Blooms Literary Temes

f
Alienation
Te American Dream
Death and Dying
Te Grotesque
Te Heros Journey
Human Sexuality
Te Labyrinth
Rebirth and Renewal
Blooms Literary Temes
R8! RTH AN RNVAL
Edited and with an introduction by
Harold 8loom
Stcrling Prolcssor ol thc Humanitics
Yalc Univcrsity
Volume Editor
8lakc Hobby
Blooms Literary Temes
R8! RTH
AN RNVAL
Blooms Literary Themes: Rebirth and Renewal
Copyright 2009 by !nlobasc Publishing
!ntroduction 2009 by Harold 8loom
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, Contents .
Series Introduction by Harold Bloom: xi
Temes and Metaphors
Volume Introduction by Harold Bloom xv
Te Aeneid, Book 6 (Virgil) 1
Introduction: Te Sixth Book of the Aeneid by H.E.
Butler, in Te Sixth Book of the Aeneid (1920)
Te Awakening (Kate Chopin) 13
Renewal and Rebirth in Kate Chopins Te
Awakening by Robert C. Evans

Beloved (Toni Morrison) 25
Renewal and Rebirth in Toni Morrisons Beloved by
Blake G. Hobby
Beowulf 35
Beowulf: Te Monsters and the Critics
by J.R.R. Tolkien (1936)
Canterbury Tales (Georey Chaucer) 51
Te Opening of Chaucers General Prologue to Te
Canterbury Tales: A Diptych by Colin Wilcockson,
in Review of English Studies (1999)
Crime and Punishment (Fyodor Mikhailovich Dostoevsky) 61
Crime and Myth: Te Archetypal Pattern of Rebirth
in Tree Novels of Dostoevsky by Alexandra F.
Rudicina, in PMLA (1972)
Contcnts
Divine Comedy (antc Alighicri) 69
To Can Grandc dclla Scala by antc Alighicri, in
Dantis Alagherii Epistolae: Te Letters of Dante (1920)
Doctor Faustus (Christophcr Marlowc) 83
Tc amnation ol Faustus by J.P. 8rockbank, in
Marlowe: Dr. Faustus (1962)
Te Great Gatsby (F. Scott Fitzgcrald) 95
8oats Against thc Currcnt: Mortality and thc Myth
ol Rcncwal in Te Great Gatsby by Jcrcy Stcinbrink,
in Twentieth Century Literature (1980)
Heart of Darkness (Joscph Conrad) 109
Tc Journcy Vithin by Albcrt J. Gucrard, in Conrad
the Novelist (1958)
Te Holy Sonnets (John onnc) 125
Rcncwal and Rcbirth in John onncs Te Holy
Sonnets by Gary ttari
I Know Why the Caged Bird Sings (Maya Angclou) 135
cath, Rcbirth, and Rcncwal in Maya Angclous
I Know Why the Caged Bird Sings by
Robcrt C. vans
King Lear (Villiam Shakcspcarc) 145
Rcbirth and Rcncwal in Shakcspcarcs King Lear by
Gary ttari
Littlc Gidding lrom Four Quartets (Tomas Stcarns liot) 153
Tc Latcr Quartcts by Staan 8crgstcn, in Time and
Eternity: A Study in the Structure and Symbolism of T.S.
Eliots Four Quartcts (1960)
Te Metamorphosis (Franz Kalka) 169
Rcalism and Unrcalism: Kalkas Mctamorphosis
by Norman N. Holland, in Modern Fiction Studies
(1958)
viii
ix
Orlando (\irginia Vooll) 181
Rcncwal, Rcbirth, and Changc in \irginia Voolls
Orlando by Lorcna Russcll
Te Scarlet Letter (Nathanicl Hawthornc) 191
Hcstcrs 8cwitchcd Trianglc: Vithin thc Spcll ol thc
A by 8lakc G. Hobby
A Tale of Two Cities (Charlcs ickcns) 201
Rccallcd to Lilc: Sacricc and Rcncwal in A Tale of
Two Cities by Arthur Rankin
Te Tempest (Villiam Shakcspcarc) 211
From Shakespeares Mystery Play: A Study of Tc
Tcmpcst by Colin Still (1921)
Teir Eyes Were Watching God (Zora Ncalc Hurston) 229
Rcsistancc, Rcbirth, and Rcncwal in Zora Ncalc
Hurstons Teir Eyes Were Watching God by cborah
Jamcs
Acknowledgments 239
Index 241
Contcnts

xi
1. Tovos aNo Tvovv
Vhat wc now call a thcmc or topic or subjcct initially was namcd a
topos, ancicnt Grcck lor placc. Litcrary topoi arc commonplaccs, but
also argumcnts or asscrtions. A topos can bc rcgardcd as litcral whcn
opposcd to a tropc or turning which is gurativc and which can bc a
mctaphor or somc rclatcd dcparturc lrom thc litcral: ironics, syncc
dochcs (part lor wholc), mctonymics (rcprcscntations by contiguity)
or hypcrbolcs (ovcrstatcmcnts). Tcmcs and mctaphors cngcndcr onc
anothcr in all signicant litcrary compositions.
As a thcorctician ol thc rclation bctwccn thc mattcr and thc rhct
oric ol high litcraturc, ! tcnd to dcnc mctaphor as a gurc ol dcsirc
rathcr than a gurc ol knowlcdgc. Vc wclcomc litcrary mctaphor
bccausc it cnablcs ctions to pcrsuadc us ol bcautilul untruc things, as
scar Vildc phrascd it. Litcrary topoi can bc rcgardcd as placcs whcrc
wc storc inlormation, in ordcr to amplily thc thcmcs that intcrcst us.
Tis scrics ol volumcs, Blooms Literary Temes, ocrs studcnts and
gcncral rcadcrs hclplul cssays on such pcrpctually crucial topics as thc
Hcros Journcy, thc Labyrinth, thc Sublimc, cath and ying, thc
Taboo, thc Trickstcr and many morc. Tcsc subjccts arc choscn lor
thcir prcvalcncc yct also lor thcir ccntrality. Tcy cxprcss thc wholc
conccrn ol human cxistcncc now in thc twcntyrst ccntury ol thc
Common ra. Somc ol thc topics would havc sccmcd odd at anothcr
timc, anothcr land: thc Amcrican rcam, nslavcmcnt and manci
pation, Civil isobcdicncc.
! suspcct though that our currcnt prcoccupations would havc
cxistcd always and cvcrywhcrc, undcr othcr namcs. Tropcs changc
across thc ccnturics: thc irony ol onc agc is rarcly thc irony ol anothcr.
8ut thc thcmcs ol grcat litcraturc, though immcnscly varicd, undcrgo
, Series Introduction by Harold Bloom: .
Temes and Metaphors
xii
transmcmbcrmcnt and show up barcly disguiscd in dicrcnt contcxts.
Tc powcr ol imaginativc litcraturc rclics upon thrcc constants:
acsthctic splcndor, cognitivc powcr, wisdom. Tcsc arc not bound by
socictal constraints or rcscntmcnts, and ultimatcly arc univcrsals, and
so not culturcbound. Shakcspcarc, cxccpt lor thc worlds scripturcs,
is thc onc univcrsal author, whcthcr hc is rcad and playcd in 8ulgaria
or !ndoncsia or whcrcvcr. His suprcmacy at crcating human bcings
brcaks through cvcn thc barricr ol languagc and puts cvcryonc on his
stagc. Tis mcans that thc mattcr ol his work has migratcd cvcry
whcrc, rcinlorcing thc common placcs wc all inhabit in his thcmcs.
2. CoN+vs+ as no+n Tnvxv aNo Tvovv
Grcat writing or thc Sublimc rarcly cmanatcs dircctly lrom thcmcs
sincc all authors arc mcdiatcd by lorcrunncrs and by contcmporary
rivals. Nictzschc cnhanccd our awarcncss ol thc agonistic loundations
ol ancicnt Grcck litcraturc and culturc, lrom Hcsiods contcst with
Homcr on to thc Hcllcnistic critic Longinus in his trcatisc On the
Sublime. vcn Shakcspcarc had to bcgin by ovcrcoming Christophcr
Marlowc, only a lcw months his scnior. Villiam Faulkncr stcmmcd
lrom thc Polishnglish novclist Joscph Conrad and our bcst living
author ol prosc ction, Philip Roth, is inconccivablc without his
dcsccnt lrom thc major Jcwish litcrary phcnomcnon ol thc twcnticth
ccntury, Franz Kalka ol Praguc, who wrotc thc most lucid Gcrman
sincc Gocthc.
Tc contcst with past achicvcmcnt is thc hiddcn thcmc ol all
major canonical litcraturc in Vcstcrn tradition. Litcrary inucncc is
both an ovcrwhclming mctaphor lor litcraturc itscll, and a common
topic lor all criticism, whcthcr or not thc critic knows hcr immcrsion
in thc inccssant ood.
vcry thcmc in this scrics touchcs upon a contcst with antcri
ority, whcthcr with thc prcscncc ol dcath, thc hcros qucst, thc ovcr
coming ol taboos, or all ol thc othcr conccrns, volumc by volumc.
From Montcvcrdi through 8ach to Stravinsky, or lrom thc !talian
Rcnaissancc through thc agon ol Matissc and Picasso, thc history
ol all thc arts dcmonstratcs thc samc pattcrns as litcraturcs thcmatic
strugglc with itscll. ur countrys grcat original art, jazz, is illumi
natcd by what thc grcat crcators callcd cutting contcsts, lrom Louis
Scrics !ntroduction by Harold 8loom
xiii
Armstrong and ukc llington on to thc cmcrgcncc ol Charlic
Parkcrs 8op or rcvisionist jazz.
A litcrary thcmc, howcvcr authcntic, would comc to nothing
without rhctorical cloqucncc or mastcry ol mctaphor. 8ut to cxpcri
cncc thc study ol thc common placcs ol invcntion is an apt training in
thc apprchcnsion ol acsthctic valuc in poctry and in prosc.
Scrics !ntroduction by Harold 8loom
xv
, Volume Introduction by Harold Bloom .
1
Villiam 8utlcr Ycatss Tc Sccond Coming is possibly thc ccntral
pocm, in any Vcstcrn languagc, ol thc twcnticth ccntury. Ncarly
a dccadc into thc twcntyrst ccntury, it has not lost its rclcvancc.
Composcd in January 1919, nincty ycars ago (! writc on January 30,
2009), it bcgan as Ycatss cxultant outcry in rcsponsc to thc countcr
rcvolutionary invasion ol RussiaPoland by thc Freikorps. Tis lorcc
ol Gcrman occrs and mcn was organizcd, paid, and dircctcd by thc
Allicd high command, in an attcmpt to ovcrthrow Lcnins Russian
Rcvolution. ircct anccstors ol Hitlcrs Nazis, thc Freikorps wcrc to
bc thrown back by Lcon Trotskys Rcd Army. 8ut whcn Ycats draltcd
his pocm, undcr its initial titlc, Tc Sccond 8irth, !rish rightists had
thc mistakcn conviction that thc 8olshcviks would bc dclcatcd by a
Prussian mcrccnary army.
Nothing could bc morc arbitrary than Ycatss altcring this pocms
titlc lrom Tc Sccond 8irth to Tc Sccond Coming. Ycats
bclicvcd ncithcr in thc First Coming ol Christ nor thc Sccond, as
prophcsicd in thc Rcvclation ol Saint John thc ivinc. A Gnostic
occultist, Ycats cclcbratcs thc Sccond 8irth ol thc gyptian Sphinx
ol Mcmphis, onccycd ivinity ol thc Sun, a shapc with lion body
and thc hcad ol a man. Tc Grcck Sphinx ol Tcbcs, Riddlcr and
Stranglcr undonc by cdipus, has a womans hcad on a lions body,
and is cxcludcd by Ycats lrom his crcc pocm. Tis Ycatsian Sphinx
rccalls Shcllcys Ozymandias and 8lakcs Urizcn, who will cmcrgc
lrom twcnty ccnturics ol stony slccp until his sccond birth as lallcn
man, that is to say, as oursclvcs.
xvi \olumc !ntroduction
!n his systcmatic trcatisc, A Vision (1925, 1937), Ycats assimilatcd
Tc Sccond Coming to his prcvalcnt csotcricism:
At thc birth ol Christ rcligious lilc bccomcs primary,
sccular lilc antitheticalman givcs to Cacsar thc things that arc
Cacsars. A primary dispcnsation looking bcyond itscll towards
a transccndcnt powcr is dogmatic, lcvcling, unilying, lcmininc,
humanc, pcacc its mcans and cnd, an antithetical dispcnsation
obcys immincnt powcr, is cxprcssivc, hicrarchical, multiplc,
masculinc, harsh, surgical. Tc approaching antithetical inux
and that particular antithetical dispcnsation lor which thc
intcllcctual prcparation has bcgun will rcach its complctc
systcmatization at that momcnt whcn, as ! havc alrcady shown,
thc Grcat Ycar comcs to its intcllcctual climax. Somcthing
ol what ! havc said it must bc, thc myth dcclarcs, lor it must
rcvcrsc our cra and rcsumc past cras in itscll, what clsc it
must bc no man can say, lor always at thc critical momcnt thc
Tirteenth Cone, thc sphcrc, thc uniquc intcrvcncs.
Somcwhcrc in sands ol thc dcscrt
A shapc with lion body and thc hcad ol a man,
A gazc blank and pitilcss as thc sun,
!s moving its slow thighs, whilc all about it
Rccl shadows ol thc indignant dcscrt birds.
A strangc powcr is sharcd by Christ and Sphinx, both rcvclatory
ol opposcd rcbirths. 8ut what is Rcbirth: For Ycats it was a rcpcti
tion ol thc Romantic incarnation ol thc poctical Charactcr, lrom thc
odcs ol Villiam Collins on through 8lakc, Vordsworth, Colcridgc,
Shcllcy and Kcats. Tc Amcrican hcirs ol this iconography includc
Valt Vhitman, Hart Cranc, and Vallacc Stcvcns.
2
Tc rcbirth ol a pcrson as a poct is akin to thc cmcrgcncc ol thc
hcro, a transmcmbcrmcnt ol thc unknowing into tragic knowlcdgc
that tcnds not to bc wisdom. dgar in King Lear, punishing himscll
lor having bccn his hallbrothcr dmunds gullcd victim, dcsccnds
xvii
to thc abyss ol impcrsonating a Tom 8cdlam wandcring, mad
bcggar, and thcn asccnds to thc rolc ol an unnamcd avcngcr, who
cuts dmund down. Tc pattcrn ol rcbirth concludcs morc unhap
pily in Cormac McCarthys Blood Meridian, whcrc thc Kid augmcnts
in moral strcngth until hc is ablc to conlront thc monstrous Judgc
Holdcn, only to bc dcstroycd by thc prctcrnatural Judgc in an ill
matchcd contcst.
As thc hcir ol Romantic tradition, Ycats gaincd much lrom its
charactcristic substitution ol thc poctic gcnius lor thc saint or hcro.
Tc rcbirth ol anyonc as a saint or a hcro is no longcr rhctorically
and spiritually pcrsuasivc. Yct thc rcncwal ol thc scll whcn Valtcr
Vhitman, Jr. bccamc thc rough Valt captivatcs us. !t docs sccm
now, scvcnty ycars altcr Ycatss dcath in 1939, that hc was thc vcry
last poct in thc old, high linc ol 8lakc, Shcllcy, and Nictzschc.
Rcading thcm, and Ycats as thcir son, wc comc to bclicvc in imagi
nativc rcbirth, cvcn il thc poct ol thc Sccond 8irth only can attain
thc apothcosis ol bcing ablc to asscrt, as Ycats did: ! shall nd thc
dark grow luminous, thc void lruitlul whcn ! undcrstand ! havc
nothing, that thc ringcrs in thc towcr havc appointcd lor thc hymcn
ol thc soul a passing bcll.
\olumc !ntroduction
1
THE AENEID, BOOK 6
(VIRGIL)
,.
Introduction: Te Sixth Book of the Aeneid
by H.. 8utlcr
in Te Sixth Book of the Acncid (1920)
IN+voouc+:oN
In his introduction to The Sixth Book of the Aeneid, H.E.
Butler argues that this book is the very heart of the poem
viewed as the National Epic of Rome. Describing how Virgil
(or Vergil, his preferred spelling) for the rst time gives a
denite picture of the life after death, Butler focuses on
renewal and rebirth. As Butler argues, In the response to the
enquiries of his son Anchises sets forth the doctrines of the
ery World-soul that permeates all creation and the wheel of
rebirth: how the earth-stained soul must be puried of its sins
ere it can come to Elysium, and how thence, all, save a happy
few, when they have rolled the wheel of a thousand years,
return to live on earth anew. Thus, Butler describes how a
journey to the underworld, which he calls a Nekyia, leads to
a symbolic rebirth, not only of Aeneas, but also of Troy in the
future greatness of Rome.
f
8utlcr, H.. !ntroduction: Tc Sixth 8ook ol thc Aeneid. Te Sixth Book of the
Acncid. xlord: 8lackwcll Publishing, 1920. 118.
Tc Sixth 8ook ol thc Aeneid, togcthcr with thc Sccond and
Fourth 8ooks, holds a spccial placc in thc acctions ol all lovcrs ol
\crgil. Somc will prclcr thc sombrc tragcdy ol Troy, othcrs thc pathos
ol idos passion and scllslaughtcr. 8ut bc his pcrsonal prcdilcction
what it may, lor thc rcadcr who considcrs thc Aeneid as a wholc and
rcgards it as somcthing morc than a mcrc litcrary cpic, thc Sixth 8ook
must hold a uniquc placc. !t is thc vcry hcart ol thc pocm vicwcd as
thc National pic ol Romc, thc Gesta populi Romani as it was somc
timcs known in ancicnt timcs.
