ABSTRACT

Digital Multimeter (DMM) is a measuring device used in displaying values of unknown analog
and digital quantity converting it to discrete numerals instead of a pointer deflection on a
continuous scale as in the analogue instruments. An analogue volt meter basically consists of an
amplifier connected to a D Arsonval meter. n meter design for measuring various quantities!
the amplifier receives the signal under measurement! amplifies the signal! manipulated to the
desired format and outputted on a display unit. t is versatile and accurate measuring instrument
that is employed in many laboratory measurements. "his pro#ect is aimed at building a low cost
digital multimeter that is built around an embedded A$% microcontroller. t will be able to
measure four different quantities namely& A' $oltage! D' $oltage! "emperature! and
(requency.
CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
Measurement helps in the discovering of si)e! length or amount of particular quantities in other
to ascertain its true nature or value in various works of life. n the field of engineering! it forms
the basis of data fetching and to some e*tent! processing and logging. "here are different
measuring devices used such as $oltmeter! +hmmeter! "hermometer! ,hotometer! $iscosity
meter! -attmeter etc.
"he digital multimeter! DMM! is one of the most common items of test equipment used in the
electronics industry today. -hile there are many other items of test equipment that is available!
the multimeter is able to provide e*cellent readings of the basic measurements of amps! volts and
ohms. n addition to this the fact that these digital multimeters use digital and logic technology!
means that the use of integrated circuits rather than analogue techniques! enables many new test
features to be embedded in the design. As a result! most of today.s digital multimeters
incorporate many additional measurements that can be made.
DMM facilities
-hile the facilities that a digital multimeter can offer are much greater than their analogue
predecessors! the cost of DMMs is relatively low. DMMs are able to offer as standard the basic
measurements that would typically include&
'urrent (D')
'urrent (A')
$oltage (D')
$oltage (A')
%esistance
/owever! using integrated circuit technology! most DMMs are able to offer additional test
capabilities. "hese may include some of the following&
'apacitance
"emperature
(requency
"ransistor test 0 hfe! etc
'ontinuity (bu))er)
-hile some of these additional test features may not be as accurate as those supplied by
dedicated test instruments! they are nevertheless very useful! especially where appro*imate
readings only are needed.
n addition to an increase in the number of basic measurements that can be made! refinements of
some of the basic measurements are also available on some models. "rue %M1 multimeters are
available. n many instances! A' waveforms use forms of average measurements that are then
converted to %M1 measurements using a form factor. "his method of measurement is very
dependent upon the shape of the waveform and as a result a true %M1 digital multimeter may be
required. n addition to the availability of a true %M1 meters! similar refinements of the other
basic measurements are also available in some instances.
n addition to the additional measurement capabilities! DMMs also offer fle*ibility in the way
measurements are made. Again this is achieved because of the additional capabilities provided
by the digital electronics circuitry contained within the digital multimeter. Many instruments will
offer two additional capabilities&
Auto-range: "his facility enables the correct range of the digital multimeter to be
selected so that the most significant digits are shown! i.e. a four0digit DMM would
automatically select an appropriate range to display 2.345 m$ instead of 6.623 $.
Additionally it also prevent overloading! by ensuring that a volts range is selected instead
of a millivolts range. Digital multimeters that incorporate an auto0range facility usually
include a facility to .free)e. the meter to a particular range. "his prevents a measurement
that might be on the border between two ranges causing the meter to frequently change
its range which can be very distracting.
Auto-olarit!: "his is a very convenient facility that comes into action for direct
current and voltage readings. t shows if the voltage of current being measured is positive
(i.e. it is in the same sense as the meter connections) or negative (i.e. opposite polarity to
meter connections). Analogue meters did not have this facility and the meter would
deflect backwards and the meter leads would have to be reversed to correctly take the
reading.
Digital multimeters are widely used and very useful items of test equipment. "hey enable
measurements of quantities such as current! voltage and resistance to be made very quickly and
easily. n addition to this! many DMMs are able to measure other useful parameters! making
these items even more useful. -hile they do not allow more complicated measurements to be
made! if many engineers were allowed only one item of test equipment! it would probably be the
digital multimeter.
Digital multimeters! DMMs have been available for very many years. 7et it is still difficult to
find information about how a digital multimeter works. "he operation of a digital multimeter is
relatively straightforward! although there are obviously differences in how digital multimeters
work depending on their design.
Despite this! there are many similarities and some general principles of how digital multimeters
work.
Basics of "o# a DMM #or$s
"he key process that occurs within a digital multimeter for any measurement that takes place is
that of voltage measurement. All other measurements are derived from this basic measurement.
Accordingly the key to understanding how a digital multimeter works is in understanding this
process.
"here are many forms of analogue to digital converter! AD'. /owever the one that is most
widely used in digital multimeters! DMMs is known as the successive appro*imation register or
1A%. 1ome 1A% AD's may only have resolution levels of 23 bits! but those used in test
equipment including DMMs generally have 28 bits or possibly more dependent upon the
application. "ypically for DMMs resolution levels of 28 bits are generally used! with speeds of
266k samples per second. "hese levels of speed are more than adequate for most DMM
applications! where high levels of speed are not normally required.
%ig &'(: Successi)e aro*i+ations register ADC use, in +ost DMMs
As the name implies! the successive appro*imation register AD' operates by successively
homing in on the value of the incoming voltage.
"he first stage of the process is for the sample and hold circuit to sample the voltage at the input
of the DMM and then to hold it steady.
-ith a steady input voltage the register starts at half its full scale value. "his would typically
require the most significant bit! M19 set to :2: and all the remaining ones set to :6:. Assuming
that the input voltage could be anywhere in the range! the mid0range means that the AD' is set
in the middle of the range and this provides a faster settling time as it only has to move a
ma*imum of the full scale rather than possibly 266;.
