pressure chamber
c. The pressure of the liquid increases deforming the die wall (pressure is transmit uniformly to the powder)
d. Green body is removed after compaction
Pressing
Dry bag Pressing
Casting

Involve the consolidation of powders from a
concentrated slurry (or slip)
Requires slip with:
Highest concentration of solids to minimise shrinkage
Low enough viscosity to pour
Microstructural uniformity of the green body can be
controlled by the dispersants
Casting

Advantages:
Uniform packing density
Can form large components and
complex shapes
Disadvantages:
Narrow range of wall
thicknesses
Variable wall thickness is difficult
to cast
Shrinkage control is complex
Casting

Tape casting
Slurry is spread over a surface covered with a removable
sheet of plastic using a carefully controlled blade
The resulting tape is then dried
The thickness of the tape is controlled by the height of
the blade and the speed of travel

Plastic Forming Methods

Involves the plastic deformation of a mouldable powder
additive mixture
In the form of a paste

2 plastic forming methods
Extrusion
Injection moulding


Plastic Forming Methods
Important Considerations

Paste should exhibit plastic behaviour
At stresses below yield the paste should behave like a rigid solid
At stresses above yield the paste should deform
Extrusion
- The extruded body must be strong enough to be transported to a
drying rack without significant distortion
Achieved using a high viscosity binder
Plastic Forming Methods

Injection Moulding
Important Considerations
Mixture must have low enough viscosity for mould filling
Controlled by binder
Advantages:
Good die filling for complex
shapes
Homogeneous green body due
to fluidity of mixture
Disadvantages:
Long processing cycle
Complicated to optimise
Time required to remove binder
from thick bodies can be long
Moulds are expensive
hardened tool steel for abrasion
resistance
Production Process
Dense Polycrystalline Ceramic
Firing
Shaped Powder Form (Green Body)
Forming
Mixing
Powder
Firing (sintering)

Firing of ceramic body at high temperature (below the melting
point) to obtain a dense component



Desired characteristics of final microstructure
Dense materials
Uniform grain size
Narrow grain size distribution
In order for sintering to occur we need the presence of:
A mechanism for material transport
1. Diffusion
2. Viscous flaw
A source of energy to activate and
sustain the material transport
1. Heat
2. Energy gradients
Sintering Stages
Initial stage
Particles maintain their identity
Neck growth occurs
Little shrinkage occurs

Bonding occurs at the point of contact where
materials transport can occur and where the
surface energy is the highest
Sintering Stages
Intermediate stage
Particle contacts have grown
Porosity forms interconnected network of channels
Majority of densification occurs

Shrinkage equivalent to the amount of reduction in porosity
Sintering Stages
Final stage
Isolated pores
Grain growth occurs

Microstructure

Important microstructural features
Grain size
Shape of grain
Volume fraction of phases
Porosity
Densification
Driving force
Elimination of pore space

Reduces surface area of solid phase
Thereby reducing the surface energy


Densification lowers the free energy
Mechanisms of Mass Transport

Solid-state Sintering

Volume Diffusion
Occurs by the movement of point defects

Grain boundary diffusion
Grain boundaries are highly defective

Surface diffusion
Free surface of solid is not perfectly flat

Evaporation/Condensation
Volume Diffusion

Vacancy mechanism
Interstitial mechanism
Interstitialcy mechanism
Grain Boundary Diffusion


Surface Diffusion

Surface diffusion rates and mechanisms are affected by a variety of factors:
- Strength bond
- Orientation of the surface lattice
Liquid-Phase Sintering

Composition of starting powder is tailored to form a small
amount of liquid

Small amount of liquid phase formed to enhance the sintering
process

Major commercial importance
Faster than solid state sintering
Results in uniform densification

Liquid-Phase Sintering Stages

Particle rearrangement
Particle rearrangement due to capillary forces
Filling of pores by the liquid phase
Solution precipitation
Small amounts of the solid particles are able to dissolve in the
liquid
The material can be reprecipitated into pore regions
Solid-state sintering
Once a rigid skeleton is formed, liquid phase sintering ends and
solid state sintering takes over

Liquid-Phase Sintering Stages

Summary 1

Forming
Ceramics can not be cast like metals due to their high
melting points typically formed from powders

3 main green forming techniques
Pressing
Casting
Plastic forming

Summary 2

Sintering
Firing of ceramic body at high temperature (below
melting point) to obtain a dense component

2 Sintering techniques
Solid State
Liquid phase
Small amount of liquid phase formed to enhance sintering
process
Much faster than solid state sintering