1
Hithcrto thc national clcmcnt has
only bccn shadowcd lorth, in a lcw vaguc prophccics and in thc dying
cursc ol ido. Tc atmosphcrc thus lar is Grcck, and thc pocm no
morc than thc grcatcst ol Hcllcnistic cpics, whilc its hcro is almost as
colourlcss as thc Jason ol thc Argonautica ol Apollonius. 8ut with thc
Sixth 8ook comcs a changc. Vc arc on thc soil ol !taly in a rcgion
lamiliar and vcry dcar to \crgils hcart. Hc dcscribcs sccncs that hc
has known and lovcd, and thc vcrsc bcgins to glow with a richncss ol
dcscriptivc colour that it has hithcrto only rcvcalcd in glimpscs. Tc
Sibyl, thc guidc and instructrcss ol thc hcro, is a gurc closcly linkcd
with Roman history, and thc position which hcr dark oraclcs and thc
worship ol thc god whom shc scrvcs arc to hold at Romc arc uncon
sciously lorctold by Acncas.
2
To cntcr thc world ol thc dcad hc nccds
thc talisman ol thc Goldcn 8ough, which, though its signicancc and
naturc arc obscurc, may wcll rcproducc a picturcsquc lcaturc ol !talian
lolklorc.
3
8ut crc hc can visit thc shadcs ol thc dcad hc must bc puri
cd lrom thc stain ol dcath, lor his comradc Miscnus lics a corpsc on
thc scashorc. And thus is introduccd thc dcscription ol thc lamiliar
ritcs ol luncral, no mcrc ccho ol thc burials ol Hcctor and Patroclus,
but a Roman luncral such as a Roman mourncr lor his dcad could
scarcc havc rcad without tcars.
4
Tc dcsccnt to thc undcrworld takcs
us lor a whilc into a purcly Grcck atmosphcrc. Hcrocs and hcroincs,
ghosts and goblins, hcll and purgatory, thc grouping ol thc spirits, and
thc doctrinc ol rcbirth, all arc Grcck.
5
Tat it should bc so is incvitablc.
Roman bclicls as to thc cxistcncc ol thc dcad wcrc too impcrsonal
and colourlcss to pcrmit ol poctic trcatmcnt, and lrom thc horrors ol
thc truscan Hcll \crgil rightly stood alool. Minos
6
alonc appcars
in Roman garb, as thc quaesitor with thc urn whosc lot dccidcs thc
ordcr in which thc dcad shall appcar bclorc him, and, it may bc, with
a Roman jury ol spirits to assist him. And in thc list ol crimcs that
\irgil 2
doom to ctcrnal pain thcrc arc cchocs ol thc shccr simplicity ol carly
Roman law and dark hints ol morc than onc unnamcd criminal ol
Roman history.
7
8ut whcn wc rcach Anchiscs, thc wholc spirit ol thc
pocm changcs. !t is not that wc lccl an atmosphcrc ol grcatcr bcauty,
lor thc book has bccn lull ol mystcry, romancc, and colour. Suddcnly
thcrc dawns on us thc vision ol thc grandcur ol Romc, and a dccpcr
notc is soundcd than Roman poct had soundcd bclorc or should
sound again. nc by onc thc spirits ol thc unborn pass bclorc us, thc
hcrocs who arc to makc Romc thc mistrcss ol thc world. Tc gallcry
ol portraits is not complctc: thc canvas must not bc ovcrcrowdcd,
and thc gaps arc to bc supplcmcntcd latcr in thc no lcss magniccnt
dcscription ol thc Shicld ol Acncas.
8
8ut lrom thc mythical buildcrs
ol Latium, through thc warrior Romulus, thc pricstly King Numa,
thc loundcr ol thc Rcpublic who sacriccd his own sons to thc public
wcal, to thc hcrocs ol rccordcd history, Fabricius, grcat amid his
povcrty, Rcgulus at thc plough, thc conqucrors ol Grcccc, and thosc
who brokc thc powcr ol Carthagc, Fabius who by his dclaying savcd
thc Statc, and thc Scipios, thc thundcrbolts ol battlc, and nally thc
two grcat protagonists ol thc civil war, cvcry vcrsc is instinct with thc
Roman spirit, cvcry namc wakcs an ccho. !l a slightly morc articial
notc is struck in thc vision ol Augustus, wc must rcmcmbcr that thc
poct was on morc dicult ground. !t is hard to praisc thc living hcro
without cxaggcration or articiality, and thc judgmcnt ol postcrity
may dcstroy thc wholc ccct ol thc pocts art. And yct Augustus,
pcrhaps thc most unhcroic ol hcrocs and thc lcast ol thc grcat mcn
ol history, has stood thc tcst ol timc not ill. For il in sobcr truth hc
had littlc ol thc truc hcro, hc was morc than onc ol thc most astutc ol
statcsmcn. Hc had a grcat and uniquc work to do, and hc kncw not
mcrcly how to do that work and to rcstorc thc shattcrcd labric ol thc
Statc by thc most grandiosc compromisc ol history, but hc kncw also
how to play thc rlc ol thc sccond loundcr ol Romc. And that hc was
acccptcd as such wc cannot doubt. A world sick lor pcacc and ordcr
may havc bccn uncritical in its judgmcnt ol thc man who gavc it what
its soul dcsircd. Horacc and \crgil may havc bccn thc most dcxtcrous
ol Court pocts. 8ut securus iudicat orbis terrarum is not an uttcr lic, and
ncithcr Horacc nor \crgil was a lawning lool. Tcir attcry is inspircd
not mcrcly by gcnius, but by sinccrity as wcll. And il thc modcrn
rcadcr cannot lccl thc thrill that \crgils own agc must havc lclt at
Tc Acncid, 8ook 6 3
4
thc words hic Caesar et omnis Iuli progenies
9
introducing thc romantic
pagcant ol thc ncw Roman cmpirc, cvcn today thcrc is no lccling ol
anticlimax, though thc words lollow on thc supcrb picturc ol Romc ol
thc scvcn hills, whosc rcalm is contcrminous with thc bounds ol carth,
whosc spirit with thc skys, a lrcsh Cybclc
10
riding in pomp through
all thc citics ol carth, with nations and kings ncstling to hcr brcast.
!t is at worst thc apothcosis ol Court poctry, but lor most studcnts ol
Roman history it is somcthing morc.
Tc vision draws to its apparcnt conclusion with thc immortal
comparison bctwccn Grcccc and Romc. Tc worldly grcatncss ol
Romc has bccn dcscribcd, thc poct sccms to closc on a notc ol moral
grandcur.
tu regere imperio populos, Romane, memento
(hae tibi erunt artes) pacisque imponere morem,
parcere subiectis et debellare superbos.
11
And thcrc, pcrhaps, thc vision was intcndcd to closc.
12
8ut thc
cnd is not yct. Marccllus, thc victor ol Clastidium and Nola, advanccs
bcaring thc spolia opima, and with him movcs a youngcr spirit ovcr
shadowcd by thc cloud ol night, thc young Marccllus, son ol ctavia,
thc dcstincd hcir ol Augustus, who dicd untimcly, crc his promisc
could bccomc rcality, and lclt thc thronc ol thc Csars to lall into
othcr and pcrhaps lcss worthy hands. Vhcthcr, as sccms probablc,
this is a latcr addition to a book that was virtually complctc, cannot
bc said with ccrtainty. !t comcs as an uncxpcctcd addition (cp. haec
mirantibus addit), but thc addition is ccctcd with consummatc art. !l
thc praisc ol Augustus rings articial to thc cars ol somc, who cannot
rcndcr to Csar what thcy cannot conccivc to bc his duc, hcrc all
lorgct that thcy arc rcading thc uttcrancc ol a Court poct. For thc
pathos is intcnscly human, and thc spirit ol thc boy who was born lor
thc purplc is still duly subordinatcd to his grcat anccstor who lulllcd
in dccds what dcstiny did not sucr his dcsccndant to pcrlorm.
From this point thc book draws to a rapid closc and with thc
magical cxit through thc gatcs ol slccp Acncas is oncc again in uppcr
air, and procccds without dclay upon his appointcd task, a man ncw
ncrvcd lor his grcat task, and, as thc subscqucnt dcvclopmcnt ol his
charactcr shows, a hcro indccd.
\irgil
5
So much lor what is thc prcdominant lcaturc ol thc Sixth Aeneid,
thc lcaturc which givcs it spccial signicancc and powcr. 8ut it is not
with thc Roman clcmcnt that its grcatncss cnds. Trough almost cvcry
passagc runs that haunting and romantic bcauty ol which \crgil was a
suprcmc mastcr. Tc mystcrious pricstcss and sccr, thc gloomy woods
ol Avcrnus, through which thc goldcn bough scnds its uncarthly
shimmcr, thc dark cavc and thc solcmn sacriccs on Avcrnus shorc,
thc grcat invocation to thc gods ol thc undcrworld and thc spirits ol
thc silcnt dcad, all lorm a noblc introduction to thc mystcrious journcy
undcrground, in thc dim light as ol laint moonbcams whcn Jupitcr
has vcilcd thc hcavcn with shadow and takcn colour lrom thc world.
!l thc lowcr world itscll is conluscd lor thosc who dcsirc a rcgion
as carclully mappcd out and organiscd as antcs !nlcrno, thcrc can
bc no doubt as to thc ccctivcncss ol cach succcssivc sccnc, nor ol thc
grimncss ol thc monstcrs and goblins that haunt thc gatcs and portals
ol Hcll. Mythology is ncvcr an cncumbrancc, thc gurcs ol lcgcnd arc
wcll choscn, and thc poct is at his bcst in thc bricl dcscriptions which
hc givcs ol thcir pains or ol thcir crimcs. Abovc all, thc mccting with
ido stands out lor its dramatic powcr, and thc gurc ol thc Quccn
ol Carthagc standing with sick and scornlul looks avcrsc spurning
thc cxcuscs ocrcd by hcr laithlcss lovcr was ncvcr surpasscd cvcn by
\crgil.
Until wc rcach lysium thcrc broods ovcr thc wholc dcscrip
tion ol thc dcad an innitc mclancholy. Sucring lor sin thcrc is,
but that is dcalt with but bricy. Non ragionam di lor, ma guarda e
passa. 8ut thc sadncss ol dcath is ovcr all, whcthcr \crgil writcs ol
thc ghosts, strcaming likc autumn lcavcs or migratory birds to thc
banks ol Styx and strctching thcir hands in ycarning lor thc lurthcr
shorc, or ol thc crying ol dcad childrcn, or ol thc hatcrs ol thc light,
thc slaycrs ol thcmsclvcs who would gladly livc thcir lilc again, ol thc
sad lovcrs in thc Ficlds ol Gricl or ol thc dcad warriors, old lricnds
and old cncmics, who prcss round thc hcro or y bclorc him as thcy
cd in lilc. !t is a blcnd ol popular supcrstition and litcrary mythology
colourcd and inucnccd by Platonic or rphic cschatology.
13
Tat
thcrc is at timcs a ccrtain conlusion and lack ol clcarncss in thc
dcscription ol this twilight world may bc admittcd,
14
but thcrc can bc
no qucstion as to thc picturcsqucncss, thc romancc and pathos which
suuscs thc wholc.
Tc Acncid, 8ook 6
6
Vhcn lysium is rcachcd, thc pocts grasp ol his thcmc tightcns.
Altcr an cxquisitc dcscription ol thc lysian clds, lull ol its happy
warriors, its stainlcss pricsts, thc crcators ol civilisation and thc
mastcrs ol song, dancing to thc music ol rphcus in a land ol light,
with its own sun and stars, thc poct brings us to Anchiscs watching
thc spirits ol thc grcat unborn. !n rcsponsc to thc cnquirics ol his son
Anchiscs scts lorth thc doctrincs ol thc cry Vorldsoul that pcrmc
atcs all crcation and ol thc whccl ol rcbirth: how thc carthstaincd
soul must bc puricd ol its sins crc it can comc to lysium, and how
thcncc, all, savc a happy lcw, whcn thcy havc rollcd thc whccl ol a
thousand ycars, rcturn to livc on carth ancw. Hcrc still thc atmosphcrc
is Grcck, bc thc sourccs, to which wc shall rcturn, what thcy will. And
\crgil riscs to thc hcight ol his bcautilul thcmc and lor thc rst timc
givcs a dcnitc picturc ol thc lilc altcr dcath, though cvcn hcrc thcrc
arc dicultics and obscuritics, which, in thc opinion ol somc, still
await solution. 8ut ol thc nobility ol thc picturc as a wholc nonc havc
doubtcd. For purc poctry and cxquisitc diction it ranks with thc vcry
bcst ol \crgils work.
To ask How lar is it to bc takcn scriously: may sccm an irrcvcrcnt
qucstion. 8ut it is a rcal qucstion as to whcthcr \crgil is prcaching a
doctrinc in which hc bclicvcs or whcthcr hc rcgards it as a gennaion
yendos. Tc qucstion admits ol no dcnitc answcr. !t is suggcstcd by
Scrvius that hc was an picurcan,
15
and lor that wc may comparc
his pancgyric ol Lucrctius in thc Gcorgics.
16
Vc arc told too that
hc intcndcd on thc complction ol thc Aeneid to dcvotc himscll to
philosophy.
17
8ut ol his lcanings wc havc no rcal indication. Tc
tcaching ol Pythagoras and thc Mystcrics could not but appcal to
him as a poct, and lor onc who dcsigncd to givc anything morc than
a purcly mythological dcscription ol thc undcrworld, thc doctrinc ol
mctcmpsychosis imposcd itscll as a ncccssity. And lor thc poct who,
likc \crgil, dcsigncd to rcvcal thc luturc in a vision ol thc unborn
hcrocs ol Romc, its adoption bccamc doubly impcrativc. !t is a subjcct
on which it wcrc ill to dogmatisc. 8ut thc primary purposc ol \crgils
Pythagorcanism may wcll havc bccn artistic rathcr than rcligious. Tat
thc thcologian in \crgil is sunk in thc artist thcrc can bc littlc doubt,
and it is cvcn possiblc that his artistic dcsign is thc raison dtre purc
and simplc ol his cschatology. To somc this may sccm littlc short ol
blasphcmy. 8ut it is a possibility which ought not to bc ignorcd.
\irgil
7
!t is latc in thc day to bclaud thc Sixth Aeneid. !ts bcautics arc
lamiliar, its praisc a commonplacc. 8ut it is not laultlcss. Tc conccp
tion ol thc undcrworld is not clcar. A ccrtain vagucncss in thc trcat
mcnt ol such a thcmc has no doubt somc romantic advantagcs, and
that in thc prcscnt casc \crgil maintains a consistcnt lcvcl ol romantic
bcauty is not to bc dcnicd. Vith minor blcmishcs and inconsistcn
cics wc nccd not conccrn oursclvcs hcrc. All grcat works ol ction
arc liablc to such, cvcn whcn, unlikc thc Aeneid, thcy havc rcccivcd
thc nal rcvision ol thcir authors. 8ut thcrc arc ccrtain qucstions ol a
morc scrious naturc which incvitably prcscnt thcmsclvcs and rcquirc
somc mcntion hcrc, although thcy arc discusscd in grcatcr dctail in
thc commcntary. !n thc carlicr portion ol thc book thcrc is nothing
that calls lor scrious criticism. Tcrc arc, it is truc, ccrtain indications
that thc cpisodc ol thc dcath and burial ol Miscnus did not lorm part
ol thc original dralt ol thc pocm, but it has bccn so skillully inscrtcd
that thcrc can bc no ccrtainty on this point.
18
Again, thc prophccy ol
thc Sibyl is ol a pcrlunctory naturc, tclling Acncas but littlc that hc
docs not alrcady know, and in any casc lailing cntircly to corrcspond
with thc prcdiction ol Hclcnus that thc Sibyl will tcll him all that
shall bclall him in !taly.
19
Tis is partly to bc cxplaincd by thc lact that
thc lunction assigncd by Hclcnus to thc Sibyl is actually pcrlormcd by
Anchiscs, and partly by thc lact that a ccrtain vagucncss and obscurity
is a rcgular charactcristic ol ancicnt oraclcs, whilc, lurthcr, thcrc is
somc cvidcncc that thc prophccy in its prcscnt lorm is incomplctc.
8ut thcrc can bc no doubt that thc gurc ol thc Sibyl occupics a lar
lcss important placc in thc picturc than was dcsigncd by \crgil whcn
hc wrotc thc Tird 8ook.
!t is, howcvcr, whcn wc rcach thc undcrworld that thc rcal di
cultics bcgin. Tc rst problcm prcscnts itscll immcdiatcly altcr thc
passagc ol thc Styx. Vhat is thc position ol thc spirits who dwcll on
thc lurthcr shorc, but havc no part cithcr in thc pains ol Tartarus or
thc joys ol lysium: Tc souls ol young childrcn, ol mcn unjustly
condcmncd to dcath, ol suicidcs, ol haplcss lovcrs and warriors lallcn
in battlc, all dwcll in a kind ol Limbo, ol whosc naturc and purposc
\crgil givcs no hint. Rcccnt rcscarch has thrown somc light upon thc
mattcr. Nordcn
20
provcs conclusivcly that this grouping ol spirits was
traditional, that thc principlc undcrlying this grouping is that all arc
thc souls ol thosc who dicd untimcly, and that thcrc arc traccs ol an
Tc Acncid, 8ook 6
8
cschatological doctrinc that such spirits wcrc condcmncd to wandcr
aimlcssly until thc tcrm ol thcir natural lilc was lulllcd. n thc othcr
hand, hc has lailcd to providc a kcy to thc passagc as it stands. For not
mcrcly docs \crgil ignorc this doctrinc, but hc is also unsystcmatic in
his grouping, sincc among his dcad lovcrs and warriors hc has placcd
not a lcw who, il strict mythological chronology wcrc lollowcd, would
by now havc complctcd thcir tcrm ol wandcring. Furthcr, Sychus
appcars among thc victims ol lovc, whilc ido might as appropriatcly
havc appcarcd among thc suicidcs. Tcsc criticisms may pcrhaps sccm
carping. 8ut thcy arc not without thcir importancc whcn takcn into
conjunction with \crgils silcncc on thc cardinal pointnamcly, thc
rcason lor thc prcscncc ol thcsc spirits in thc outcr Limbo. !t has long
bccn lclt by critics that this portion ol \crgils Nckyia was conlusing
and lackcd signicancc, nor can it bc said that thc diculty is rcmovcd
by Nordcns statcmcnt ol thc casc. Tcrc is but onc thcory that will
clcar \crgil ol thc chargc ol carclcssncss and incohcrcncc. Vc must
assumc that this portion ol thc Sixth 8ook givcs thc pocts rough
dralt, and that hc had intcndcd to add thc ncccssary cxplanations
which would havc rcndcrcd thc position ol thcsc spirits intclligiblc. !t
is no dclcncc to say that \crgil, likc Plato,
21
may havc rcgardcd this
doctrinc as trivial and unworthy ol mcntion. For Plato its supprcssion
madc no dicrcncc, sincc hc virtually ignorcs this group ol spirits.