"o see how it works take the simple e*ample of a 50bit 1A%. ts output will start at 2666. f the
voltage is less than half the ma*imum capability the comparator output will be low and that will
force the register to a level of 6266. f the voltage is above this! the register will move to 6226!
and so forth until it homes in on the nearest value.
t can be seen that 1A% converters! need one appro*imating cycle for each output bit! i.e. an n0
bit AD' will require n cycles.
DMM oeration
Although the analogue to digital converter forms the key element within the instrument! in order
to fully understand how a digital multimeter works! it is necessary to look at some of the other
functions around the AD'.
Although the AD' will take very many samples the overall digital multimeter will not display or
return every sample taken. nstead the samples are buffered and averaged to achieve high
accuracy and resolution. "his will overcome the effects of small variations such as noise! etc.!
noise created by the analogue first stages of the DMM being an important factor that needs to be
overcome to achieve the highest accuracy.
%ig &'&: Oeration flo# ,iagra+ for oeration of a DMM
Measure+ent ti+e
+ne of the key areas of understanding how a digital multimeter works is related to the
measurement time. Apart from the basic measurement there are a number of other functions that
are required and these all take time. Accordingly the measurement time of a digital multimeter!
DMM! may not always appear straightforward.
"he overall measurement time for a DMM is made up from several phases where different
activities occur&
Switch time: "he switch time is the time required for the instrument to settle after the
input has been switched. "his includes the time to settle after a measurement type has
been changed! e.g. from voltage to resistance! etc. t also includes time to settle after the
range has been changed. f auto0ranging is included the meter will need to settle if a
range change is required.
Settling time: +nce the value to be measured has been applied to the input! a certain
time will be required for it to settle. "his will overcome any input capacitance levels
when high impedance tests are made! or generally for the circuit and instrument to settle.
Signal measurement time: "his is the basic time required to make the measurement
itself. (or A' measurements! the frequency of operation must be taken into account
because the minimum signal measurement time is based on the minimum frequency
required of the measurement. (or e*ample! for a minimum frequency of <6 /)! an
aperture of four times the period is required! i.e. =6ms for a <6/) signal! or 8>ms for a
86/) signal! etc.
Auto-zero time: -hen auto0range is selected! or range changes are made! it is necessary
to )ero the meter to ensure accuracy. +nce the correct range is selected! the auto0)ero is
performance for that range.
ADC calibration time: n some DMMs a calibration is periodically performed. "his
must be accounted for! especially where measurements are taken under automatic or
computer control.
t is always useful to know how a digital multimeter works in order to be able to make the best
use of it and the most accurate measurements. /owever it should be remembered that different
multimeters from different manufacturers may work in different ways. t is therefore always
helpful to consult the manufacturer.s instructions to understand how a particular digital
multimeter works.
Multimeters can be grouped into two namely& ,igital and analogue Multimeter. "he digital
Multimeter makes use of an analogue to digital converter. "hese convert the analogue quantity
?temperature! voltage! frequency etc.@ to digital or convert the analogue quantity to binary form.
"he binary is sent to a decoder! where it is converted to a seven0segment display. "here are
several methods by which the readings of a digital instrument can be displayed but the two main
types are the ABD (light emitting diode) and A'D (liquid cryptal display). 9oth units consist of
seven segments. "he ABD display devices require more current than the A'Ds and so they
consume more power. "hey are widely used in bench digital meter where power consumption is
not a primary consideration.
O-.ecti)es
"his pro#ect is targeted towards developing a digital multimeter that can solve the problems of
abnormalities in measurement by providing an effective output using an embedded A$%
microcontroller as the core of the system. t will combat errors due to paralla* by the use of a
liquid crystal display (A'D) as its display and it will also be cost effective looking at multimeters
in its class.
A,)antages of Digital Multi+eter
"he numerical display of the digital meter eliminates paralla*
Brrors associated with human reading and interpolation are reduced
Digital instruments have automatic range and polarity selection and this reduces the need
for training its operators on the usage.
Digital instruments provide output in digital form suitable for further processing!
recording or interfacing with computer! printer etc
(inally! accuracy in digital meter is better as readings are often correct to within C6.2;
and 06.2; of the true value! while the analogue type may have an error as large as C26;
SCOPE
t is often necessary to understand the capabilities of a digital multimeter. t is obvious when
buying one! whereas new test equipment or used test equipment! or for test equipment rental! that
its performance will be of great importance. 1o too! its specification or spec is important when
choosing a particular instrument to be included in a test specification or test schedule for an
electronics test of a particular unit under test. t is important to know a variety of aspects of the
performance of the digital multimeterD the e*act parameters required depending upon the need
for the data.
2. $oltage (D')
3. $oltage (A')
4. "emperature
5. (requency
t is worth bearing in mind that these additional test capabilities may not offer the same levels of
accuracy.
CHAPTER T/O
0ITERATURE RE1IE/
"he first moving0pointer current0detecting device was the galvanometer in 2=36. "hese were
used to measure resistance and voltage by using a -heatstone bridge! and comparing the
unknown quantity to a reference voltage or resistance. -hile useful in the lab! the devices were
very slow and impractical in the field. "hese galvanometers were bulky and delicate.
"he D.ArsonvalE-eston meter movement used a fine metal spring to give proportional
measurement rather than #ust detection! and built0in permanent field magnets made deflection
independent of the orientation of the meter. nstead of balancing a bridge! values could be
directly read off the instruments.s scale! which made measurement quick and easy. 9y adding a
series or shunt resistor! more than one range of voltage or current could be measured with one
movement.
Multimeters were invented in the early 2F36s as radio receivers and other vacuum tube electronic
devices became more common. "he invention of the first multimeter is attributed to 9ritish ,ost
+ffice engineer! Donald Macadie! who became dissatisfied with having to carry many separate
instruments required for the maintenance of the telecommunications circuits. Macadie invented
an instrument which could measure amperes ( amps)! volts and ohms! so the multifunctional
meter was then named Avometer. "he meter comprised a moving coil meter! voltage and
precision resistors! and switches and sockets to select the range.