8ut \crgil has not so ignorcd thcm, hc has dcscribcd thcm with somc
dctail and lclt his rcadcr pcrplcxcd as to thc rcason lor thcir appcar
ancc at this point ol his story. Tat thcrc must havc bccn somc rcason
lor this grouping is obvious, that thc cxplanation givcn by Nordcn is
truc is highly probablc, and that \crgil was awarc mcrcly ol thc tradi
tional location ol thcsc spirits, but unawarc ol thc rcason, is cxtrcmcly
unlikcly. Tc dccp pathos ol thc lincs in which hc dcscribcs thcir latc
docs not cxcusc or cxplain away thc blcmish. Tc introduction ol thc
spirits ol thosc who dicd lor lovc or lcll in war has obvious advantagcs
ol which \crgil makcs noblc usc in thc sccncs whcrc Acncas mccts
ido and his old lricnds and comradcs ol Troy. 8ut that is no rcason
why wc should bc lclt in darkncss as to thc rcason ol his mccting thcm
whcrc hc docs. Nor yct again can thc diculty bc mct by thc plca that
hc omittcd to cxplain, bccausc hc was spcaking to thosc that undcr
stood. Roman lamiliarity with Grcck cschatology was not such as to
justily thc omission to providc a kcy to thc mystcry.
\irgil
9
So, too, wc arc pcrplcxcd by thc introduction ol Minos as judging
in this mystcrious Limbo.
22
Tcrc is no qucstion ol punishmcnt or
rcward: thc lunctions ol thc judgc sccm to bc conncd mcrcly to thc
allotmcnt ol a dwcllingplacc to thc souls that comc bclorc him. Tc
judgmcnt ol thc grcat sinncrs is lclt to Rhadamanthus.
23
!t will, it is
truc, involvc no inconsistcncy, il wc supposc that Minos mcrcly allots
a dwcllingplacc, whilc Rhadamanthus assigns punishmcnt lor sin.
8ut why is thc dcscription ol thc court ol Minos cmbcddcd bctwccn
two groups ol thosc who dicd untimcly: !t is no doubt suggcstcd by
thc mcntion ol thosc who wcrc unjustly condcmncd on carth, upon
which it lollows immcdiatcly. Tc judgc ol thc dcad may bc conccivcd
as rcctilying thc miscarriagc ol justicc in thc world abovc. 8ut wc
should cxpcct Minos to appcar as thc judgc ol all thc dcad, and not
to bc associatcd mcrcly with thc spirits ol thosc who dwcll in Limbo.
Plcad as wc may, thc wholc situation is lclt obscurc by thc position ol
thc passagc, thc lack ol cxplanation, and thc unsystcmatic dcvclop
mcnt ol thc subjcct. Vc arc oncc morc drivcn to thc thcory that thc
passagc as it stands is in thc rough. !t may cvcn bc doubtcd whcthcr
thc lincs dcaling with Minos arc in thc actual position which thc poct
dcsigncd thcm ultimatcly to occupy. 8ut no rcmcdy is possiblc. Tc
mischicl was donc by \crgils own untimcly dcath, and thcrc is no
rcason to supposc that any blamc attachcs to his cditors, \arius and
Tucca.
Nor is this thc only sign ol such lack ol complction. !t is hard to
bclicvc that \crgils dcscription ol thc sinncrs in Tartarus has comc
down to us in what hc intcndcd to bc its nal lorm. Tc passagc
bcgins with a dcscription ol somc ol thc morc striking cxamplcs ol
punishmcnt lor grcat sin.
24
!n this portion thc only indication ol lack
ol complction is thc attribution to !xion and Pirithous ol punishmcnts
quitc othcr than thosc usually assigncd to thcm, though lamiliar in
conncxion with othcr sinncrs.
25
Tat this is duc to tcxtual corrup
tion is highly improbablc, whilc it is not likcly, in vicw ol \crgils
trcatmcnt ol !xion in thc lourth Gcorgic, in a passagc writtcn in all
probability at no vcry distant datc lrom thc prcscnt,
26
that hc had in
his mind othcr vcrsions ol thc lcgcnd. Tc most probablc cxplanation
is that a linc rclcrring to Tantalus and othcrs should havc prcccdcd
thc dcscription ol thc pcnalty, but that thc poct had not writtcn thc
rcquircd linc or lincs in a lorm that satiscd him at thc timc ol his
Tc Acncid, 8ook 6
10
dcath. Tis is, howcvcr, a lcss scrious problcm than that which lollows
hard upon its hccls. Tc Sibyl procccds to mcntion ccrtain classcs ol
criminal without any rclcrcncc to mythology, thosc that in lilc hatcd
thcir brcthrcn or struck thcir parcnts, playcd thcir clicnts lalsc or
broodcd miscrlikc ovcr thcir gold and gavc no sharc to thcir kin,
adultcrcrs slain lor thcir sin, and thosc that wagcd impious warlarc or
armcd slavcs against thcir mastcrs.
27
Tcn comcs a short list ol typical
pcnaltics,
28
which is lollowcd oncc again by a short list ol typical crim
inalstraitors who cnslavcd thcir country, corrupt politicians, and
thosc guilty ol inccst.
29
Now, although thcrc was no nccd lor \crgil
to givc an cxhaustivc list ol crimcs or punishmcnts lor crimc, thc ordcr
sccms conluscd and thc sclcction ol crimcs somcwhat casual. Tc tcxt
as it stands bclorc us, is cxactly what wc should cxpcct to arisc il thc
poct had writtcn dicrcnt portions ol thc passagc at dicrcnt timcs
30

with a vicw to wclding thcm into a compact and artistic wholc. cath
prcvcntcd this, and his cditors did thcir bcst to givc thc passagc a lorm
as littlc unsatislactory as possiblc. Tcy did thcir work with skill and
discrction, but thcrc is still a lack ol organisation and unity about thc
passagc as it stands.
Tc rcmaindcr ol thc book stands on a dicrcnt looting. Vith
thc cxccption ol thc lact that thc vision ol Csar ol Pompcy is unn
ishcd, as thc halllinc, proice tela manu, sanguis meus,
31
shows, and not
to spcak ol thc lact that a littlc grcatcr claboration ol so important
a thcmc might sccm to bc dcsirablc, thcrc is nothing to lcad us to
supposc that wc havc not \crgils last word. icultics thcrc arc, but
nonc ol thcm insupcrablc. Vc can lorm no clcar idca as to what \crgil
mcans by thc clds ol air,
32
as a dcscription ol lysium, and thc
cxact signicancc ol thc hcros cxit by thc drcamgatc ol ivory
33
has
long bccn a problcm to \crgilian critics. 8oth may bc rclics ol somc
carlicr dcsign to rcprcscnt thc vision ol thc world ol spirits in thc lorm
ol a drcam, and thc spirits ol thc blcst may in that schcmc havc bccn
rcprcscntcd, likc thc hcrocs ol thc Somnium Scipionis, as dwclling
in thc highcst hcavcns. 8ut that must bc a mattcr lor conjccturc and,
whatcvcr cxplanation wc adopt, wc can scarccly rcgard thc prcscncc ol
thcsc passagcs as indicating lack ol complction. So, too, thc cxquisitc
Marccllus cpisodc rcvcals ccrtain indications ol bcing a latcr addition,
but its inscrtion has bccn accomplishcd with such skill that thc voicc
ol criticism must bc silcnt. Morc scrious is thc wcllknown diculty
\irgil
11
prcscntcd by thc pocts account ol thc doctrinc ol mctcmpsychosis.
8ut hcrc Nordcn
34
has providcd a rcasonablc solution ol thc diculty.
Tc grcat bulk ol thc spirits ol lysium rcturn to carth altcr thcy
havc rollcd thc whccl ol a thousand ycars. Tc lcw who abidc in
thc happy clds arc thosc who lor thcir virtuc arc sparcd thc travail
ol rcbirth: thcy dwcll in bliss, cach ycar rcmoving thc stains ol carth
until thc orb ol timc is complctc, and altcr thc passagc ol ten thou-
sand ycars arc rcstorcd to thc purc cthcrcal bcing that oncc was thcirs,
bclorc thcy taught thcmsclvcs to
lashion aught
8ut a purc cclcstial thought.
l thc ultimatc dcstiny ol thc happy spirit, bccomc all rc, all air,
\crgil says nothing, whcthcr it rcmains in pcrlcction ol bliss in thc
paradisc whcrc it now dwclls, or is caught up into thc cmpyrcan and
rcabsorbcd into thc divinc rc.
35
!t was not ncccssary that hc should
say morc: hc is poct, not mystagoguc, and his main dcsign is to
writc thc pic ol thc Roman pcoplc. Such vagucncss and obscurity
as thcrc is in his cxposition ol thc doctrinc ol rcbirth is not ol so
scrious a naturc that it nccd troublc us, and il it bc urgcd that an
cxact parallcl lor Nordcns intcrprctation is not lorthcoming, it is
sucicntly ncar thc Pythagorcan doctrincs as sct lorth by Plato and
thc latcr syncrctistic school ol Stoics to makc but small dcmand upon
our laith. !t is always possiblc that thc pocts nal rcvision would
havc produccd a clcarcr picturc. 8ut thcrc is no nccd to postulatc
thc ncccssity ol such rcvision. For whatcvcr vicw wc takc ol \crgils
Nckyia, on onc point all critics will bc agrccd, that thcrc is but
onc othcr vision to bc comparcd with it, thc ivina Commcdia ol
antc, who, whilc lollowing othcr mcthods and aiming at an accu
racy ol dctail, topographical and othcrwisc, such as his prcdcccssor
ncvcr contcmplatcd, paid thc Sixth Aeneid thc noblcst ol all tributcs
by choosing \crgil lor his guidc through thc circlcs ol thc !nlcrno.
Vhatcvcr its blcmishcs and obscuritics, rcal or imaginary, thc Sixth
Aeneid is uniquc, and cvcn although criticism may bc a labour ol
lovc and a tributc ol admiration, thc critic cannot cscapc thc lccling
that hc docs it wrong, bcing so majcstical, by subjccting it to such
analysis.
Tc Acncid, 8ook 6
12
NOTES
1. Scrv. ad Acn. 6. 752.
2. Scc notcs on 69, 71.
3. Scc notcs on 141, 204.
4. Scc notcs on 212232.
5. Scc !ntrod., p. 21 .
6. Scc notcs on 4314 and p. 13.
7. Scc notcs on 612, 613 and 621, 622.
8. 8. 626 to cnd.
9. 789.
10. 785.
11. 851 sqq.
12. Scc Sabbadini, Aeneis IV., V., VI., !ntrod. xxiii, xxiv.
13. Scc !ntrod., p. 19 .
14. Scc !ntrod., p. 12 .
15. Scrv. ad Acn. 6. 264. cl. 6. 13.
16. 2. 490.
17. Sucton., Vit. Verg. 35.
18. Scc notc on l. 149, Sabbadini, Aeneis IV., V., VI., p. xvii.
19. 3. 440462, 6. 8397, 8902, !ntrod., 3.
20. Nordcn, VI. Aeneis, !ntrod., pp. 10 sqq. Scc 426547,
!ntroductory Notc.
21. Rcp. 10615 C.
22. 431 sqq.
23. 566.
24. 580.
25. 601607.
26. Scc 305 notc.
27. 608614.
28. 615620.
29. 621624.
30. Scc !ntrod., 3, A.
31. 835.
32. 887.
33. 893 sqq.
34. Nordcn, pp. 16 sqq. Scc 733751, !ntroductory Notc.
35. 8ut cp. Gcorg. 4, 223.
\irgil
13
THE AWAKENING
(KATE CHOPIN)
,.
Renewal and Rebirth
in Kate Chopins Te Awakening
by Robert C. Evans,
University of Auburn at Montgomery
As its title suggests, Kate Chopins novel Te Awakening is a book
about renewal and rebirth. Edna Pontellier, its central character, is
a young wife and mother whose life and outlook transform while
she spends a summer vacation at Grand Isle, a resort o the coast of
Louisiana, not far from New Orleans. During that vacation, she meets
Robert Lebrun, an attractive and attentive young man whose mother
owns the resort where Edna is staying with her middle-aged husband,
Lonce, a staid and conventional businessman, and their two small
boys. Tanks to her contact with Robert and also to the inuence of
her changed surroundings (including, especially, the impact of the
seductively beautiful ocean), Edna begins to realize how dissatised
she has become with her married life, which she nds increasingly
predictable, constraining, and oppressive. With Roberts help she
learns to swim, and as she nds herself more and more attracted to
him, she also becomes more and more frustrated withand resistant
toLonces inuence on her existence. Just as she begins to realize
that she has fallen in love with Robert, however, he departs abruptly
for Mexico. He fears his own deepening feelings for her and the
destructive impact that his growing closeness to Edna may have on
her relations with her husband and children.
14
Ednas dissatisfaction with her old way of life, however,
continues to grow even after Robert leaves and she returns to New
Orleans with Lonce and their boys. She begins to neglect her
social obligations, she devotes herself increasingly to her interest
in painting, and she grows obviously distant from Lonce, both
emotionally and sexually. When he departs for New York City
on an extended business trip, she not only begins an aair with
a notorious rake named Alce Arobin but also moves out of the
imposing home she and Lonce have shared. Establishing herself
in a small cottage nearby, she enjoys her newfound independence
but also keenly regrets Roberts absence. When she unexpect-
edly discovers him in New Orleans one day, they briey resume
their earlier emotional intimacy. When Robert once again quickly
departs because he is convinced that Edna can never be his wife,
Edna impulsively returns to Grand Isle, walks down to the beach,
strips o her clothes, and swims into the Gulf of Mexico, from
which she never emerges.
Clearly Edna, in some senses, is renewed and reborn during
the course of this novel, but just as clearly her renewal and rebirth
are complicated and perhaps even ironic. Edna, after all, is either a
drowning victim or a woman who commits suicide; thus whatever
renewal she undergoes leads to her physical destruction, and what-
ever rebirth she enjoys also results in her literal death. Te nal
chapter of the book, in fact, has always been highly controversial;
many of Chopins contemporaries condemned the ending as morally
scandalous, and more recent critics have often strongly disagreed
about the signicance of Ednas death. At the end of the book, many
questions remain unanswered: Is Edna a weak-willed, deluded, and
even selsh woman who ignores the real virtues of her husband while
also neglecting her genuine obligations to her children in order to
pursue a romantic fantasy that leads to pointless self-destruction? Is
Edna a courageous individualist who refuses to be bound by societys
strictures and whose death is a valuable armation of individual
freedom? Is Edna, in short, genuinely renewed and reborn in spite
of (and perhaps even through) her eventual death, or is her death
merely the inevitable culmination of a life that has grown increas-
ingly foolish, selsh, and self-deceived? Does Edna undergo a meta-
phorical rebirth at the end of the book, or does her watery demise
Kate Chopin
15
abort any potcntial rcbirth: Such dicult qucstions without casy
answcrs comprisc grcat works ol art.
Tc book is compclling in part bccausc it is so morally and artisti
cally complcx, and dnas charactcr, likc thc signicancc ol thc nal
chaptcr, is cspccially dicult to intcrprct. !n onc passagc altcr anothcr
rclatcd to dnas translormation, Chopin givcs us languagc opcn to
various undcrstandings and makcs mcaning oltcn hard to pin down.
dna can bcand has bccnintcrprctcd cithcr as a daring scckcr ol
cxistcntial lrccdom or as an incrcasingly scllccntcrcd romantic whosc
dcath is thc prcdictablc rcsult ol a lilclong indulgcncc in unrcalistic
and irrcsponsiblc lantasics. Chopins subtlc, lrcqucntly ambiguous
languagc oltcn makcs it dicult to dccidc how, cxactly, to rcspond to
dnas thoughts, lcclings, and bchavior, this sort ol ambiguity hclps
makc thc novcl a work ol art rathcr than a simplc propagandistic tract
lor cithcr sidc ol thc moral dcbatc thc book has inspircd.
nc ol thc carlicst passagcs showing dnas growing dissatis
laction with hcr lilc is in Chaptcr 3. Loncc has just comc back to
thcir rcsort cottagc altcr a night ol gambling with his lricnds, and
hc awakcns dna. Annoycd that thc stilldrowsy dna sccms to pay
him littlc attcntion, hc accuscs hcr ol ncglccting thc hcalth ol onc ol
thcir boys, who Loncc claims is sucring lrom a lcvcr. Altcr rising
lrom bcd and assuring hcrscll that thcir son is nc, dna is suddcnly
lclt alonc with hcr thoughts and cmotions (sincc Loncc has alrcady
lallcn aslccp):
An indcscribablc opprcssion, which sccmcd to gcncratc in somc
unlamiliar part ol hcr consciousncss, llcd hcr wholc bcing
with a vaguc anguish. !t was likc a shadow, likc a mist passing
across hcr souls summcr day. !t was strangc and unlamiliar,
it was a mood. Shc did not sit thcrc inwardly upbraiding hcr
husband, lamcnting at Fatc, which had dircctcd hcr lootstcps
to thc path which thcy had takcn. Shc was just having a good
cry to hcrscll. (9)
Most rcadcrs will likcly sympathizc with dna at this point in thc
book. Lonccs bchavior has just bccn boorish and thoughtlcss, and
lcw pcoplc would bcgrudgc dna hcr lcclings ol lrustration and
annoyancc. Admittcdly, Chopin docs imply hcrc that dna sccms
Tc Awakcning
16
to lack complete self-understanding and may be subject to shifting
moods, but few people are immune to these shortcomings, and so, at
this point in the text, Ednas reactions seem unobjectionable and are
hardly extraordinary. Already, though, Chopin has begun to prepare
us for the apparent death of Ednas old self and the birth of her new
persona.