Macadie took his idea to the Automatic 'oil -inder and Blectrical Bquipment 'ompany
(A'-BB'! founded in G2F34). "he first A$+ was put on sale in 2F34! and many of its features
remained almost unaltered through to the last Model =.
,ocket watch style meters were in widespread use in the 2F36s! at much lower cost than
Avometers. "he metal case was normally connected to the negative connection! an arrangement
that caused numerous electric shocks. "he technical specifications of these devices were often
crude! for e*ample the one illustrated has a resistance of #ust 44 ohms per volt! a non0linear scale
and no )ero ad#ustment.
$acuum "ube $oltmeters or valve voltmeters ($"$M! $$M) were used for voltage
measurements in electronic circuits where high impedance was necessary. "he $"$M had a
fi*ed input impedance of typically 2 megohm or more! usually through use of a cathode follower
input circuit! and thus did not significantly load the circuit being tested. 9efore the introduction
of digital electronic high0impedance analog transistor and field effect transistor ((B"s)
voltmeters were used. Modern digital meters and some modern analog meters use electronic
input circuitry to achieve high0input impedanceHtheir voltage ranges are functionally equivalent
to $"$Ms.
Additional scales such as decibels! and measurement functions such as capacitance! transistor
gain! frequency! duty cycle! display hold! and bu))ers which sound when the measured
resistance is small have been included on many multimeters. -hile multimeters may be
supplemented by more speciali)ed equipment in a technician.s toolkit! some multimeters include
additional functions for speciali)ed applications (temperature with a thermocouple probe!
inductance! connectivity to a computer! speaking measured value! etc.).
+peration
A multimeter is a combination of a multirange D' voltmeter! multirange A' voltmeter!
multirange ammeter! and multirange ohmmeter. An un0amplified analog multimeter combines a
meter movement! range resistors and switches.
(or an analog meter movement! D' voltage is measured with a series resistor connected between
the meter movement and the circuit under test. A set of switches allows greater resistance to be
inserted for higher voltage ranges. "he product of the basic full0scale deflection current of the
movement! and the sum of the series resistance and the movement.s own resistance! gives the
full0scale voltage of the range. As an e*ample! a meter movement that required 2 milliampere for
full scale deflection! with an internal resistance of <66 ohms! would! on a 260volt range of the
multimeter! have F!<66 ohms of series resistance.
(or analog current ranges! low0resistance shunts are connected in parallel with the meter
movement to divert most of the current around the coil. Again for the case of a hypothetical 2
mA! <66 ohm movement on a 2 Ampere range! the shunt resistance would be #ust over 6.< ohms.
Moving coil instruments respond only to the average value of the current through them. "o
measure alternating current! a rectifier diode is inserted in the circuit so that the average value of
current is non0)ero. 1ince the rectified average value and the root0mean0square value of a
waveform need not be the same! simple rectifier0type circuits may only be accurate for
sinusoidal waveforms. +ther wave shapes require a different calibration factor to relate %M1 and
average value. 1ince practical rectifiers have non0)ero voltage drop! accuracy and sensitivity is
poor at low values.
"o measure resistance! a small battery within the instrument passes a current through the device
under test and the meter coil. 1ince the current available depends on the state of charge of the
battery! a multimeter usually has an ad#ustment for the ohms scale to )ero it. n the usual circuit
found in analog multimeters! the meter deflection is inversely proportional to the resistanceD so
full0scale is 6 ohms! and high resistance corresponds to smaller deflections. "he ohms scale is
compressed! so resolution is better at lower resistance values.
Amplified instruments simplify the design of the series and shunt resistor networks. "he internal
resistance of the coil is decoupled from the selection of the series and shunt range resistorsD the
series network becomes a voltage divider. -here A' measurements are required! the rectifier
can be placed after the amplifier stage! improving precision at low range.
Digital instruments! which necessarily incorporate amplifiers! use the same principles as analog
instruments for range resistors. (or resistance measurements! usually a small constant current is
passed through the device under test and the digital multimeter reads the resultant voltage dropD
this eliminates the scale compression found in analog meters! but requires a source of significant
current. An autoranging digital multimeter can automatically ad#ust the scaling network so that
the measurement uses the full precision of the AED converter.
n all types of multimeters! the quality of the switching elements is critical to stable and accurate
measurements. 1tability of the resistors is a limiting factor in the long0term accuracy and
precision of the instrument.
In this project, a more flexible approach is adopted; a system which makes use of the AVR
microcontroller family from Atmel semiconductor Inc. as its core. This is used because of its
computational power and ease of aailability.
CHAPTER THREE
2'( RESEARCH AND DESI3N METHODO0O34
2'& RESEARCH METHOD
9asically! research on this pro#ect was done both on the internet and on various
BlectricalEBlectronic te*tbooks. "he circuit is built around discrete electronics components
including resistors! capacitors! transistors and as the microcontroller as the core.
2'&'& COMPONENTS DESCRIPTION
2'&'5 RESISTOR
%esistors are one of the most common components in an electronic circuit. "he basic operation is
to limit the flow of current in the circuit. Many resistor values were used in this pro#ect. 1ome of
them include 2IJ! 26kJ! 266J and the 446J used to limit the current that flows to the seven
segment display.
Ho# to rea, Resistor Color Co,es
(irst find the tolerance band! it will typically be gold (<;) and sometimes silver (26;). 1tarting
from the other end! identify the first band 0 write down the number associated with that colorD in
this case 9rown is 2. Kow .read. the ne*t color! here it is 9lack so write down a .6. ne*t to the si*.