Tis emphasis on Ednas transformation becomes especially
apparent near the close of Chapter 6, in paragraphs that are among
the most important in the entire book:
In short, Mrs. Pontellier was beginning to realize her
position in the universe as a human being, and to recognize her
relations as an individual to the world within and about her.
Tis may seem like a ponderous weight of wisdom to descend
upon the soul of a young woman of twenty-eightperhaps
more wisdom than the Holy Ghost is usually pleased to
vouchsafe to any woman.
But the beginning of things, of a world especially, is
necessarily vague, tangled, chaotic, and exceedingly disturbing.
How few of us ever emerge from such beginning! How many
souls perish in its tumult! (16)
Te eector, rather, the eectsof these paragraphs cannot easily
be assessed or described. At rst Chopin seems to credit Edna with
insight and understanding: She begins to realize and recognize
her status in life, but Chopin never makes clear what that status is or
how Edna understands it. Te language of realization and recogni-
tion then gives way to phrasing that suggests revelation. With words
that recall the biblical annunciation, in which the Virgin Mary
is told that she has become mysteriously pregnant with her own
future savior, Chopin implies that Edna has been granted a special
wisdom. However, the eect of the phrasing is complicated since
the narrator describes this wisdom as resembling a ponderous
weight. Tus, on the one hand Chopin seems to suggest that Edna
has been blessed, but on the other she implies that the revelation
may prove to be a crushing burden. Marys annunciation was a
joyous event, but Ednas may not bepartly (it is implied) because
Edna, unlike Mary, may be incapable of bearing the weight that
Kate Chopin
17
is dcsccnding upon hcr. Tis ominous undcrcurrcnt is thcn high
lightcd and cmphasizcd in thc ncxt paragraph, whcrc cach scntcncc
bccomcs incrcasingly troublcsomc and litcrally disturbing. Tcsc
two paragraphs pcrlcctly cpitomizc thc mcthod ol this cntirc
ambiguous, ambivalcnt novcl: Rcalization and rccognition, which
at rst sccm likc things to bc cclcbratcd, arc latcr trcatcd as potcn
tially dangcrous thrcats. Likc childbirth itscll, thc proccss ol dnas
rcbirthil that is what is indccd has bcgun to occurwill not bc
an casy onc. !t may producc somcthing valuablc and prccious, but
it will almost ccrtainly involvc pain and may rcsult in scrious risk or
cvcn dcath. Chopin could casily havc writtcn a morc chccry, opti
mistic book, just as shc could casily havc writtcn onc morc lull ol
obviously hcavy gloom. !nstcad, shc chosc thc morc dicult path
ol trying to portray both thc promisc and thc risks as wcll as thc
rcwards and thc costs ol dnas translormation.
Chopin cvcn implics, at various points, that dna is not truly
bcing rcborn or rcncwcd at all but may instcad mcrcly bc rcpcating
tircd, stalc pattcrns lrom hcr past. Vc discovcr in Chaptcr 7, lor
instancc, that as a young girl and adolcsccnt dna had a habit
ol bccoming inlatuatcd with sccmingly attractivc but ultimatcly
unattainablc mcn. ncc, lor instancc, shc bccamc passionatcly
cnamorcd ol a dignicd and sadcycd cavalry occr who visitcd
hcr lathcr in Kcntucky, but hc soon mcltcd impcrccptibly out ol
hcr cxistcncc (20). At anothcr timc, hcr acctions wcrc dccply
cngagcd by a young gcntlcman who visitcd a lady on a ncighboring
plantation, but thc rcalization (an intcrcsting word) that dna
mcant nothing, nothing, nothing to thc cngagcd young man was
a bittcr aiction to hcr, so that hc, too, wcnt thc way ol drcams
(20). Tc cxaggcratcd and rcpctitious languagc (nothing, nothing,
nothing) suggcsts dnas litcral immaturity at that timc, but
Chopin notcs that dna had bccomc:
a grown young woman whcn shc was ovcrtakcn by what shc
supposcd to bc thc climax ol hcr latc. !t was whcn thc lacc
and gurc ol a grcat tragcdian bcgan to haunt hcr imagination
and stir hcr scnscs. Tc pcrsistcncc ol thc inlatuation lcnt it an
aspcct ol gcnuincncss. Tc hopclcssncss ol it colorcd it with thc
lolty tuncs ol a grcat passion.
Tc Awakcning
18
Edna kept a framed picture of this actor on her desk, and when
alone she sometimes picked it up and kissed the cold glass passion-
ately (21). It was not long, though, before the tragedian had gone
to join the cavalry ocer and the engaged young man and a few
others; and Edna found herself face to face with realities (21). By
this time she had married Lonce Pontellier, partly because his
absolute devotion attered her (21), and partly to spite her father
and elder sister, who disapproved of any alliance with a Catholic.
Both in her multiple infatuations, then, as well as in her marriage,
Edna had been motivated mainly by romantic impulsiveness and a
desire to have her own way.
Are her growing feelings for Robert any dierent? Is Edna, in other
words, being reborn and renewed through her increasing attachment
to Robert, or is she merely reverting to earlier patterns of thought,
emotion, and behavior? As usual, Chopin provides evidence that can
be understood in both ways, and sometimes it is the same evidence
that can thus be diversely interpreted. At one point, for instance, as
Edna starts to assert her independence from Lonce in an increas-
ingly forthright manner, the narrator notes that Edna nevertheless
began to feel like one who awakens gradually out of a dream, a deli-
cious, grotesque, impossible dream, to feel again the realities pressing
into her soul (36). Te dream mentioned here is, presumably, the
dream of a life free from her current marital and maternal responsibili-
tiesthe dream of a life in which she might enjoy, untrammeled and
unhindered, her newfound relationship with Robert. Yet that dream,
however delicious it may momentarily appear to her, also seems
grotesque and impossible. Tus, while the language of awakening
is often used in this novel to describe a rebirth to the possibility of a
new kind of life, here that same term is used to describe an awakening
to harsh and inescapable realities. Te passage is therefore typical of
the way Chopin provides multiple and often conicting perspectives
on Ednas supposed rebirth and renewal through her developing rela-
tionship with Robert.
When Robert suddenly announces his intention to leave Grand
Isleand, indeed, to leave even New Orleans itselfin order to
venture o to Mexico, Edna is devastated: For the rst time she
recognized anew the symptoms of infatuation which she had felt
incipiently as a child, as a girl in her earliest teens, and later as a young
Kate Chopin
19
woman. Tc rccognition did not lcsscn thc rcality, thc poignancy ol
thc rcvclation by any suggcstion or promisc ol instability. Tc past
was nothing to hcr, ocrcd no lcsson which shc was willing to hccd.
Tc luturc was a mystcry which shc ncvcr attcmptcd to pcnctratc. Tc
prcscnt alonc was signicant, was hcrs, to torturc hcr as it was doing
thcn with thc biting conviction that shc had lost that which shc had
hcld, that shc had bccn dcnicd that which hcr impassioncd, ncwly
awakcncd bcing dcmandcd. (51)
dna knows that at this point shc may havc lallcn into a pattcrn
in hcr rclationship with Robcrt. Tis pattcrn mcrcly rcplicatcs thc
lutilc inlatuations ol hcr youth, this awarcncss ocrs no lcsson which
shc was willing to hccd (italics addcd). Shc lccls that hcr bcing has
bccn ncwly awakcncd, but this supposcd awakcning may simply
bc a rcvcrsion to pattcrns that havc lcd nowhcrc (and to nothing)
in thc past. !l gcnuinc rcbirth implics a truc opcnncss to prolound
changc and a sinccrc willingncss to grow and dcvclop, this passagc
suggcsts that dna is awakcning in somc ways whilc rcmaining aslccp
(or conncd to thc past) in othcrs. Hcrc as so oltcn in this novcl,
Chopins phrasing cuts both ways.
No wondcr Loncc is conluscd by dna! !ntcrprcting hcr changcs
is at lcast as hard lor him as it is lor Chopins rcadcrs. Tus thc
narrator notcs that oncc thc couplc has rcturncd to Ncw rlcans and
oncc dna has bcgun to rcjcct thc pattcrns ol rcspcctablc middlc
class bchavior that prcviously dcncd hcr lilc, it somctimcs cntcrcd
Mr. Pontcllicrs mind to wondcr il his wilc wcrc not growing a littlc
unbalanccd mcntally. Hc could plainly scc that shc was not hcrscll.
Tat is, hc could not scc that shc was bccoming hcrscll and daily
casting asidc that ctitious scll which wc assumc likc a garmcnt with
which to appcar bclorc thc world (64). At rst glancc this passagc
sccms typically doublccdgcd (Hc could plainly scc. . . . Tat is, hc
could not scc), but thc phrasing is cvcn morc complicatcd, on rccc
tion, than it appcars on an initial rcading. dna is, in lact, bccoming
unbalanccd mcntally, at lcast by thc standards ol thc normal world
ol hcr day, yct what docs it mcan, prcciscly, to say that shc is also
bccoming hcrscll: !s shc achicving a dccpcr and morc admirablc
intcgrity: !s shc undcrgoing thc sort ol rcbirth, rcncwal, and translor
mation wc should rcspcct and cclcbratc: r is shc simply rcturning to
thc kind ol immaturc, scllindulgcnt scll shc had oncc bccn bclorc
Tc Awakcning
20
her marriage to Lonce led her to adopt her current ctitious self?
And was that earlier self any more real or any more commendable
than the self she is now casting aside? At rst glance, this passage
seems to critique Lonces shortsightedness and to endorse Ednas
transformation, but, on second or third glance, the signicance of the
passage is far less clear.
Few, if any, of the other characters in the novel are wholly sympa-
thetic to the changes Edna begins to exhibit. Certainly Lonce is not,
but his skepticism can partly be discounted because those changes
challenge his own self-interests and his desire for control. (Even
Lonce, however, is hardly a simple villain; Chopin could easily have
made him a far less attractive character than he really is.) Ednas two
most important women friendsAdle Ratignolle (a conventional
but intelligent mother-woman [10]) and Mademoiselle Reisz (an
unconventional and often shrewdly perceptive artist)both express
misgivings of one sort or another about Ednas supposed rebirth. Even
Robert, the man who ignites the transformation, twice turns away
from the changes he has helped unleash. Practically the only character
in the book who seems entirely pleased by Ednas new self is Alce
Arobin, the local playboy who obviously stands to benet sexually
from her newfound freedom from the straitlaced standards of middle-
class morality. Yet even Edna realizes that Alce does not truly love
her, nor does she even truly love him; their relationship is rooted in
mere physical desire, and Edna longs for something deepersome-
thing more real, more meaningful, and more permanent.
Te one character in the novel who seems truly capable of under-
standing, appreciating, and nurturing the sort of rebirth Edna desires,
Doctor Mandelet, the elderly family physician, functions partly as
a general practitioner, partly as a family psychologist or counselor,
and partlyand this fact is especially signicantas an obstetrician.
Mandelet supervises the delivery of Adle Ratignolles latest child
near the end of the novel, and Mandelet rst seems to intuit the
profound alterations that appear to be taking place in Edna. He notes
a subtle change which had transformed her from the listless woman
he had known into a being who, for the moment, seemed palpitant
with the forces of life (77). Mandelet also rst suspects (accurately,
as it turns out) that Ednas latest infatuation is with Alce Arobin
(79). Finally, Mandelet, as the novel draws to a close and after he has
Kate Chopin
21
assistcd in thc birth ol Adlcs ncwcst baby, also ocrs to assist in thc
salc, supcrviscd rcbirth ol dnas pcrsonality:
!t sccms to mc, my dcar child, said thc octor at parting,
holding |dnas| hand, you sccm to mc to bc in troublc. ! am
not going to ask lor your condcncc. ! will only say that il cvcr
you lccl movcd to givc it to mc, pcrhaps ! might hclp you. !
know ! would undcrstand, and ! tcll you thcrc arc not many
who wouldnot many, my dcar. (123)
Hc invitcs dna to comc and scc |him| soon, and hc promiscs hcr
that Vc will talk ol things you ncvcr drcamt ol talking about bclorc
(12324). dna, howcvcr, rcluscs both his invitation and his ocr, not
only thcn but also latcr. Shc cxplicitly justics thcsc rclusals: ! dont
want anything but my own way. Tat is wanting a good dcal, ol coursc,
whcn you havc to tramplc upon thc livcs, thc hcarts, thc prcjudiccs ol
othcrsbut no mattcr (123). l coursc, Chopin immcdiatcly (and
typically) complicatcs thc impact ol this apparcntly sclsh statcmcnt
by having dna instantly add that shc noncthclcss docsnt want to
tramplc upon thc littlc livcs (123). Yct thc lact rcmains that dna
cxplicitly rcjccts thc assistancc ol thc onc charactcr in thc book who
posscsscs thc sort ol intclligcncc, insight, and compassion that might
havc hclpcd hcr achicvc a succcsslul rcbirth, a gcnuinc awakcning.
And shc rcjccts his ocr ol hclp bccausc shc docsnt want anything
but |hcr| own way. nc rcsponsc to this cxchangc with Mandclct,
thcrclorc, is to arguc that dna continucs to bc stuckand indccd
wants to bc stuckin thc immaturc pattcrns ol hcr youth. Mandclct
might havc bccn ablc to assist hcr in making a smooth transition to
a ncw kind ol lilc or at lcast to a ncw kind ol scllundcrstanding.
Mandclct has thc dcpth ol cxpcricncc, thc brcadth ol wisdom, and
thc sort ol tolcrancc and sympathy that might havc madc it possiblc
lor dna to bc rcborn and awakcncd without sucring a disastrous
miscarriagc. dna, though, rcjccts his ocr ol hclp, and, by rcjccting
that ocr, shc also rcjccts thc onc obvious and rcalistic possibility that
shc might havc achicvcd gcnuinc rcbirth and rcncwal.
Vithout Mandclcts assistancc (or, indccd, assistancc lrom
anyonc, which shc ncvcr sccks), dna is unprcparcd to copc with thc
shock shc discovcrs whcn shc rcturns to hcr littlc cottagc: Robcrt, to
Tc Awakcning
22
whom she has recently pledged undying love, has disappeared again,
leaving a brief note that simply reads, I love you. Good-bybecause
I love you (124). It was only hours earlier that Edna had declared to
him, I love you . . . only you; no one but you. It was you who awoke
me last summer out of a life-long stupid dream (120). Te extrava-
gance of her language, however, suggests once more the possibility
that Edna may not have truly awakened from the kind of romantic
infatuation that had bedeviled her youth. Indeed, when Edna often
declares herself fully awake and completely changed we must wonder
most intensely if she may still be in the grip of old delusions. Te same
kind of paradox may be involved in Chopins description of Ednas
response to Roberts note: She did not sleep. She did not go to bed.
Te lamp sputtered and went out. She was still awake in the morning
(124). Physically Edna is indeed still awake, but her restless night has
probably made her less truly awakeless fully alertthan she needs
to be at this crucial juncture in her life. She has stayed awake physi-
cally, but that very wakefulness has left her mentally (and perhaps
morally) clouded.
Tus, when Edna shows up unexpectedly at Grand Isle the next
day, the narrator reports that she walked on down to the beach
rather mechanically, not noticing anything special except that the sun
was hot. She was not dwelling upon any particular train of thought.
She had done all the thinking which was necessary after Robert went
away, when she lay awake upon the sofa till morning (126). Here,
as so often elsewhere, however, the phrasing seems fundamentally
ambiguous. Has Edna really done all the thinking which was neces-
sary (italics added)? Alternatively, does this very phrasing invite
us to consider the possibility that she has failed to engage in deep,
considered thought? Perhaps she has done only the thinking that she
cared to do or was capable of doing. In any case, what conclusions
has all her thinking led her to? Is she planning to commit suicide?
Shortly before heading to the beach, she had told Victor Lebrun
(Roberts brother) that she was very hungry, and she had promised to
return from her swim before dinner (126). Were these statements a
consciously planned ruse, or does Edna not plan to kill herself? Does
she, perhaps, merely succumb to physical and mental exhaustion after
she has swum out too far to return to shore? Like so much else in
Kate Chopin
23
this book, thc nal paragraphs sccm ultimatcly inscrutablc: dnas
dcath can bc intcrprctcd cithcr as a dclibcratc act or as an unlor
tunatc accidcnt, and thc vcry samc cvidcncc can bc uscd to support
cithcr argumcnt. Likcwisc, hcr dcath can bc vicwcd cithcr as a dclcat
(as thc cnd ol any possibility ol gcnuinc rcncwal and rcbirth) or as a
victory (as thc vcry achicvcmcnt ol a symbolic rcncwal and rcbirth
through a grand asscrtion ol mctaphysical lrccdom). !t is part ol thc
artistic grcatncss ol Te Awakening that Chopin, by opcning up thc
possibility ol both ol thcsc intcrprctations, nally sanctions ncithcr.
Tc novcl is at lcast as puzzling and provocativc in its nal paragraphs
as it has bccn anywhcrc clsc, and so wc can ncvcr, ultimatcly, bc surc
whcthcr dna, as thc novcl cnds, is rcborn or mcrcly stillborn.
WORKS CITED OR CONSULTED
Anastasopoulou, Maria. Ritcs ol Passagc in Katc Chopins Te Awakening.
Southern Literary Journal 23.2 (1991): 1930.
Chopin, Katc. Te Awakening and Other Stories. d. Pamcla Knights. xlord:
xlord UP, 2000.
Grccn, Suzannc ishcroon and avid J. Caudlc. Kate Chopin: An Annotated
Bibliography of Critical Works. Vcstport, Conn.: Grccnwood, 1999.