%ig 2'& %esistor color code
(7ou should have .26. so far.) Kow read the third or .multiplier e*ponent. band and write down
that as the number of )eros. n this e*ample it is two so we get .2666.. f the .multiplier e*ponent.
band is 9lack (for )ero) don.t write any )eros down.
f the .multiplier e*ponent. band is Lold move the decimal point one to the left. f the .multiplier
e*ponent. band is 1ilver move the decimal point two places to the left. f the resistor has one
more band past the tolerance band it is a quality band.
2'&'2 BS &675 Co,ing for resistor )alues
"he letter % is used for +hms and I for Iohms M for Megohms and placed where the decimal
point would go.
At the end is a letter that represents tolerance -here MM36;! IM26;! NM<;! LM3;! and (M2;
DM.<; 'M.3< 9M.2;
2'&'8 CAPACITOR
'apacitors store electric charge. "hey are used with resistors in timing circuits because it takes
time for a capacitor to fill with charge. "hey are used to smooth varying D' supplies by acting
as a reservoir of charge. "hey are also used in filter circuits because capacitors easily pass A'
(changing) signals but they block D' (constant) signals. "here are many types of capacitor but
they can be split into two groups! polari)ed and unpolarised. Bach group has its own circuit
symbol.
Electrol!tic Caacitors
%ig 2'5: Electrol!tic Caacitors
Blectrolytic capacitors are polari)ed and they must be connected the correct way round! at least
one of their leads will be marked C or 0. "hey are not damaged by heat when soldering.
"here are two designs of electrolytic capacitorsD a*ial where the leads are attached to each end
(336O( in picture) and radial where both leads are at the same end (26O( in picture). %adial
capacitors tend to be a little smaller and they stand upright on the circuit board. t is easy to find
the value of electrolytic capacitors because they are clearly printed with their capacitance and
voltage rating. "he voltage rating can be quite low (8$ for e*ample) and it should always be
checked when selecting an electrolytic capacitor.
Non-olari9e, caacitors
%ig 2'2: Non-olari9e, caacitors
1mall value capacitors are non0polari)ed and may be connected either way round. "hey are not
damaged by heat when soldering! e*cept for one unusual type (polystyrene). "hey have high
voltage ratings of at least <6$! usually 3<6$ or so. t can be difficult to find the values of these
small capacitors because there are many types of them and several different labeling systemsP
Many small value capacitors have their value printed but without a multiplier! so you need to use
e*perience to work out what the multiplier should be.
2'&'7 TRANSISTORS
"ransistors are made from semiconductors. "hese are materials! such as silicon or germanium!
that are ?doped@ (have minute amounts of foreign elements added) so that either an abundance or
a lack of free electrons e*ists. n the former case! the semiconductor is called n0type! and in the
latter case! p0type. 9y combining n0type and p0type materials! a diode can be produced. -hen
this diode is connected to a battery so that the p0type material is positive and the n0type negative!
electrons are repelled from the negative battery terminal and pass unimpeded to the p0region!
which lacks electrons. -ith battery reversed! the electrons arriving in the p0material can pass
only with difficulty to the n0material! which is already filled with free electrons! and the current
is almost )ero.
"he bipolar transistor was invented in 2F5= as a replacement for the triode vacuum tube. t
consists of three layers of doped material! forming two p0n (bipolar) #unctions with
configurations of p0n0p or n0p0n. +ne #unction is connected to a battery so as to allow current
flow (forward bias)! and the other #unction has a battery connected in the opposite direction
(reverse bias). f the current in the forward0biased #unction is varied by the addition of a signal!
the current in the reverse0biased #unction of the transistor will vary accordingly. "he principle
can be used to construct amplifiers in which a small signal applied to the forward0biased #unction
causes a large change in current in the reverse0biased #unction.
Another type of transistor is the field0effect transistor ((B"). 1uch a transistor operates on the
principle of repulsion or attraction of charges due to a superimposed electric field. Amplification
of current is accomplished in a manner similar to the grid control of a vacuum tube. (ield0effect
transistors operate more efficiently than bipolar types! because a large signal can be controlled
by a very small amount of energy.
"ransistors function ma#orly as switch or amplifiers. "o function as a switch! the transistor has to
be biased into saturation i.e. the base voltage e*ceeds 6.>v for silicon type and 6.4v for
germanium type. +n the other hand! the base voltage can be varied continually by an input signal
for the transistor to function as an amplifier. "he transistors in this circuit are all (ield Bffect
"ransistors ((B") and they function as high speed switches.
2'&': DIODE
"his is an electronic device that allows the passage of current in only one direction. "he first
such devices were vacuum0tube diodes! consisting of an evacuated glass or steel envelope
containing two electrodesHa cathode and an anode. 9ecause electrons can flow in only one
direction! from cathode to anode! the vacuum0tube diode could be used as a rectifier. "he diodes
most commonly used in electronic circuits today are semiconductor diodes. "he simplest of
these! the germanium point0contact diode! dates from the early days of radio! when the received
radio signal was detected by means of a germanium crystal and a fine! pointed wire that rested on
it. n modern germanium (or silicon) point0contact diodes! the wire and a tiny crystal plate are
mounted inside a small glass tube and connected to two wires that are fused into the ends of the
tube.
2'5 B0OC; DIA3RAM DESCRIPTION
2'5'& Microcontroller Unit <MCU=
"he A"=F1<3 is a low0power! high0performance 'M+1 =0bit microcontroller with =I bytes of
in0system programmable (lash memory. "he device is manufactured using Atmels high0density
nonvolatile memory technology and is compatible with the industry0 standard =6'<2 instruction
set and pin out. "he on0chip (lash allows the program memory to be reprogrammed in0system or
by a conventional nonvolatile memory programmer. 9y combining a versatile =0bit ',Q with in0
system programmable (lash on a monolithic chip! the Atmel A"=F1<3 is a powerful
microcontroller which provides a highly0fle*ible and cost0effective solution to many embedded
control applications. "he A"=F1<3 provides the following standard features& =I bytes of (lash!