Lippincott, Gail. TirtyNinc Vccks: Prcgnancy and 8irth !magcry in Katc
Chopins Te Awakening. Tis Giving Birth: Pregnancy and Childbirth
in American Womens Writing. d. Julic Tarp and Susan MacCallum
Vhitcomb. 8owling Grccn, hio: Popular, 2000. 5566.
Portalcs, Marco A. Tc Charactcrization ol dna Pontcllicr and thc
Conclusion ol Katc Chopins Te Awakening. Southern Studies 20.4
(1981): 42736.
Roschcr, Marina L. Tc Suicidc ol dna Pontcllicr: An Ambiguous nding:
Southern Studies 23.3 (1984): 28998.
Tc Awakcning
25
BELOVED
(TONI MORRISON)
,.
Renewal and Rebirth
in Toni Morrisons Beloved
by 8lakc G. Hobby,
thc Univcrsity ol North Carolina at Ashcvillc
Vith thc lyrical lincs, RA!NVATR hcld on to pinc nccdlcs lor
dcar lilc and 8clovcd could not takc hcr cycs o Scthc, 8clovcd,
a young black woman, cmcrgcs out ol watcr, brcathing hcavily as
would an asthmatic, bcaring ncw skin, linclcss and smooth, and
tasting thc swcctncss ol Scthcs storics (51). Shc cravcs thcm, all thc
whilc saying to hcr: Tcll mc your diamonds (58). 8clovcd livcs on
mcmorics, thc dark, rough imagcs ol thc past Scthc burics likc coals.
Tcsc samc mcmorics lorm thc novcls pain and bcauty, cach bound
togcthcr in a kind ol sublimc paradox. As shc tclls 8clovcd hcr
diamonds, Scthc unbraids hcr daughtcr cnvcrs hair, prcparing to
run hcr comb through it. cnvcr complains, !t hurts, but Scthc
immcdiatcly rcsponds, Comb it cvcry day, it wont (60). Hcrc thc
combing ol hair is an cxtcndcd mctaphor, which dcscribcs a way
that mcmory lunctions in Morrisons tcxt. Although Scthc initially
givcs advicc shc hcrscll cannot hccd, this mcthod ol dcaling with thc
past cvcntually lcads to hcr rcncwal. Shc, with thc hclp ol a torturcd
lricnd ol thc past, Paul , and thirty gospclsinging womcn, wccds
out tanglcd, intolcrablc mcmorics and rcshapcs thcm. Surroundcd by
a community ol lcllow journcycrs whosc pasts arc cqually unbcarablc,
26 Toni Morrison
rcconncctcd with thcir scnsc ol thc mythic past, and swallowcd in
thcir lovc, Scthc hcals. Shc is rcborn.
Scthc and hcr childrcn cscapc to Cincinnati, whcrc thcy livc with
Scthcs mothcrinlaw at 124 8lucstonc Road, a rclugc lrom cnslavc
mcnt. Yct, this way station soon bccomcs thc sitc ol an apocalyptic
nightmarc. Four mcn arrivc, rcady to claim thc slavc mastcrs prop
crty and rcturn Scthc and hcr childrcn to Swcct Homc, a placc
ncithcr swcct nor nurturing, a placc ol ritualistic humiliation and
dcgradation. Scthc, in a couragcous act, runs with hcr childrcn to a
shcd bchind thc housc ol hcr mothcrinlaw and attacks hcr alrcady
crawling baby, willing to kill hcr own childrcn than havc thcm rcturn
to slavcry. !nlanticidc haunts Scthc and all thc AlricanAmcrican
community in Cincinnati. !t scrvcs as a mctaphor lor thc unspcak
ablc past that thcy havc cndurcd, thc atavistic horrors cxpcricnccd by
60 million and morc givcn in thc rst ol thc books two cpigraphs.
Scthcs act pulls hcr out ol lilc. !t isolatcs hcr and hcr youngcst
daughtcr cnvcr, drivcs away hcr two sons, Howard and 8uglcr, and
causcs hcr prcaching, hcartloving mothcrinlaw, 8aby Suggs, to
givc up and go to bcd, whcrc Suggs contcmplatcs thc spcctrum ol lilc,
ncvcr rcaching thc horriblc, painllcd rcd ol thc past.
Beloved locuscs on thc importancc ol mcmory in rcconstructing
thc prcscnt lor thc AlricanAmcrican community living in hio.
Vhilc thcy livc in a lrcc North altcr thc mancipation Proclamation,
thcy still lacc discrimination. Beloved dcmands lrom thc rst pagc an
opcnncss that is much likc rcligious laith, asking rcadcrs to bclicvc in
thc supcrnatural and thc lantastic, suspcnding disbclicl as Colcridgc
might say. Morrison cvokcs a rcligious scnsc with thc novcls sccond
cpigram, a quotc lrom Pauls lcttcr to thc Romans: ! will call thcm
my pcoplc, which wcrc not my pcoplc, and hcr bclovcd, which was
not bclovcd (Romans 9:25). 8y using this wcllknown Romans
passagc, Morrison lramcs Beloved within thc divinc plan that Paul
dcscribcs. According to Paul, God planncd lor !sracl, thc bclovcd
that was not bclovcd, to undcrgo catastrophic trials as part ol a grcatcr
plan. His plan includcs bcing rcjcctcd and cxpcricncing sucring,
pain, and alicnation. Yct, all ol !sracls travail is part ol a purposclul
divinc schcma impcrccptiblc to human bcings, onc that cncompasscs
strilc and strugglc. 8cing thc choscn ol Yahwch mcans submitting
to sucrings that arc not worth comparing with thc glory that is
27 8clovcd
to bc rcvcalcd (Romans 8:19). Not only docs Yahwch call lor his
choscn pcoplc to submit to hardships, but also hc brings into bcing
a disordcrcd world in which all Crcation groans in travail, a lrail,
wcakcncd world hclpcd at cvcry turn by thc spirit in whom |human
bcings| livc and movc and havc |thcir| bcing (Acts 17:28). !n this,
thc novcls sccond cpigraph, Morrison providcs a rcligious contcxt
lor thc work, asking thc rcadcr to makc an imaginativc lcap that is
likc laith and providing a providcntial scnsc ol history that cmbraccs,
much in thc tradition ol thc litcraturc ol antiquity, thc translormativc
powcr ol sucring.
Scthc works to bcat back thc past (73), doing anything shc can
to kccp cnvcr lrom knowing what thc novcls cpiloguc rclcrs to as
not a story to pass on (274275). Constantly plagucd by imagcs ol
Swcct Homc that shc cannot control, shc cnvisions thc luturc as a
mattcr ol kccping thc past at bay (42). Shc works hard to rcmcmbcr
closc to nothing, but unlortunatcly hcr brain |is| dcvious, bringing
hcr mcmorics ol Swcct Homc rolling, rolling, rolling out bclorc hcr
cycs, and although thcrc was not a lcal on that larm that did not want
to makc hcr want to scrcam, it rollcd itscll out bclorc hcr in shamclcss
bcauty (6). Swcct Homc comcs back whcthcr |shc| want|s| it to or
not (14). Tcsc mind picturcs crcatcd by rcmcmory, as Scthc puts
it, rcndcr thc past rcal, morc rcal than thc prcscnt. Scthc knows that
il shc cvcr touchcs thcm lilc will ncvcr bc thc samc. Shc spcaks ol hcr
rcmcmory with cnvcr:
! was talking about timc. !ts so hard lor mc to bclicvc in it.
Somc things go. Pass on. Somc things just stay. ! uscd to think
it was my rcmcmory. You know. Somc things you lorgct. thcr
things you ncvcr do. 8ut its not. Placcs, placcs arc still thcrc.
!l a housc burns down, its gonc, but thc placcthc picturc ol
itstays, and not just in my rcmcmory, but out thcrc, in thc
world. Vhat ! rcmcmbcr is a picturc oating around out thcrc
outsidc my hcad. ! mcan, cvcn il ! dont think it, cvcn il ! dic,
thc picturc ol what ! did, or kncw, or saw is still out thcrc. Right
in thc placc whcrc it happcncd. (356)
Scthc shuns thc thought picturcs that cntcr hcr mind. Shc knows
that thcy arc dangcrous and may causc thc past to bc rcpcatcd, yct,
28
hcr rcmcmory cannot bc containcd. Tus, although thc novcl prcs
cnts thc dangcrs ol rcmcmbcring, it also dcmonstratcs that thc past
must bc addrcsscd and thc subconscious mind will not allow it to bc
rcprcsscd.
Tc trccs ol Swcct Homc, lrom which Alrican Amcricans havc
bccn lynchcd, makc Scthc want to scrcam. Shc, thcrclorc, banishcs
lrom thc prcscnt not only thc pain brought with mcmory but all thc
past joy shc has cxpcricnccd. !n a vain attcmpt to avoid pain, Scthc
cannot acknowlcdgc thc bcauty ol Swcct Homc. !solatcd, cut o
lrom anyonc cxccpt lor cnvcr, and hardcncd by ycars ol pain, Scthc
cannot lccl. Shc is thc onc who ncvcr lookcd away, who whcn a man
got stompcd to dcath by a marc right in lront ol Sawycrs rcstaurant
did not look away, and whcn a sow bcgan cating hcr own littcr did not
look away thcn cithcr (12). Shc continucs to starc widccycd at thc
hanging, mutilatcd body ol hcr dcad mothcr. Shc attacks thc prcscnt
with thc samc dctcrmination and strcngth that shc summons whcn
thc babys spirit slams Hcrc 8oy, thc lamily pct, into thc wall
hard cnough to brcak two ol his lcgs and dislocatc his cyc, so hard
hc wcnt into convulsions and chcwcd up his tonguc. Scthc rcsponds
with hcr hammcr hcaling, knocking thc dog unconscious, wip|ing|
away thc blood and saliva, push|ing| his cyc back in his hcad, and
sct|ting| his boncs (12). Scthc darcs not touch what hcr rcmcmory
brings hcr and tclls cnvcr rcpcatcdly, you cant ncvcr go thcrc (36).
Scthc sccs cnvcr as a sccd ol hopc lor thc luturc that is charmcd, a
magical baby who avoids thc jail rats that bitc cvcrything in thcrc but
hcr (41). Howcvcr, shc still kccps thc past lrom cnvcr. Scthc lails to
scc that cnvcrs idcntity and growth arc bound with hcr own story.
Scthc continucs to avoid hcr rcmcmory until two important cvcnts
occur: 1) Paul arrivcs at 124 8lucstonc Road, and 2) 8clovcd
appcarsa mystical incarnation with babylikc skin and a scarrcd lacc
who cravcs swccts and livcs on storics. Trough Paul and 8clovcd,
Scthc laccs what shc could not lacc bclorc.
!n many ways, Paul and Scthc arc mirror rccctions. Paul blots
out thc mcmory ol thc 83 days spcnt in boxcd torturc, just as Scthc
cannot lacc thc mcmory ol bcing torturcd by Schooltcachcrs ncphcws
and thc mcmory ol killing hcr own child. Paul supprcsscs mcmorics
ol Allrcd, Gcorgia, Sixo, Schooltcachcr, Hallc, his brothcrs, Scthc,
Mistcr, thc tastc ol iron, thc sight ol buttcr, thc smcll ol hickory,
Toni Morrison
29
notcbook papcr, onc by onc into thc tobacco tin lodgcd in his chcst
whcrc nothing in this world could pry it opcn, but, likc Scthc, hc
also closcs himscll o (113). As Paul stands bchind Scthc whilc shc
cooks, hc carcsscs thc scars on hcr back that mctaphorically rcprcscnt
both ol thcir mcmorics and past: unbcarablc wounds that thcy both
cannot scc and lccl. Hc rcluscs, likc Scthc, to go insidc (46).
Ccntral to Morrisons dcpiction ol thc hcaling ol mcmory is thc
powcr ol languagc, as shc statcs in hcr 1993 Nobcl lccturc: Languagc
alonc protccts us lrom thc scarincss ol things with no namcs (28).
Morrison spcaks ol languagc as thc powcr to bring things into
bcing, an inucncc ol cncrgy on ignorancc and thc unknown. Tus
Amy, a poor, whitc runaway slavc girl, looks at Scthcs back scarring
and namcs hcr painlul disgurcmcnt a chokcbcrry trcc, a symbolic
action that in thc novcl bccomcs a mctaphor lor rcshaping thc past
(16). Amy namcs what Scthc cannot lacc. Amy also rcshapcs thc
past and, in an act ol thc imagination, cnablcs Scthc to movc back
into bcing alivc. Vhilc massaging thc swollcn lcct ol thc prcgnant
Scthc, Amy uttcrs a phrasc that rcvcrbcratcs throughout thc novcl:
Anything dcad coming back to lilc hurts (35). Tc loot massagc
rcprcscnts thc way in which mcmory must bc addrcsscd. Amys
poctic rcnaming ol Scthcs scarring and pronounccmcnts about pain
ring out Morrisons crcdo throughout thc novcl to idcntily that
which is usclul lrom thc past and that which ought to bc discardcd
. . . |to| makc it possiblc to prcparc lor thc prcscnt and livc it out
. . . not by avoiding problcms and contradictions but by cxamining
thcm (Mcmory, Crcation, and Vriting). Furthcrmorc, Amys
hcaling words and actions mirror thc novcls closing action, in
which Paul bathcs Scthc in scctions, putting thc brokcn picccs ol
hcr painllcd past togcthcr again.
Similarly, Sixo is anothcr poctic prcscncc in thc novcl. Hc turns
potato cooking into an art lorm, working with thc blandcst ol all
loods and crcating somcthing cxciting that clcvatcs an impovcrishcd
slavc mcal to a dignicd lcast. Hc takcs thc dctcrmincd, givcn rcality
and crcatcs. Additionally, hc rcvcrcnccs thc past as hc bows bclorc thc
prcscnccs at Rcdman Placc, calling upon Nativc Amcrican spirits
to approvc his lovcmaking with thc TirtyMilc Voman. A similar
poctic gcsturc occurs at thc cnd ol Chaptcr 3 whcn Hallc and Scth
makc lovc in thc corncld whilc all thc mcn ol Swcct Homc, crcct
8clovcd
30
as dogs, watch thc corn stalks dancc at noon. Morrison cnds this
lyrical passagc with scxually cxplicit languagc:
Tc pulling down ol thc tight shcath, thc ripping sound
always convinccd hcr it hurt.
As soon as onc strip ol husk was down, thc rcst obcycd and
thc car yicldcd up to him its shy rows, cxposcd at last. How
loosc thc silk. How quick thc jailcdup avor ran lrcc.
No mattcr what all your tccth and wct ngcrs anticipatcd,
thcrc was no accounting lor thc way that simplc joy could
shakc you.
How loosc thc silk. How nc and loosc and lrcc. (27)
Morrison cvokcs this passagc and cmploys scxual imagcry to commu
nicatc thc promisc ol lilc, thc possibilitics ol living again altcr thc
husks ol mcmory arc carclully pcclcd back. Shc assurcs thc rcadcr that
it will hurt but also that thcrc is nothing likc thc joy that carclully
comcs altcr pulling back thc laycrs that cnshroud thc bruiscd psychc
so that, bcaring pain in thc light, a prolound hcaling may brcak lorth
that is looscr and lrccr than anything cvcr cxpcricnccd. Tc Fcast ol
Ncw Corn is a sacrcd cvcnt, somcthing apocalyptic that points bcyond
thc prcscnt scnsc ol isolation and lcar to thc possibility ol lcasting on
lilc.
Tc novcl brcaks away lrom thc lragmcntcd world ol thc prcscnt,
looks sorrowlully into thc past, and crcatcs a ncw way lor thc luturc.
!n that scnsc, Morrison posscsscs thc vision ol an cpic poct standing
bctwccn an old world and a ncw ordcr, a visionary simultancously
chargcd with thc rcsponsibility ol prcscrving thc past and crcating
somcthing ncw lor tomorrow.
8aby Suggs, Scthcs mothcrinlaw, rcalizcs thc importancc ol
living now, in thc prcscnt, and gathcrs hcr pcoplc lor ritual cclcbra
tions ol lilc in thc clcaring. Suggs tclls hcr pcoplc thc only gracc
thcy |can| havc |is| thc gracc thcy could imaginc. Tus, shc prcachcs
a gospcl ol scllworth as a corrcctivc against a crucl, whitc world
that docs not lovc thcir csh but that dcspiscs it and wishcs to
ay it (88). At thc climax ol hcr calling lorth, in which childrcn,
mcn, and womcn laugh, dancc, and cry, 8aby Suggs cxclaims: Lovc
your hcart. For this is thc prizc (89). Lovc in Morrisons novcl is
Toni Morrison
31
a hot thing, both a constructivc and dcstructivc lorcc that paral
lcls mcmory. Lovc and mcmory arc incvitablc, thcy comc no mattcr
what, intruding into thc livcs ol thc cxslavcs whcn thcy lcast cxpcct
it. Much ol thc novcls mystcry ccntcrs on what dcncs lovc, lor
Scthc claims that shc kills hcr own child out ol lovc, yct Paul and
thc community think this kind ol lovc is too thick. 8aby Suggs,
thc prcachcr ol lovc, is hcrscll horricd by Scthcs act ol lovc.
Altcr Scthc kills hcr own child, 8aby Suggs givcs up. Suggs gocs to
bcd, whcrc shc contcmplatcs colors. Shc scrcams whcn shc gcts to
orangc and cannot imaginc cvcr lacing thc color that brings back
thc mcmory ol pain and sucring that is unbcarablc: rcd. Tc
cntirc community originally brought togcthcr at 8aby Suggss placc
ol salcty is brokcn apart by Scthcs action, thc action Paul labcls
as too much, thc rcsult ol a woman whosc lovc is too thick (164).
Altcr hc uttcrs thcsc words to Scthc, a lorcst springs up bctwccn thc
two ol thcm, but thcn thc communal action ol thc novcl intcrvcncs,
with womcn who comc to thc porch to rcconncct with Scthc and
rcclaim thc past.