3<8 bytes of %AM! 43 E+ lines! -atchdog timer! two data pointers! three 280bit timerEcounters!
a si*0vector two0level interrupt architecture! a full duple* serial port! on0chip oscillator! and
clock circuitry.
n this design the microcontroller forms the core of the system! meaning that all mathematical
and logical operation of the system is e*ecuted from within it.

%ig 2'8: Pin Configuration of At+el A1R Microcontroller
2'5'5 Microcontroller>s Pins
1CC: Digital supply voltage.
3ND: Lround.
Port A <PA?:PA(=
,ort A serves as the analog inputs to the AED 'onverter. ,ort A also serves as an =0bit bi0
directional E+ port! if the AED 'onverter is not used. ,ort pins can provide internal pull0up
resistors (selected for each bit). "he ,ort A output buffers have sym< metrical drive
characteristics with both high sink and source capability. -hen pins ,A6 to ,A> are used as
inputs and are e*ternally pulled low! they will source current if the internal pull0up resistors are
activated. "he ,ort A pins are tri0stated when a reset condition becomes active! even if the clock
is not running.
Port B <PB?:PB(=
,ort 9 is an =0bit bi0directional E+ port with internal pull0up resistors (selected for each bit). "he
,ort 9 output buffers have symmetrical drive characteristics with both high sink and source
capability. As inputs! ,ort 9 pins that are e*ternally pulled low will source current if the pull0up
resistors are activated. "he ,ort 9 pins are tri0stated when a reset condition becomes active! even
if the clock is not running. ,ort 9 also serves the functions of various special features of the
Port C <PC?:PC(=
,ort ' is an =0bit bi0directional E+ port with internal pull0up resistors (selected for each bit). "he
,ort ' output buffers have symmetrical drive characteristics with both high sink and source
capability. As inputs! ,ort ' pins that are e*ternally pulled low will source current if the pull0up
resistors are activated. "he ,ort ' pins are tri0stated when a reset condition becomes active! even
if the clock is not running. f the N"AL interface is enabled! the pull0up resistors on pins ,'<
("D)! ,'4("M1) and ,'3("'I) will be activated even if a reset occurs. "he "D6 pin is tri0
stated unless "A, states that shift out data are entered. ,ort ' also serves the functions of the
N"AL interface and other special features.
Port D <PD?:PD(=
,ort D is an =0bit bi0directional E+ port with internal pull0up resistors (selected for each bit).
"he ,ort D output buffers have symmetrical drive characteristics with both high sink and source
capability. As inputs! ,ort D pins that are e*ternally pulled low will source current if the pull0up
resistors are activated. "he ,ort D pins are tri0stated when a reset condition becomes active! even
if the clock is not running. ,ort D also serves the functions of various special features.
RESET
%eset nput. A low level on this pin for longer than the minimum pulse length will generate a
reset! even if the clock is not running.
@TA0&: nput to the inverting +scillator amplifier and input to the internal clock operating
circuit.
@TA05: +utput from the inverting +scillator amplifier.
A1CC
A$'' is the supply voltage pin for ,ort A and the AED 'onverter. t should be e*ternally
connected to $''! even if the AD' is not used. f the AD' is used! it should be connected to
$'' through a low0pass filter.
ARE%: A%B( is the analog reference pin for the AED 'onverter.
2'5'2: Po#er Sul! Unit
The main supply to the unit is gotten from a 9VDC and stabilised down to VDC for proper
operation of the microcontroller incase the unit is to be operated as a stand alone metering
de!ice"
+bviously! all this is about very simple circuits! but it does not have to be always like that. f
device is used for handling e*pensive machines or for maintaining vital functions! everything
becomes more and more complicatedP "his kind of solution is quite enough for the time being.
2'5'8: 1isual Disla! Unit
The !isual display unit is used to show the current !alue of calculated instantaneous
parameters of the data collection unit" #t is built around the microcontroller which ser!es
as the core for the system by outputting the desired !alues of information unto the display and
a multiple$ed li%uid crystal display. 9asically! A'D displays are nothing else but several ABDs
molded in the same plastic case.

%ig 2'7: 0iAui, cr!stal ,isla!
"he most commonly used are so called >0segment displays. "hey are composed of = ABDs! >
segments are arranged as a rectangle for symbol displaying and there is additional segment for
decimal point displaying. n order to simplify connecting! anodes and cathodes of all diodes are
connected to the common pin so that there are common cathode displays and common anode
displays. 1egments are marked with the litters A to L as shown on the figure on the left. -hen
connecting! each diode is treated independently! which means that each must have its own
conductor for current limitation.
2'5'7 Data Collection Unit
"his unit is made up of an analog0to0digital converter (abbreviated AD'! AED or A to D) is a
device which converts continuous signals to discrete digital numbers. "he reverse
operation is performed by a digital0to0analog converter (DA') and an analogue
multiple*.
"ypically! an AD' is an electronic device that converts an input analog voltage (or current) to a
digital number proportional to the magnitude of the voltage or current. /owever! some
non0electronic or only partially electronic devices! such as rotary encoders! can also be
considered AD's. "he digital output may use different coding schemes! such as binary!
Lray code or two.s complement binary. #ts prime function in this circuit is to digitize the
analog %uantity that is gotten from the transducer &sensor' or the instantaneous
!oltage that is to be logged to the system unit to a form that will be easily processed by
the microcontroller" "he accuracy of the converter depends on these factors resolution!
Accuracy! Ruanti)ation error! Aperture error! and Kon0linearity.