Tc thirty womcn in Beloved join thcir voiccs on thc porch ol
124 8lucstonc Road and addrcss thc ghost. Tcy scarch lor thc
right combination, thc kcy, thc codc, thc sound that brokc thc back
ol words (261). !n a lyrical and communal action, bound togcthcr
and humming, thcy addrcss thc lonclincss ol thc past, thc lonclincss
that can bc rockcd, thc inncr lccling ol cmptincss that can only bc
llcd by anothcr, but also thc lonclincss that roams, thc unspcakablc
mcmorics ol thc past that haunt our collcctivc consciousncss (274).
Tus 8clovcd, as thc books cpiloguc statcs, is disrcmcmbcrcd (274).
Tat is to say, shc is addrcsscd. Shc is mcmory graspcd, rcshapcd,
rclormcd. As thc womcn on thc porch dccoratc thcir talcs, thcy
splintcr 8clovcd into harmlcss bits that can bc consumcd. Shc crupts
into hcr scparatc parts, to makc it casy lor thc chcwing laughtcr to
swallow hcr all thc way. Tc novcls last lyrical scction rcpcats in
thc stylc ol a mantra!t was not a story to pass ona phrasc that
warns ol thc pasts continual prcscncc and thc ncccssity to poctically
rcshapc it. Sung to, carcsscd, brought into bcing and thcn rcshapcd,
thc horric past no longcr claims thc pcoplc ol 124. Tc past cxists
mcrcly as part ol wcathcr, as part ol a cyclc: pain, dcath, mcmory,
lorgctlulncss, rcmcmory, birth, rcbirth. Tc past no longcr clamors
8clovcd
32
to bc known bccausc it has bccn addrcsscd. !t no longcr dcsircs to bc
callcd bccausc it has bccn namcd 8clovcd (275).
At thc novcls closc Paul comcs to Scthcs room, whcrc shc lics
in bcd undcr thc quilt contcmplating colors, imitating 8aby Suggs.
Yct this timc thc quilt is portraycd in carnival colors. Paul coura
gcously dccidcs to unitc his own unbcarablc past with Scthc: Hc
wants to put his story ncxt to hcrs (273), to movc with Scthc into thc
horror ol thc past, and to conlront thc pain that alonc is unbcarablc.
Hc rcmcmbcrs what Sixo says about thc TirtyMilc Voman: Shc is
a lricnd ol my mind. Shc gathcr mc, man. Tc picccs ! am, shc gathcr
thcm and givc thcm back to mc in all thc right ordcr (2723). Paul
and Scthc nccd cach othcr. Tcy must dcal with thc horror ol thc
past togcthcr. Paul rcshapcs Scthc. Vith lovc, hc rcasscmblcs thc
lragmcntcd picccs ol Scthcs scll, hcr bruiscd and battcrcd psychc. His
gcsturc stands as a mctaphor lor hcaling. crck Valcott, in his 1992
Nobcl lccturc, spcaks ol lovc in a similar way, as a rcstorativc lorcc lor
thc brokcn vasc ol thc world:
8rcak a vasc, and thc lovc that rcasscmblcs thc lragmcnts is
strongcr than that lovc which took its symmctry lor grantcd
whcn it was wholc. Tc gluc that lls thc picccs is thc scaling ol
its original shapc. !t is such a lovc that rcasscmblcs our Alrican
and Asiatic lragmcnts, thc crackcd hcirloom whosc rcstoration
shows its whitc scars. (262)
Paul gathcrs Scthc and rcstorcs hcr to wholcncss. As hc rubs
hcr lcct and comlorts hcr, Paul says, Mc and you, wc got morc
ycstcrday than anybody. Vc nccd somc kind ol tomorrow, two lincs
that undcrstatc thc immcnsity ol thcir painriddcn livcs. As Paul
lcans ovcr Scthc, taking hcr hand in onc hand and touching hcr lacc
with thc othcr, hc imparts to hcr what can only bc givcn by anothcr: a
truc vision ol scll, a vision with which hc will bc ablc to lcavc thc bcd
and cntcr lilc again. Holding on to cach othcr, Paul tclls hcr, You
your own bcst thing, Scthc. You arc (273). Tus Paul challcngcs
Scthc to go insidc, to rcimaginc thc past, and to rcach out to othcrs
as shc sccks rcstoration.
Beloved in its broadcst scnsc dcpicts a way in which thc tormcntcd
human psychc may hcal. Scthc, with thc hclp ol thirty womcn and
Toni Morrison
33 8clovcd
Paul , laccs thc horrors ol thc past and is rcborn. !n thcsc communal
actions, Morrison dcpicts mcmory as a mcans ol libcration not only
lrom an atavistic luturc but also lrom thc imprisoning horrors ol thc
past. !n doing so, Morrison, cmbracing a Romantic acsthctic, lauds
thc poctic imagination as a lorcc capablc ol grasping thc wholcncss
ol mcmorys worth, ol bcing ablc to pull togcthcr thosc vital things
that constitutc mcaning, whilc discarding what must bc discardcd to
movc on.
WORKS CITED
Morrison, Toni. Beloved. Ncw York: Plumc, 1988.
. Mcmory, Crcation, and Vriting. Tought 59 (cccmbcr 1984):
385390.
. Te Nobel Lecture in Literature 1993. Ncw York: Knopl, 1994.
35
BEOWULF
,.
Beowulf: Te Monsters and the Critics
by J.R.R. Tolkicn (1936)
IN+voouc+:oN
In this highly inuential essay, J.R.R. Tolkien, noted scholar
and author of The Hobbit and The Lord of the Rings, main-
tains that the Beowulf poem is primarily a kind of elegy for
the departed hero, who, in this poetic enshrining of the past,
enables a past culture both to survive and to be reborn. For
Tolkien, the poem glimpses the cosmic, standing amid but
above the petty wars of princes, and surpassing the dates
and limits of historical periods. Beowulf describes a culture
at a pivotal moment of rebirth in human history, one in which
Christianity has begun to be integrated into a civilization that
has preserved its past in an epic poem lled with monsters.
Not only is this article lled with keen insights about the
poem, but it was also responsible for generating a renewal in
Beowulf studies.
f
Tolkicn, J.R.R. 8cowull: Tc Monstcrs and thc Critics. Sir !sracl Gollancz
Mcmorial Lccturc, 1936.
36 8cowull
!t is ol Beowulf, thcn, as a pocm that ! wish to spcak, and though it
may sccm prcsumption that ! should try with swich a lewed mannes wit
to pace the wisdom of an heep of lerned men, in this dcpartmcnt thcrc is at
lcast morc chancc lor thc lewed man. 8ut thcrc is so much that might
still bc said cvcn undcr thcsc limitations that ! shall connc myscll
mainly to thc monstersGrcndcl and thc ragon, as thcy appcar in
what sccms to mc thc bcst and most authoritativc gcncral criticism in
nglishand to ccrtain considcrations ol thc structurc and conduct
ol thc pocm that arisc lrom this thcmc.
|. . .|
8cowulls dragon, il onc wishcs rcally to criticizc, is not to bc
blamcd lor bcing a dragon, but rathcr lor not bcing dragon cnough,
plain purc lairystory dragon. Tcrc arc in thc pocm somc vivid
touchcs ol thc right kindas pa se wyrm onwoc, wroht ws geniwad;
stonc fter stane, 2285in which this dragon is rcal worm, with a
bcstial lilc and thought ol his own, but thc conccption, nonc thc lcss,
approachcs draconitas rathcr than draco: a pcrsonication ol malicc,
grccd, dcstruction (thc cvil sidc ol hcroic lilc), and ol thc undiscrimi
nating cruclty ol lortunc that distinguishcs not good or bad (thc cvil
aspcct ol all lilc). 8ut lor Beowulf, thc pocm, that is as it should bc. !n
this pocm thc balancc is nicc, but it is prcscrvcd. Tc largc symbolism
is ncar thc surlacc, but it docs not brcak through, nor bccomc allcgory.
Somcthing morc signicant than a standard hcro, a man laccd with
a loc morc cvil than any human cncmy ol housc or rcalm, is bclorc
us, and yct incarnatc in timc, walking in hcroic history, and trcading
thc namcd lands ol thc North. And this, wc arc told, is thc radical
dclcct ol Beowulf, that its author, coming in a timc rich in thc lcgcnds
ol hcroic mcn, has uscd thcm alrcsh in an original lashion, giving us
not just onc morc, but somcthing akin yct dicrcnt: a mcasurc and
intcrprctation ol thcm all.
Vc do not dcny thc worth ol thc hcro by acccpting Grcndcl and
thc dragon. Lct us by all mcans cstccm thc old hcrocs: mcn caught
in thc chains ol circumstancc or ol thcir own charactcr, torn bctwccn
dutics cqually sacrcd, dying with thcir backs to thc wall. 8ut Beowulf,
! lancy, plays a largcr part than is rccognizcd in hclping us to cstccm
thcm. Hcroic lays may havc dcalt in thcir own waywc havc littlc
cnough to judgc bya way morc bricl and vigorous, pcrhaps, though
pcrhaps also morc harsh and noisy (and lcss thoughtlul), with thc
37 8cowull
actions ol hcrocs caught in circumstanccs that conlormcd morc or lcss
to thc varicd but lundamcntally simplc rccipc lor an hcroic situation.
!n thcsc (il wc had thcm) wc could scc thc cxaltation ol undclcatcd
will, which rcccivcs doctrinal cxprcssion in thc words ol 8yrhtwold
at thc battlc ol Maldon.
1
8ut though with sympathy and paticncc
wc might gathcr, lrom a linc hcrc or a tonc thcrc, thc background ol
imagination which givcs to this indomitability, this paradox ol dclcat
incvitablc yct unacknowlcdgcd, its lull signicancc, it is in Beowulf
that a poct has dcvotcd a wholc pocm to thc thcmc, and has drawn
thc strugglc in dicrcnt proportions, so that wc may scc man at war
with thc hostilc world, and his incvitablc ovcrthrow in Timc.
2
Tc
particular is on thc outcr cdgc, thc csscntial in thc ccntrc.
|. . .|
8cowull is not, thcn, thc hcro ol an hcroic lay, prcciscly. Hc has
no cnmcshcd loyaltics, nor haplcss lovc. He is a man, and that for him
and many is sucient tragedy. !t is not an irritating accidcnt that thc
tonc ol thc pocm is so high and its thcmc so low. !t is thc thcmc in
its dcadly scriousncss that bcgcts thc dignity ol tonc: lif is lne; eal
scce leoht and lif somod. So dcadly and incluctablc is thc undcrlying
thought, that thosc who in thc circlc ol light, within thc bcsicgcd hall,
arc absorbcd in work or talk and do not look to thc battlcmcnts, cithcr
do not rcgard it or rccoil. cath comcs to thc lcast, and thcy say Hc
gibbcrs: Hc has no scnsc ol proportion.
! would suggcst, thcn, that thc monstcrs arc not an incxplicablc
blundcr ol tastc, thcy arc csscntial, lundamcntally allicd to thc undcr
lying idcas ol thc pocm, which givc it its lolty tonc and high scrious
ncss. Tc kcy to thc lusionpoint ol imagination that produccd this
pocm lics, thcrclorc, in thosc vcry rclcrcnccs to Cain which havc
oltcn bccn uscd as a stick to bcat an asstakcn as an cvidcnt sign
(wcrc any nccdcd) ol thc muddlcd hcads ol carly AngloSaxons. Tcy
could not, it was said, kccp Scandinavian bogics and thc Scripturcs
scparatc in thcir puzzlcd brains.
|. . .|
nc ol thc most potcnt clcmcnts in that lusion is thc Northcrn
couragc: thc thcory ol couragc, which is thc grcat contribution ol
carly Northcrn litcraturc. Tis is not a military judgcmcnt. ! am
not asscrting that, il thc Trojans could havc cmploycd a Northcrn
king and his companions, thcy would havc drivcn Agamcmnon and
38
Achillcs into thc sca, morc dccisivcly than thc Grcck hcxamctcr routs
thc allitcrativc lincthough it is not improbablc. ! rclcr rathcr to thc
ccntral position thc crccd ol unyiclding will holds in thc North. Vith
duc rcscrvc wc may turn to thc tradition ol pagan imagination as it
survivcd in !cclandic. l nglish prcChristian mythology wc know
practically nothing. 8ut thc lundamcntally similar hcroic tcmpcr ol
ancicnt ngland and Scandinavia cannot havc bccn loundcd on (or
pcrhaps rathcr, cannot havc gcncratcd) mythologics divcrgcnt on
this csscntial point. Tc Northcrn Gods, Kcr said, havc an cxultant
cxtravagancc in thcir warlarc which makcs thcm morc likc Titans than
lympians, only they are on the right side, though it is not the side that
wins. Te winning side is Chaos and Unreasonmythologically, thc
monstcrsbut the gods, who are defeated, think that defeat no refuta-
tion.
3
And in thcir war mcn arc thcir choscn allics, ablc whcn hcroic
to sharc in this absolutc rcsistancc, pcrlcct bccausc without hopc.
At lcast in this vision ol thc nal dclcat ol thc humanc (and ol thc
divinc madc in its imagc), and in thc csscntial hostility ol thc gods
and hcrocs on thc onc hand and thc monstcrs on thc othcr, wc may
supposc that pagan nglish and Norsc imagination agrccd.
8ut in ngland this imagination was brought into touch with
Christcndom, and with thc Scripturcs. Tc proccss ol convcrsion
was a long onc, but somc ol its cccts wcrc doubtlcss immcdiatc: an
alchcmy ol changc (producing ultimatcly thc mcdiacval) was at oncc
at work. nc docs not havc to wait until all thc nativc traditions ol
thc oldcr world havc bccn rcplaccd or lorgottcn, lor thc minds which
still rctain thcm arc changcd, and thc mcmorics vicwcd in a dicrcnt
pcrspcctivc: at once they become more ancient and remote, and in a sense
darker. !t is through such a blcnding that thcrc was availablc to a poct
who sct out to write a pocmand in thc casc ol Beowulf wc may prob
ably usc this vcry wordon a scalc and plan unlikc a minstrcls lay,
both ncw laith and ncw lcarning (or cducation), and also a body ol
nativc tradition (itscll rcquiring to bc lcarncd) lor thc changcd mind
to contcmplatc togcthcr.
4
Tc nativc lcarning cannot bc dcnicd in
thc casc ol Beowulf. !ts display has gricvously pcrturbcd thc critics,
lor thc author draws upon tradition at will lor his own purposcs, as a
poct ol latcr timcs might draw upon history or thc classics and cxpcct
his allusions to bc undcrstood (within a ccrtain class ol hcarcrs). Hc
was in lact, likc \irgil, lcarncd cnough in thc vcrnacular dcpartmcnt
8cowull
39
to havc an historical pcrspcctivc, cvcn an antiquarian curiosity. Hc
cast his timc into thc longago, bccausc alrcady thc longago had a
spccial poctical attraction. Hc kncw much about old days, and though
his knowlcdgcol such things as scaburial and thc luncral pyrc,
lor instanccwas rich and poctical rathcr than accuratc with thc
accuracy ol modcrn archacology (such as that is), onc thing hc kncw
clcarly: thosc days wcrc hcathcnhcathcn, noblc, and hopclcss.
8ut il thc spccically Christian was supprcsscd,
5
so also wcrc thc
old gods. Partly bccausc thcy had not rcally cxistcd, and had bccn
always, in thc Christian vicw, only dclusions or lics labricatcd by
thc cvil onc, thc gastbona, to whom thc hopclcss turncd cspccially in
timcs ol nccd. Partly bccausc thcir old namcs (ccrtainly not lorgottcn)
had bccn potcnt, and wcrc conncctcd in mcmory still, not only with
mythology or such lairytalc mattcr as wc nd, say, in Gylfaginning,
but with activc hcathcndom, rcligion and wigweorung. Most ol all
bccausc thcy wcrc not actually csscntial to thc thcmc.
Tc monstcrs had bccn thc locs ol thc gods, thc captains ol mcn,
and within Timc thc monstcrs would win. !n thc hcroic sicgc and last
dclcat mcn and gods alikc had bccn imagincd in thc samc host. Now
thc hcroic gurcs, thc mcn ol old, hle under heofenum, rcmaincd and
still lought on until dclcat. For thc monstcrs do not dcpart, whcthcr
thc gods go or comc. A Christian was (and is) still likc his lorclathcrs
a mortal hcmmcd in a hostilc world. Tc monstcrs rcmaincd thc
cncmics ol mankind, thc inlantry ol thc old war, and bccamc incvi
tably thc cncmics ol thc onc God, ece Dryhten, thc ctcrnal Captain
ol thc ncw. vcn so thc vision ol thc war changcs. For it bcgins to
dissolvc, cvcn as thc contcst on thc clds ol Timc thus takcs on its
largcst aspcct. Tc tragcdy ol thc grcat tcmporal dclcat rcmains lor a
whilc poignant, but ccascs to bc nally important. !t is no dclcat, lor
thc cnd ol thc world is part ol thc dcsign ol Mctod, thc Arbitcr who is
abovc thc mortal world. 8cyond thcrc appcars a possibility ol ctcrnal
victory (or ctcrnal dclcat), and thc rcal battlc is bctwccn thc soul and
its advcrsarics. So thc old monstcrs bccamc imagcs ol thc cvil spirit
or spirits, or rathcr thc cvil spirits cntcrcd into thc monstcrs and took
visiblc shapc in thc hidcous bodics ol thc yrsas and sigelhearwan ol
hcathcn imagination.