2'5': Resolution
"he resolution of the converter indicates the number of discrete values it can produce over the
range of analog values. /ere we have decided to use an =09it Analog0Digital converter for its
low cost and simplicity hence at e*pense of lower performance when it comes to step si)e or
resolution. "he values are usually stored electronically in binary form! so the resolution is
usually e*pressed in bits. n consequence! the number of discrete values available! or :levels:! is
usually a power of two. (or e*ample! an AD' with a resolution of = bits can encode an analog
input to one in 3<8 different levels. "he values can represent the ranges from 6 to 3<< (i.e.
unsigned integer) or from 023= to 23> (i.e. signed integer)! depending on the application.
%esolution can also be defined electrically! and e*pressed in volts. "he voltage resolution of an
AD' is equal to its overall voltage measurement range divided by the number of discrete
intervals as in the formula&
-here&
R is resolution in volts per step (volts per output codes less one)!
B
(1%
is the full scale voltage range M!
M is the AD'.s resolution in bits.
K is the number of intervals! (one less than the number of available levels! or output
codes)! which is&
1ome e*amples may help&
B*ample 2
o (ull scale measurement range M 6 to 26 volts
o AD' resolution is 23 bits& 3
23
M 56F8 quanti)ation levels (codes)
o AD' voltage resolution is& (26$ 0 6$) E 56F< steps M 26$ E 56F< steps
6.66355 $Estep 3.55 m$Estep
B*ample 3
o (ull scale measurement range M 6 to > volts
o AD' resolution is 4 bits& 3
4
M = quanti)ation levels (codes)
o AD' voltage resolution is& (> $ S 6 $)E> steps M > $E> steps M 2 $E step M 2666
m$Estep
n practice! the smallest output code (:6: in an unsigned system) represents a voltage range
which is 6.<R! that is! half the AD' voltage resolution (R)! as does the largest output
code. "he other K S 3 codes are all equal in width and represent the AD' voltage
resolution (R) calculated above. Doing this centers the code on an input voltage that
represents the Mth division of the input voltage range. (or e*ample! in B*ample 4! with
the 40bit AD' spanning a > $ range! each of the K divisions would represent 2 $! e*cept
the 2st (:6: code) and the last (:>: code) which are 6.< $ wide. Doing this the :2: code
spans a voltage range from 6.< to 2.< $! the :3: code spans a voltage range from 2.< to
3.< $! etc. "hus! if the input signal is at 4E=ths of the full0scale voltage! then the AD'
outputs the :4: code! and will do so as long as the voltage stays within the range of
3.<E=ths and 4.<E=ths. "his practice is called :mid0tread: operation.
n practice! the useful resolution of a converter is limited by the best signal0to0noise ratio that can
be achieved for a digiti)ed signal. An AD' can resolve a signal to only a certain number
of bits of resolution! called the effective number of bits (BK+9). +ne effective bit of
resolution changes the signal0to0noise ratio of the digiti)ed signal by 8 d9! if the
resolution is limited by the AD'. f a preamplifier has been used prior to AED
conversion! the noise introduced by the amplifier can be an important contributing factor
towards the overall 1K%.
2'5'? Accurac!
An AD' has several sources of errors. Ruanti)ation error and (assuming the AD' is intended to
be linear) non0linearity is intrinsic to any analog0to0digital conversion. "here is also a so0
called aperture error which is due to a clock #itter and is revealed when digiti)ing a time0
variant signal (not a constant value).
"hese errors are measured in a unit called the A19! which is an abbreviation for least significant
bit. n the above e*ample of an eight0bit AD'! an error of one A19 is 2E3<8 of the full
signal range! or about 6.5;.
2'5'6 Buanti9ation error
Ruanti)ation error is due to the finite resolution of the AD'! and is an unavoidable imperfection
in all types of AD'. "he magnitude of the quanti)ation error at the sampling instant is
between )ero and half of one A19.
n the general case! the original signal is much larger than one A19. -hen this happens! the
quanti)ation error is not correlated with the signal! and has a uniform distribution. ts
%M1 value is the standard deviation of this distribution! given by. n the eight0bit AD'
e*ample! this represents 6.224; of the full signal range.
At lower levels the quanti)ing error becomes dependent of the input signal! resulting in distortion
with amplitude of 2 quanti)ation step added to the signal. "his slightly reduces signal to
noise ratio! but completely eliminates the distortion. t is known as dither.
2'5'C Non-linearit!
All AD's suffer from non0linearity errors caused by their physical imperfections! resulting in
their output to deviate from a linear function (or some other function! in the case of a deliberately
non0linear AD') of their input. "hese errors can sometimes be mitigated by calibration! or
prevented by testing.
mportant parameters for linearity are integral non0linearity (KA) and differential non0linearity
(DKA). "hese non0linearities reduce the dynamic range of the signals that can be digiti)ed by the
AD'! also reducing the effective resolution of the AD'.The multiple$er is used to select
different analogue %uantity that is to be measured and it is concatenated to the ADC since it
has only one input"
Te+erature Unit:
-hen the probe is placed on the surface of the body thats to be checked! temperature is
conducted by the heat sensor or thermistor! here! the temperature is automatically sampled by the
analog to digital converter. After sampling of the temperature via the thermistor by the AD'!
the output is gated to the microcontroller for further processor.
During the processing period the microcontroller performs mathematical manipulation on the
information! finally the processed data is fed onto the display for final viewing via the sdisplay.
9ut note that before the temperature can be worked upon by the microcontroller! the toggle
button or switch on the meter panel.
%reAuenc! Unit:
-hen the toggle button on the panel meter the microcontroller quickly changes the function of
the meter input to a frequency counter! when in this mode and the probes of the meter is placed
across an ac source that is to be measured! the microcontroller! upon any incoming signal!
measures the frequency of the signal using its inbuilt frequency measuring mechanism. +nce the
measurement is completed! the frequency is displayed on the seven segment display for the user
to see the current status of the source frequency.
ACDDC Measuring Unit:
"he operation of this function is related to the above e*plained function but with a difference on
the quantity that is being measured.
(or the A' parameter! the probes are connected to the A'Efrequency input section! once done
the probes are placed across the source that is to be measured at this point the analog to the
digital converter samples the input voltage converting it to streams of binary quantity which is
buffered to the microcontroller for further processing. +nce the microcontroller has finished
processing of the data! it is immediately displayed on the seven segment display.
%I3 2'6& Bloc$ sc"e+atic ,iagra+ of a ,igital Multi+eter
CHAPTER %OUR
8'( Result an, Anal!sis
n any given design there must be a set rules and regulation guiding it! in view of this pro#ect
?industrial data logger with computer@ is not a left out. "his design was triggered off by firstD
trying to figure out how the pro#ect can be actuali)ed! getting the desired clue! surfing online to
gather more ?ntel@! and thus the deal was achieved. 9elow are some of the steps taken
during the hardware development of this pro#ectD
8'('& Bloc$ Diagra+ Design
A rough sketch on how the pro#ect would look like was first drawn! detailing all the components
blocks that would make0up the complete system. +nce drawn and checked for consistency!
the second phase was proceeded to immediately.
8'('5 Sc"e+atic Design
1chematic design poses one of the most difficult constraints in the design of this pro#ect because
here for sure! we are dealing with discrete components that have one common goal ?speak the
language of electronics effectively@ this simply means that all sections of the system should work
in harmony with little deviation from the target.
8'('2 Sol,ering
1oldering is the process of a making a sound electrical and mechanical #oint between certain
metals by #oining them with a soft solder. "his is a low temperature melting point alloy of lead
and tin. "he #oint is heated to the correct temperature by soldering iron. (or most electronic work
miniature mains powered soldering irons are used. "hese consist of a handle onto which is
mounted the heating element. +n the end of the heating element is what is known as the :bit:! so
called because it is the bit that heats the #oint up. 1older melts at around 2F6 degrees 'entigrade!
and the bit reaches a temperature of over 3<6 degrees 'entigrade. "his temperature is plenty hot
enough to inflict a nasty burn! consequently care should be taken.
Lood soldering is a skill that is learnt by practice. "he most important point in soldering is that
both parts of the #oint to be made must be at the same temperature. "he solder will flow evenly
and make a good electrical and mechanical #oint only if both parts of the #oint are at an equal
high temperature. Bven though it appears that there is a metal to metal contact in a #oint to be
made! very often there e*ists a film of o*ide on the surface that insulates the two parts. (or this
reason it is no good applying the soldering iron tip to one half of the #oint only and e*pecting this
to heat the other half of the #oint as well
8'('8 Testing t"e Circuit
After the construction! the circuit was properly analy)ed and short circuit and open circuits were
all corrected. "he circuit is then powered with a voltage supply of <$ and some parameters such
as clock pulses were measured.
8'& Ho# it /or$s
All microcontroller embedded system runs on an internal firmware burnt into the chip or outside
the chip in a %+M. "his design uses the ever familiar M'Q ?microcontroller unit@ from Atmel
semiconductors owing to the fact that its brand of M'Q has a wider data E+ lines for the #ob.
"he firmware ?program@ was written in assembly language and compiled using the A1BM-
brand of macro cross0assembler to finally get the machine e*ecutable file. +nce the e*ec file is
gotten! it was downloaded it into the M'Q internal flash memory from where it is to be e*ecuted
using a gadget called a ?,rogrammer@.
8'&'& Progra++ers are device used to get the e*ecutable file that resides in the computer down
to the microcontroller for final e*ecution of the program.
9elow are the modes of operation of the system outlined in a sequential manner in order to aid
quick understanding of how the pro#ect works.
"hree buttons are used to control operation of the data logger& 1"A%"! ,AQ1B! and %B1B".
8'&'5 Ste-B!-Ste Anal!sis
&' At power ?+K@! the microcontroller immediately initiali)es the state of the visual display
unit to a known state! and also resets its self to a defined status that conforms to the pre0
loaded program.
5' A routine is called upon by the controller to clear the visual display unit and also to clear
the content of the register that is used to store the converted data that resides in the
controller.
2' An instruction is called upon! to check the AD' control line and also to power down the
A'D so that the issue of unwanted readout would be combated. During this sequence of
system initiali)ation the visual display is defaulted to the value of )ero.
8' At this point the system is fully initiali)ed. /ere it waits for the appropriate command for
readingEconversion depending on the selected function.
7' "he data conversion unit proceeds to these modes of operation labeled Ei t"ru )F
(depending on the function selected)
i) "he M'Q counts the number of pulses at the counter input pin if any! stores the data
in a special register that is used for its temporary store! and then calls upon a routine
that outputs this data onto the corresponding display then #umps to the ne*t step.
ii) At this point! the AD' unit is activated. /ere since there are four analogue
parameters that s to be measured! the multiple*er unit is automatically enabled as well
since the four inputs are concatenated to the multiple*er. "hus taking it to the ne*t
step.
iii) "he M'Q issues a command to the multiple*er that enables the temperature channel!
the analogue value is quickly made available to the input of the AD'! and the M'Q
further gives a command to the AD' to start conversion. +nce the conversion is done
the data is the gated to the M'Q for digital processing. /ere the data is analysed!
stored in its temporary register! then displayed onto the corresponding indicator.
(rom here the M'Q #umps to the ne*t step.
iv) "he M'Q issues a command to the multiple*er that enables the current channel! the
value of the current which has been converted to voltage by the current transformer
quickly made available to the input of the AD'! and the M'Q further gives a
command to the AD' to start conversion. +nce the conversion is done the data is the
gated to the M'Q for digital processing. /ere the data is analysed! stored in its
temporary register! then displayed onto the corresponding indicator. (rom here the
M'Q #umps to the ne*t step.
v) /ere the M'Q repeats the steps above but this time around the A' voltage is
measured. "he M'Q enables the channel that corresponds to the A' voltage inputD
the AD' does its conversion and then gates its output to the M'Q which then
finishes up the digital processing by storing the data in its corresponding register and
also displaying the data on the status display. A #ump is made to ascertain the power
of the connected load if their e*ist any thus taking the M'Q to the final step in data
collection.