8ut that shilt is not complctc in Beowulfwhatcvcr may havc
bccn truc ol its pcriod in gcncral. !ts author is still conccrncd
8cowull
40
primarily with man on earth, rchandling in a ncw pcrspcctivc an
ancicnt thcmc: that man, cach man and all mcn, and all thcir works
shall dic. A thcmc no Christian nccd dcspisc. Yct this thcmc plainly
would not bc so trcatcd, but lor thc ncarncss ol a pagan timc. Tc
shadow ol its dcspair, il only as a mood, as an intcnsc cmotion ol
rcgrct, is still thcrc. Tc worth ol dclcatcd valour in this world is
dccply lclt. As thc poct looks back into thc past, survcying thc
history ol kings and warriors in thc old traditions, hc sccs that all
glory (or as wc might say culturc or civilization) cnds in night. Tc
solution ol that tragcdy is not trcatcdit docs not arisc out ol thc
matcrial. Vc gct in lact a pocm lrom a prcgnant momcnt ol poisc,
looking back into thc pit, by a man lcarncd in old talcs who was
struggling, as it wcrc, to gct a gcncral vicw ol thcm all, pcrcciving
thcir common tragcdy ol incvitablc ruin, and yct lccling this morc
poetically bccausc hc was himscll rcmovcd lrom thc dircct prcssurc
ol its dcspair. Hc could vicw lrom without, but still lccl immcdiatcly
and lrom within, thc old dogma: dcspair ol thc cvcnt, combincd
with laith in thc valuc ol doomcd rcsistancc. Hc was still dcaling
with thc grcat tcmporal tragcdy, and not yct writing an allcgorical
homily in vcrsc. Grcndcl inhabits thc visiblc world and cats thc
csh and blood ol mcn, hc cntcrs thcir houscs by thc doors. Tc
dragon wiclds a physical rc, and covcts gold not souls, hc is slain
with iron in his bclly. 8cowulls byrne was madc by Vcland, and thc
iron shicld hc borc against thc scrpcnt by his own smiths: it was not
yct thc brcastplatc ol rightcousncss, nor thc shicld ol laith lor thc
qucnching ol all thc cry darts ol thc wickcd.
Almost wc might say that this pocm was (in onc dircction) inspircd
by thc dcbatc that had long bccn hcld and continucd altcr, and that it
was onc ol thc chicl contributions to thc controvcrsy: shall wc or shall
wc not consign thc hcathcn anccstors to pcrdition: Vhat good will it
do postcrity to rcad thc battlcs ol Hcctor: Quid Hinieldus cum Christo?
Tc author ol Beowulf showcd lorth thc pcrmancnt valuc ol that pietas
which trcasurcs thc mcmory ol mans strugglcs in thc dark past, man
lallcn and not yct savcd, disgraccd but not dcthroncd. !t would sccm
to havc bccn part ol thc nglish tcmpcr in its strong scnsc ol tradi
tion, dcpcndcnt doubtlcss on dynastics, noblc houscs, and thcir codc
ol honour, and strcngthcncd, it may bc, by thc morc inquisitivc and
lcss scvcrc Ccltic lcarning, that it should, at lcast in somc quartcrs and
8cowull
41
dcspitc gravc and Gallic voiccs, prcscrvc much lrom thc northcrn past
to blcnd with southcrn lcarning, and ncw laith.
|. . .|
!n Beowulf wc havc, thcn, an historical pocm about thc pagan past,
or an attcmpt at onclitcral historical dclity loundcd on modcrn
rcscarch was, ol coursc, not attcmptcd. !t is a pocm by a lcarncd man
writing ol old timcs, who looking back on thc hcroism and sorrow
lccls in thcm somcthing pcrmancnt and somcthing symbolical. So
lar lrom bcing a conluscd scmipaganhistorically unlikcly lor a
man ol this sort in thc pcriodhc brought probably rst to his task
a knowlcdgc ol Christian poctry, cspccially that ol thc Cdmon
school, and cspccially Genesis.
6
Hc makcs his minstrcl sing in Hcorot
ol thc Crcation ol thc carth and thc lights ol Hcavcn. So cxccllcnt is
this choicc as thc thcmc ol thc harp that maddcncd Grcndcl lurking
joylcss in thc dark without that it mattcrs littlc whcthcr this is anach
ronistic or not.
7
Secondly, to his task thc poct brought a considcrablc
lcarning in nativc lays and traditions: only by lcarning and training
could such things bc acquircd, thcy wcrc no morc born naturally into
an nglishman ol thc scvcnth or cighth ccnturics, by simplc virtuc ol
bcing an AngloSaxon, than rcadymadc knowlcdgc ol poctry and
history is inhcritcd at birth by modcrn childrcn.
!t would sccm that, in his attcmpt to dcpict ancicnt prc
Christian days, intcnding to cmphasizc thcir nobility, and thc dcsirc
ol thc good lor truth, hc turncd naturally whcn dclincating thc grcat
King ol Hcorot to thc ld Tcstamcnt. !n thc folces hyrde ol thc ancs
wc havc much ol thc shcphcrd patriarchs and kings ol !sracl, scrvants
ol thc onc God, who attributc to His mcrcy all thc good things
that comc to thcm in this lilc. Vc havc in lact a Christian nglish
conccption ol thc noblc chicl bclorc Christianity, who could lapsc (as
could !sracl) in timcs ol tcmptation into idolatry.
8
n thc othcr hand,
thc traditional mattcr in nglish, not to mcntion thc living survival ol
thc hcroic codc and tcmpcr among thc noblc houscholds ol ancicnt
ngland, cnablcd him to draw dicrcntly, and in somc rcspccts much
closcr to thc actual hcathcn hle, thc charactcr ol 8cowull, cspccially
as a young knight, who uscd his grcat gilt ol mgen to carn dom and
lof among mcn and postcrity.
Beowulf is not an actual picturc ol historic cnmark or Gcatland
or Swcdcn about ~.b. 500. 8ut it is (il with ccrtain minor dclccts) on
8cowull
42
a gcncral vicw a scllconsistcnt picturc, a construction bcaring clcarly
thc marks ol dcsign and thought. Tc wholc must havc succccdcd
admirably in crcating in thc minds ol thc pocts contcmporarics thc
illusion ol survcying a past, pagan but noblc and lraught with a dccp
signicancca past that itscll had dcpth and rcachcd backward into
a dark antiquity ol sorrow. Tis imprcssion ol dcpth is an ccct and
a justication ol thc usc ol cpisodcs and allusions to old talcs, mostly
darkcr, morc pagan, and dcspcratc than thc lorcground.
|. . .|
Tc gcncral structurc ol thc pocm, so vicwcd, is not rcally dicult
to pcrccivc, il wc look to thc main points, thc stratcgy, and ncglcct
thc many points ol minor tactics. Vc must dismiss, ol coursc, lrom
mind thc notion that Beowulf is a narrativc pocm, that it tclls a talc
or intcnds to tcll a talc scqucntially. Tc pocm lacks stcady advancc:
so Klacbcr hcads a critical scction in his cdition.
9
8ut thc pocm
was not mcant to advancc, stcadily or unstcadily. !t is csscntially a
balancc, an opposition ol cnds and bcginnings. !n its simplcst tcrms it
is a contrastcd dcscription ol two momcnts in a grcat lilc, rising and
sctting an claboration ol thc ancicnt and intcnscly moving contrast
bctwccn youth and agc, rst achicvcmcnt and nal dcath. !t is
dividcd in conscqucncc into two opposcd portions dicrcnt in mattcr,
manncr, and lcngth: A lrom 1 to 2199 (including an cxordium ol 52
lincs), 8 lrom 2200 to 3182 (thc cnd). Tcrc is no rcason to cavil at
this proportion, in any casc, lor thc purposc and thc production ol thc
rcquircd ccct, it provcs in practicc to bc right.
Tis simplc and static structurc, solid and strong, is in cach part
much divcrsicd, and capablc ol cnduring this trcatmcnt. !n thc
conduct ol thc prcscntation ol 8cowulls risc to lamc on thc onc hand,
and ol his kingship and dcath on thc othcr, criticism can nd things
to qucstion, cspccially il it is captious, but also much to praisc, il it is
attcntivc. 8ut thc only scrious wcakncss, or apparcnt wcakncss, is thc
long rccapitulation: thc rcport ol 8cowull to Hygclac. Tis rccapitula
tion is wcll donc. Vithout scrious discrcpancy
10
it rctclls rapidly thc
cvcnts in Hcorot, and rctouchcs thc account, and it scrvcs to illus
tratc, sincc hc himscll dcscribcs his own dccds, yct morc vividly thc
charactcr ol a young man, singlcd out by dcstiny, as hc stcps suddcnly
lorth in his lull powcrs. Yct this is pcrhaps not quitc sucicnt to
8cowull
43
justily thc rcpctition. Tc cxplanation, il not complctc justication, is
probably to bc sought in dicrcnt dircctions.
For onc thing, thc old talc was not rst told or invcntcd by this
poct. So much is clcar lrom invcstigation ol thc lolktalc analogucs.
vcn thc lcgcndary association ol thc Scylding court with a marauding
monstcr, and with thc arrival lrom abroad ol a champion and dclivcrcr
was probably alrcady old. Tc plot was not thc pocts, and though hc
has inluscd lccling and signicancc into its crudc matcrial, that plot
was not a pcrlcct vchiclc ol thc thcmc or thcmcs that camc to hiddcn
lilc in thc pocts mind as hc workcd upon it. Not an unusual cvcnt
in litcraturc. For thc contrastyouth and dcathit would probably
havc bccn bcttcr, il wc had no journcying. !l thc singlc nation ol thc
Geatas had bccn thc sccnc, wc should havc lclt thc stagc not narrowcr,
but symbolically widcr. Morc plainly should wc havc pcrccivcd in onc
pcoplc and thcir hcro all mankind and its hcrocs. Tis at any ratc !
havc always myscll lclt in rcading Beowulf, but ! havc also lclt that
this dclcct is rccticd by thc bringing ol thc talc ol Grcndcl to Gcat
land. As 8cowull stands in Hygclacs hall and tclls his story, hc scts
his lcct rm again in thc land ol his own pcoplc, and is no longcr in
dangcr ol appcaring a mcrc wrecca, an crrant advcnturcr and slaycr ol
bogics that do not conccrn him.
Tcrc is in lact a doublc division in thc pocm: thc lundamcntal
onc alrcady rclcrrcd to, and a sccondary but important division at linc
1887. Altcr that thc csscntials ol thc prcvious part arc takcn up and
compactcd, so that all thc tragcdy ol 8cowull is containcd bctwccn
1888 and thc cnd.
11
8ut, ol coursc, without thc rst hall wc should
miss much incidcntal illustration, wc should miss also thc dark back
ground ol thc court ol Hcorot that loomcd as largc in glory and doom
in ancicnt northcrn imagination as thc court ol Arthur: no vision ol
thc past was complctc without it. And (most important) wc should
losc thc dircct contrast ol youth and agc in thc pcrsons ol 8cowull and
Hrothgar which is onc ol thc chicl purposcs ol this scction: it cnds
with thc prcgnant words o t hine yldo benam mgenes wynnum, se
e oft manegum scod.
!n any casc wc must not vicw this pocm as in intcntion an cxciting
narrativc or a romantic talc. Tc vcry naturc ol ld nglish mctrc is
oltcn misjudgcd. !n it thcrc is no singlc rhythmic pattcrn progrcssing
lrom thc bcginning ol a linc to thc cnd, and rcpcatcd with variation in
8cowull
44
othcr lincs. Tc lincs do not go according to a tunc. Tcy arc loundcd
on a balancc, an opposition bctwccn two halvcs ol roughly cquiva
lcnt
12
phonctic wcight, and signicant contcnt, which arc morc oltcn
rhythmically contrastcd than similar. Tcy arc morc likc masonry than
music. !n this lundamcntal lact ol poctic cxprcssion ! think thcrc is a
parallcl to thc total structurc ol Beowulf. Beowulf is indccd thc most
succcsslul ld nglish pocm bccausc in it thc clcmcnts, languagc,
mctrc, thcmc, structurc, arc all most ncarly in harmony. Judgcmcnt
ol thc vcrsc has oltcn gonc astray through listcning lor an acccntual
rhythm and pattcrn: and it sccms to halt and stumblc. Judgcmcnt ol
thc thcmc gocs astray through considcring it as thc narrativc handling
ol a plot: and it sccms to halt and stumblc. Languagc and vcrsc, ol
coursc, dicr lrom stonc or wood or paint, and can bc only hcard or
rcad in a timcscqucncc, so that in any pocm that dcals at all with
charactcrs and cvcnts somc narrativc clcmcnt must bc prcscnt. Vc
havc nonc thc lcss in Beowulf a mcthod and structurc that within thc
limits ol thc vcrsckind approachcs rathcr to sculpturc or painting. !t
is a composition not a tunc.
Tis is clcar in thc sccond hall. !n thc strugglc with Grcndcl onc
can as a rcadcr dismiss thc ccrtainty ol litcrary cxpcricncc that thc hcro
will not in lact pcrish, and allow oncscll to sharc thc hopcs and lcars ol
thc Gcats upon thc shorc. !n thc sccond part thc author has no dcsirc
whatcvcr that thc issuc should rcmain opcn, cvcn according to litcrary
convcntion. Tcrc is no nccd to hastcn likc thc mcsscngcr, who rodc
to bcar thc lamcntablc ncws to thc waiting pcoplc (2892 .). Tcy
may havc hopcd, but wc arc not supposcd to. 8y now wc arc supposcd
to havc graspcd thc plan. isastcr is lorcbodcd. clcat is thc thcmc.
Triumph ovcr thc locs ol mans prccarious lortrcss is ovcr, and wc
approach slowly and rcluctantly thc incvitablc victory ol dcath.
13
!n structurc, it was said ol Beowulf, it is curiously wcak, in a scnsc
prcpostcrous, though grcat mcrits ol dctail wcrc allowcd. !n structurc
actually it is curiously strong, in a scnsc incvitablc, though thcrc arc
dclccts ol dctail. Tc gcncral dcsign ol thc poct is not only dclcnsiblc,
it is, ! think, admirablc. Tcrc may havc prcviously cxistcd stirring
vcrsc dcaling in straightlorward manncr and cvcn in natural scqucncc
with thc 8cowulls dccds, or with thc lall ol Hygclac, or again with
thc uctuations ol thc lcud bctwccn thc houscs ol Hrcthcl thc Gcat
and ngcnthcow thc Swcdc, or with thc tragcdy ol thc Hcathobards,
8cowull
45
and thc trcason that dcstroycd thc Scylding dynasty. !ndccd this must
bc admittcd to bc practically ccrtain: it was thc cxistcncc ol such
conncctcd lcgcndsconncctcd in thc mind, not ncccssarily dcalt with
in chroniclc lashion or in long scmihistorical pocmsthat pcrmittcd
thc pcculiar usc ol thcm in Beowulf. Tis pocm cannot bc criticizcd
or comprchcndcd, il its original audicncc is imagincd in likc casc to
oursclvcs, posscssing only Beowulf in splcndid isolation. For Beowulf
was not dcsigncd to tcll thc talc ol Hygclacs lall, or lor that mattcr
to givc thc wholc biography ol 8cowull, still lcss to writc thc history
ol thc Gcatish kingdom and its downlall. 8ut it uscd knowlcdgc ol
thcsc things lor its own purposcto givc that scnsc ol pcrspcctivc, ol
antiquity with a grcatcr and yct darkcr antiquity bchind. Tcsc things
arc mainly on thc outcr cdgcs or in thc background bccausc thcy
bclong thcrc, il thcy arc to lunction in this way. 8ut in thc ccntrc wc
havc an hcroic gurc ol cnlargcd proportions.
Beowulf is not an cpic, not cvcn a magnicd lay. No tcrms
borrowcd lrom Grcck or othcr litcraturcs cxactly t: thcrc is no rcason
why thcy should. Tough il wc must havc a tcrm, wc should choosc
rathcr clcgy. !t is an hcroicclcgiac pocm, and in a scnsc all its rst
3,136 lincs arc thc prcludc to a dirgc: him a gegiredan Geata leode ad
ofer eoran unwaclicne: onc ol thc most moving cvcr writtcn. 8ut lor
thc univcrsal signicancc which is givcn to thc lortuncs ol its hcro it
is an cnhanccmcnt and not a dctraction, in lact it is ncccssary, that his
nal loc should bc not somc Swcdish princc, or trcachcrous lricnd,
but a dragon: a thing madc by imagination lor just such a purposc.
Nowhcrc docs a dragon comc in so prcciscly whcrc hc should. 8ut
il thc hcro lalls bclorc a dragon, thcn ccrtainly hc should achicvc his
carly glory by vanquishing a loc ol similar ordcr.
|. . .|
!t is just bccausc thc main locs in Beowulf arc inhuman that thc
story is largcr and morc signicant than this imaginary pocm ol a
grcat kings lall. !t glimpscs thc cosmic and movcs with thc thought
ol all mcn conccrning thc latc ol human lilc and corts, it stands
amid but abovc thc pctty wars ol princcs, and surpasscs thc datcs and
limits ol historical pcriods, howcvcr important. At thc bcginning, and
during its proccss, and most ol all at thc cnd, wc look down as il lrom
a visionary hcight upon thc housc ol man in thc vallcy ol thc world.
A light startslixte se leoma ofer landa felaand thcrc is a sound ol
8cowull
46
music, but thc outcr darkncss and its hostilc ospring lic cvcr in wait
lor thc torchcs to lail and thc voiccs to ccasc. Grcndcl is maddcncd by
thc sound ol harps.
And onc last point, which thosc will lccl who today prcscrvc thc
ancicnt pietas towards thc past: Beowulf is not a primitivc pocm, it
is a latc onc, using thc matcrials (thcn still plcntilul) prcscrvcd lrom
a day alrcady changing and passing, a timc that has now lor cvcr
vanishcd, swallowcd in oblivion, using thcm lor a ncw purposc, with
a widcr swccp ol imagination, il with a lcss bittcr and conccntratcd
lorcc. Vhcn ncw Beowulf was alrcady antiquarian, in a good scnsc,
and it now produccs a singular ccct. For it is now to us itscll ancicnt,
and yct its makcr was tclling ol things alrcady old and wcightcd with
rcgrct, and hc cxpcndcd his art in making kccn that touch upon thc
hcart which sorrows havc that arc both poignant and rcmotc. !l thc
luncral ol 8cowull movcd oncc likc thc ccho ol an ancicnt dirgc,
laro and hopclcss, it is to us as a mcmory brought ovcr thc hills,
an ccho ol an ccho. Tcrc is not much poctry in thc world likc this,
and though Beowulf may not bc among thc vcry grcatcst pocms ol our
wcstcrn world and its tradition, it has its own individual charactcr,
and pcculiar solcmnity, it would still havc powcr had it bccn writtcn
in somc timc or placc unknown and without postcrity, il it containcd
no namc that could now bc rccognizcd or idcnticd by rcscarch. Yct
it is in lact writtcn in a languagc that altcr many ccnturics has still
csscntial kinship with our own, it was madc in this land, and movcs
in our northcrn world bcncath our northcrn sky, and lor thosc who
arc nativc to that tonguc and land, it must cvcr call with a prolound
appcaluntil thc dragon comcs.