"his process is repeated continuously so long as the unit is powered thus this function also makes
it a standalone metering instrument.
8'&'8 Mec"anical Construction
After finali)ing the construction of the circuit! what remains now is the mechanical outlook of
the enclosed system. n this design consideration of price and usage in real time
application was done! since the aim of this pro#ect is for prototyping! a white plastic finishing
was chosen to give it slick and wonderful look! and as well as given it the desired ruggedness.
8'&'7 Pro-le+s Encountere,
9asically! the problems encountered during the making of this pro#ect were the unavailability
of the core controller that is to be used in the pro#ect. "his particular problem introduced the
highest bottle neck in the prototyping face of my pro#ect because it forms the frame work. 1ome
of the semiconductors were out of specification and this made the mathematical and electrical
parameters deviate by about 2<; at the initial stage of the bread boarding. "hus making the time
e*pended on a particular circuit block high. 9ut through careful ad#ustment of pre0calculated the
error rate was reduced to about 3;.
"ime ! this plays a ma#or factor in any given line of pro#ect! the time frame allocated to develop a
pro#ect of this standard is so small looking at the technicality so involved and this made the
sequences involved in the pro#ect a little bit unbearable for me.
CHAPTER %I1E
CONC0SION AND RECOMMENDATION
7'& CONC0USION
During the e*ecution of this pro#ect! we observed that digital multimeter displays temperature!
voltage and frequency as discrete numerals instead of a pointer deflection on a continuous scale
as in the analogue instrument. "he design was as e*pected and accurate in its measurements. t
made use of analogue to digital converter (AD') and can drive 28 digits over the A'D directly.
"he digital Multimeter was able to measure A'! D'! frequency and temperature.
7'5 RECOMMENDATION
"he availability of laboratory equipment remains vital and basic in the study of electrical and
electronics engineering courses. "his will facilitate the learning and comprehensive ability of
students! since engineering courses are practical oriented! therefore student should not relent for
any reasons to make use of their available laboratory equipment.
/ence! good understanding on scientific and engineering knowledge will make practical e*ercise
and involvement interesting. "hus! further improvements should be added so as to give or make
it capable of data logging. "his upgrade will go a long way to helping engineers in real time data
process and failure rates over a long period of time.
RE%ERENCES
T2U Devidas! A.%.! %amesh! M.$. ?-ireless 1mart Lrid Design for Monitoring and +ptimi)ing
Blectric "ransmission in ndia!@ 3626 (ourth nternational 'onference on 1ensor "echnologies
and Applications (1BK1+%'+MM)!@ pp.84>0856!
3626.
T3U 1hoeb 1. 1heikh! et al.! ?Design and mplementation of -ireless Automatic Meter %eading
1ystem!: nternational Nournal of Bngineering 1cience and "echnology! $ol. 4! Ko. 4! pp. 343F0
3445! March 3622.
T4U Amit Nain and Mohnish 9agree! :A ,repaid Meter Qsing Mobile 'ommunication!:
nternational Nournal of Bngineering! 1cience and "echnology! $ol. 4! Ko. 4! pp. 2860288! Apr
3622.
T5U Iwan! 9./.! Moghavvemi! M.! ?,' 9ased 1mart 'ard ,repayment 1ystem!@ 1tudent
'onference on %esearch and Development! pp. 5560 554! 3663.
T<U Ihan %./.! ".(. Aditi! $. 1reeram and /./.'. lu! ? A ,repaid 1mart Metering 1cheme 9ased
on -iMAV ,repaid Accounting Model!@ 1mart Lrid and %enewable Bnergy! $ol. 2! Ko. 3! pp.
8408F! 3626.
T8U Aing Wou! 1ihong 'hu and 9iao Luo.!?"he Design of ,repayment ,olyphase 1mart
Blectricity Meter 1ystem!@ nternational 'onference on ntelligent 'omputing and ntegrated
1ystems ('11)! pp. 5460543! 33035! Dec 3626.
T>U %icha 1hrivastava and Kipun Iumar Mishra! :An Bmbedded 1ystem for -ireless ,repaid
9illing of Digital Bnergy Meter!: nternational Nournal of Advances in Blectronics Bngineering!
pp. 4330435.
T=U M.'. Kdinechi! +.A. +gungbenro and I.'. +kafor! :Digital Metering 1ystem& A 9etter
Alternative for Blectromechanical Bnergy Meter in Kigeria!:nternational Nournal of Academic
%esearch ! $ol. 4! Ko. <! pp. 2=F02F3! 1ep 3622.
TFU Aoss! , et al.! ?A 1ingle ,hase Microcontroller 9ased Bnergy Meter!@ BBB nstrumentation
and Measurement "echnology 'onference. 1t. ,aul Minnesota! Q1A! May 2=032! 2FF=.
T26U. Atmel 'orporation0 ?nterfacing A"35'VV 1erial BB,%+Ms with A"=F'V6<2
Microcontrollers@! www.atmel.comE! accessed on 22 March 3668
T22U. Atmel 'orporation0 ?A$%563&/ardware design considerations@ ! www.atmel.com/!
accessed on 3= March 3668
T23U. (uture "echnology Devices 0 ?AK343906< 'onfiguring ("343%!("3343' and ("3439M
9aud %ates@ ! http&EEwww.ftdichip.com !accessed 28 March 3668
T24U. (uture "echnology Devices X ?AK343%063 ("D'hip0DY for the ("343% and ("35<%@!
http&EEwww.ftdichip.com !accessed 28 March 3668
T25U. (uture "echnology Devices ?("343% Q19 QA%" .'@! http&EEwww.ftdichip.com !accessed
28 March 3668
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