NOTES
1. Tis cxprcssion may wcll havc bccn actually uscd by thc eald
geneat, but nonc thc lcss (or pcrhaps rathcr prcciscly on that
account), is probably to bc rcgardcd not as ncwmintcd, but as
an ancicnt and hourcd gnome ol long dcsccnt.
2. For thc words hige sceal pe heardra, heorte pe cenre, mod sceal pe
mare pe ure mgen lytla arc not, ol coursc, an cxhortation to
simplc couragc. Tcy arc not rcmindcrs that lortunc lavours
thc bravc, or that victory may bc snatchcd lrom dclcat by
8cowull
47
thc stubborn. (Such thoughts wcrc lamiliar, but othcrwisc
cxprcsscd: wyrd oft nere unfgne eorl, ponne his Ellen deah.)
Tc words ol 8yhrtwold wcrc madc lor a mans last and
hopclcss day.
3. Te Dark Ages, p. 57.
4. !l wc considcr thc pcriod as a wholc. !t is not, ol coursc,
ncccssarily truc ol individuals. Tcsc doubtlcss lrom thc
bcginning showcd many dcgrccs lrom dccp instruction and
undcrstanding to disjointcd supcrstition, or blank ignorancc.
5. Avoidancc ol obvious anachronisms (such as arc lound in
Judith, lor instancc, whcrc thc hcroinc rclcrs in hcr own
spccchcs to Christ and thc Trinity), and thc abscncc ol all
dcnitcly Christian namcs and tcrms, is natural and plainly
intcntional. !t must bc obscrvcd that thcrc is a dicrcncc
bctwccn thc commcnts ol thc author and thc things said in
rcportcd spccch by charactcrs. Tc two chicl among thcsc,
Hrothgar and 8cowull, arc again dicrcntiatcd. Tus thc only
Scriptural rclcrcnccs, to Abcl (108) and to Cain (108, 1261),
occur whcrc thc poct is spcaking as commcntator. Tc thcory ol
Grcndcls origin is not known to thc actors: Hrothgar dcnics all
knowlcdgc ol thc anccstry ol Grcndcl (1355). Tc giants (1688
.) arc, it is truc, rcprcscntcd pictorially, and in Scriptural tcrms.
8ut this suggcsts rathcr that thc author idcnticd nativc and
Scriptural accounts, and gavc his picturc Scriptural colour, sincc
ol thc two accounts Scripturc was trucr. And il so it would bc
closcr to that told in rcmotc antiquity whcn thc sword was
madc, morc cspccially sincc thc wundorsmipas who wrought it
wcrc actually giants (1558, 1562, 1679): thcy would know thc
truc talc. Scc notc 7.
6. Tc Genesis which is prcscrvcd lor us is a latc copy ol a
damagcd original, but is still ccrtainly in its oldcr parts a pocm
whosc composition must bc rclcrrcd to thc carly pcriod. Tat
Genesis A is actually oldcr than Beowulf is gcncrally rccognizcd
as thc most probablc rcading ol such cvidcncc as thcrc is.
7. Actually thc poct may havc known, what wc can gucss, that
such crcationthcmcs wcrc also ancicnt in thc North. Vlusp
dcscribcs Chaos and thc making ol thc sun and moon, and vcry
similar languagc occurs in thc ld High Gcrman lragmcnt
8cowull
48
known as thc Wessobrunner Gebet. Tc song ol thc minstrcl
!opas, who had his knowlcdgc lrom Atlas, at thc cnd ol thc
rst book ol thc Aeneid is also in part a song ol origins, hic
canit errantem lunam solisque labors, unde hominum genus et
pecudes, unde imber et ignes. !n any casc thc AngloSaxon pocts
vicw throughout was plainly that truc, or trucr, knowlcdgc was
posscsscd in ancicnt days (whcn mcn wcrc not dcccivcd by thc
cvil), at lcast thcy kncw ol thc onc God and Crcator, though
not ol hcavcn, lor that was lost. Scc notc 5.
8. !t is ol thc ld Tcstamcnt lapscs rathcr than ol any cvcnts in
ngland (ol which hc is not spcaking) that thc poct is thinking
in lincs 175 ., and this colours his manncr ol allusion to
knowlcdgc which hc may havc dcrivcd lrom nativc traditions
conccrning thc ancs and thc spccial hcathcn rcligious
signicancc ol thc sitc ol Hcorot (Hleirar, t hrgtrafum, thc
tabcrnaclcs)it was possibly a mattcr that cmbittcrcd thc lcud
ol ancs and Hcathobards. !l so, this is anothcr point whcrc old
and ncw havc blcndcd . . .
9. Tough only cxplicitly rclcrrcd to hcrc and in disagrccmcnt, this
cdition is, ol coursc, ol grcat authority, and all who havc uscd it
havc lcarncd much lrom it.
10. ! am not conccrncd with minor discrcpancics at any point ol
thc pocm. Tcy arc no prool ol compositc authorship, nor cvcn
ol incompctcnt authorship. !t is vcry dicult, cvcn in a ncwly
invcntcd talc ol any lcngth, to avoid such dclccts, morc so still
in rchandling old and olttold talcs. Tc points that arc scizcd
in thc study, with a copy that can bc indcxcd and turncd to and
lro (cvcn il ncvcr rcad straight through as it was mcant to bc),
arc usually such as may casily cscapc an author and still morc
casily his natural audicncc. \irgil ccrtainly docs not cscapc
such laults, cvcn within thc limits ol a singlc book. Modcrn
printcd talcs, that havc prcsumably had thc advantagc ol prool
corrcction, can cvcn bc obscrvcd to hcsitatc in thc hcroincs
Christian namc.
11. Tc lcast satislactory arrangcmcnt possiblc is thus to rcad only
lincs 11887 and not thc rcmaindcr. Tis proccdurc has nonc
thc lcss bccn, lrom timc to timc, dircctcd or cncouragcd by
morc than onc nglish syllabus.
8cowull
49
12. quivalcnt but not ncccssarily cqual, ccrtainly not as such
things may bc mcasurcd by machincs.
13. Tat thc particular bcarcr ol cnmity, thc ragon, also dics is
important chicy to 8cowull himscll. Hc was a grcat man. Not
many cvcn in dying can achicvc thc dcath ol a singlc worm, or
thc tcmporary salvation ol thcir kindrcd. Vithin thc limits ol
human lilc 8cowull ncithcr livcd nor dicd in vainbravc mcn
might say. 8ut thcrc is no hint, indccd thcrc arc many to thc
contrary, that it was a war to cnd war, or a dragonight to cnd
dragons. !t is thc cnd ol 8cowull, and ol thc hopc ol his pcoplc.
8cowull
51
CANTERBURY TALES
(GEOFFREY CHAUCER)
,.
Te Opening of Chaucers General Prologue
to Te Canterbury Tales: A iptych
by Colin Vilcockson,
in Review of English Studies (1999)
IN+voouc+:oN
Analyzing the rst thirty-four-line passage in The Canterbury
Tales, Colin Wilcockson focuses on the theme of renewal
and rebirth, linking the budding spring world with the spiritual
journey the pilgrims undertake. According to Wilcockson,
The thematic link between the natural description and the
pilgrimage is that of death and rebirth. On the earthly level,
the rebirth of springtime follows the death of winter and the
drought of March. On the spiritual level, mens thoughts turn
to the martyr who suffered physical death, but who now is
alive in spirit and active in restoring life-forces to the sick.
f
Tc opcning thirtylour lincs ol thc Gcncral Prologuc sct thc
sccnc, and dividc into two cqual halvcs. Tc rst sixtccn lincs,
commcncing Vhan that . . ., arc conccrncd with mattcrs gcncral: thc
Vilcockson, Colin. Tc pcning ol Chauccrs Gcncral Prologuc to Te
Canterbury Tales: A iptych. Review of English Studies \ol. 50, No. 199 (August
1999), 345350.
52
rcncwal ol naturc in April with thc simultancous dcsirc ol mcn and
womcn to sct out on pilgrimagcs. Tc ccntral two lincs (1718) arc a
rime riche (pcrlcct rhymcs on words that arc dicrcnt parts ol spccch).
Tcy statc thc objcct ol thc pilgrimagcthc journcy to thc shrinc ol
Tomas 8cckct:
Tc hooly blislul martir lor to sckc,
Tat hcm hath holpcn whan that thcy wcrc scckc.
Tc rcmaining sixtccn lincs, commcncing 8il that . . ., homc in on a
spccic group ol pilgrims: thcir rcccption at thc Tabard !nn and thcir
plans lor thc ncxt day. Tcn lollows a paragraph (ll. 3542) which is
clcarly scparatcd lrom thc lorcgoing by 8ut nathclccs. !n it Chauccr
cxplains that hc will prcscnt thc rcadcr with charactcr skctchcs ol thc
individual pilgrims, including thcir social rank and thcir drcss.
Tc divisions ! havc indicatcd arc rcinlorccd by thc scribc ol thc
llcsmcrc MS. Hc rcscrvcs illuminatcd capital lcttcrs lor particular
indication. Tus, cach ncw pilgrims dcscription commcnccs with a
dccoratcd initial lcttcr: A knyght thcr was . . . With hym thcr was his
sonc a yong squicr . . . Thcr was also a nonnc . . ., and so on. Vhcn
thc dcscriptions arc complctc and Chauccr movcs on to thc morc
gcncral narrativc (ll. 715858), only thc rst capital ol that cntirc 143
linc passagc is illuminatcd: Now havc ! toold you soothly . . .. Yct at
thc bcginning ol thc Gcncral Prologuc wc nd thc dccoratcd capital
at thc rst linc: Whan that Aprill . . ., so, too, dircctly altcr thc rime
riche, at linc 19: Bil that in that scson . . ., and at linc 35: But
nathclccs . . .. Tus thc sccond sixtccnlinc scction ! havc mcntioncd
is scparatcd, and thc scribc draws our attcntion to a ncw bcginning
altcr linc 34.
Tis drawing ol attcntion to structural conguration by colourcd
capitals is ol a piccc with thc two succcssivc uscs ol thc dcvicc in
scctions X\! (last stanza) and X\!! (rst stanza) ol Pearl, cvidcntly
to cmphasizc that scction X\ contains a cryptic six (rathcr than
thc usual vc) stanzas. Apart lrom this cxtra dccoratcd capital
in scction X\! only thc rst capital lcttcr ol cach scction ol Pearl
is colourcd. As cach stanza has twclvc lincs, thc vc stanza pcr
scction lorm totals sixty lincs pcr scction. Scction X\ contains,
howcvcr, scvcntytwo lincs (i.c. six stanzas), unbrokcn by a ncw
Gcorcy Chauccr
53
capital lcttcr. 8ut in scction X\! an intrusivc capital lcttcr intro
duccs thc lth stanza, drawing attcntion to thc lact that there
would have been a colourcd capital thcrc il thc prcvious scction had
containcd thc rcgular vc stanzas ol thc othcr ninctccn scctions
ol thc pocm. Tc ncxt stanza again has a colourcd capital, bccausc
that introduccs scction X\!!. !t has oltcn bccn pointcd out that thc
rcsulting numbcr ol stanzas101is also (and surcly morc than
coincidcntally) thc numbcr ol vcrscparagraphs in anothcr work
by thc samc poct, Sir Gawain and the Green Knight. Somc cditors
havc, howcvcr, assumcd that thcrc was a nonauthorial addition ol
a stanza in scction X\ ol Pearl, but, as thc last word ol thc clon
gatcd scction X\ is ncucrclcsc (ncvcrthclcss), a word takcn up as
thc rst word ol scction X\!, thcrc would appcar to bc an allusion
to thc numcrology. Furthcrmorc, ncucr c lcs is thc nal phrasc
ol cvcry onc ol thc six stanzas ol scction X\.
1
Had thc intrusivc
capital occurrcd at stanza 6 ol scction X\, onc might arguc that
thc scribc, accustomcd to a vcstanza scction, anticipatcd a ncw
scction and paintcd a dccoratcd capital. 8ut its rcmoval till latcr
rcinlorccs its cryptic signicancc. 8ut nathclccs (8ut ncvcrthclcss)
is thc phrasc Chauccr also uscs in linc 35 ol thc Gcncral Prologuc,
pcrhaps, likc thc Pearlpoct, to alcrt his rcadcrs to thc prcccding
numbcr ol lincs.
Tc Chauccrian thirtylourlinc passagc is tightly structurcd. Tc
thcmatic link bctwccn thc natural dcscription and thc pilgrimagc is
that ol dcath and rcbirth. n thc carthly lcvcl, thc rcbirth ol spring
timc lollows thc dcath ol wintcr and thc drought ol March. n
thc spiritual lcvcl, mcns thoughts turn to thc martyr who sucrcd
physical dcath, but who now is alivc in spirit and activc in rcstoring
lilclorccs to thc sick. arly in thc passagc, Chauccr intcgratcs
thcsc carthlyspiritual thcmcs ol dcath and rcsurrcction by mcans ol
scmantic conlusion lollowcd by lusion:
And bathcd cvcry vcync in swich licour
l which vertu cngcndrcd is thc our,
Vhan Zcphirus cck with his swcctc brccth
Inspired hath in cvcry holt and hccth
Tc tcndrc croppcs . . .
(ll. 37, cmphasis addcd)
Cantcrbury Talcs
54
Tc conlusion occurs in thc scmantic clds ol vcrtu and inspircd.
8oth words, dcpcnding on contcxt, could in thc lourtccnth ccntury
havc thcological or, as in thc prcscnt instancc, litcrally ctymological
scnscs (Latin virtus, strcngth, Latin inspirare, brcathc into). Tc most
common usc ol inspirc in thc lourtccnth ccntury carrics thc implica
tion inlusion ol a divinc prcscncc.
2
!t was thought in thc Middlc Agcs that God crcatcd thc world in
March.
3
Tc Nuns Pricst rcmarks upon it:
Vhan that thc month in which thc world bcgan
Tat hightc March, whan God rst makcd man . . .
(vii. 31878)
!n linc 2 ol thc Gcncral Prologuc Chauccr spccically mcntions thc
droghtc ol March which is brokcn by April rain. !n thc Crcation
story thc dry arth is brought to lilc by watcr, God thcn brcathcs
into thc clay (inspiravit) to makc man.
4
Tough thc March drought
has bccn attributcd to litcrary convcntion, but is a lact,
5
thc rathcr
unusual inspircd triggcrs o this wholc scrics ol connotations which
conncct thc naturc dcscription with thc Crcation story.
Tcsc arc not thc only words Chauccr uscs in thc passagc with
thc intcntion ol indicating that thcrc is a spiritual signicatio in thc
physical world around us. 8ccausc thcir thoughts arc on lovc, thc birds
do not slccp in April. Chauccr comically says that naturc prikcth hcm
. . . in hir coragcs (l. 11). Tc word coragc (Latin cor, Frcnch cur)
in thc contcxt mcans crotic lovcand thcrc may wcll bc a scxual
wordplay on prikcth.
6
Vhcn coragc is ncxt uscd in thc passagc,
howcvcr, it is qualicd by thc adjcctivc dcvout: To Cauntcrbury with
lul dcvout coragc (l. 22). !ts mcaning has movcd lrom thc natural to
thc spiritual, lrom eros to agape.
Givcn this tcndcncy, it may wcll bc that thc languagc uscd about
thc sun is intcndcd to indicatc a shilt lrom thc astronomical to thc
spiritual, through wordplay. Tc sun is dcscribcd anthropomor
phically: it is young, it runs, it gocs to rcst. !n thc sccond hall ol thc
passagc thc pilgrims rctirc to slccp and agrcc crly lor to risc. Tc
birthdcathrcsurrcction pcrmcating thc passagc may wcll contain thc
adnominatio sun/son (Son ol God). Tc conncction bctwccn sunrisc
and thc rcsurrcction ol Christ thc martyr archctypc is prcscnt in thc
Gcorcy Chauccr
55
biblical accounts. !n Mark 16:2 wc rcad that it was on a Sunday that
thc two Marys mct thc riscn Christ: t valdc manc |vcry carly in thc
morning| . . . orto iam solc |at sunrisc|. !n vcrsc 9, wc arc told that
Christ himscll rosc carly: Surgcns autcm manc. !n nglish thcrc
cxists thc potcntial lor wordplay on sun/son not availablc in Latin.
Usc sccms to bc madc ol this potcntial (in prcciscly thc samc contcxt)
in Piers Plowman.
7
cad mcn arisc lrom thcir gravcs at thc dcath ol
Christ and prophcsy:
Lilc and ccth in this dcrkncssc, hir oon lordooth hir oothcr
Shal no wight witc wittcrly who shal havc thc maistric
r Sonday about sonne risyng. (xviii. 657)
Alastair Fowlcr discusscs thc importancc ol ccntrality ol posi
tion in mcdicval and Rcnaissancc thinking. Hc givcs as an cxamplc
thc placing ol thc thronc at thc ccntrc ol onc sidc ol a tablc, and
rcmarks: !n thc lincar lorm, claboratc symmctrics oltcn surround
thc signicant middlc point.
8
Hc gocs on to illustratc this pattcrn
in many works ol Rcnaissancc litcraturc. Vc havc sccn how thc
mirroring ol scmantic possibilitics is a rccurrcnt thcmc in thc two
halvcs ol thc Chauccrian passagc. laboratc symmctrics arc indccd
prcscnt in rcpcatcd words. Tc only rhymcwords which arc rcpcatcd
arc ccntrally pivotcd:
A coragcs (l. 11)
8 pilgrymagcs (l. 12)
C sckc (l. 17)
C scckc (l. 18)
8 pilgrimagc (l. 21)
A coragc (l. 22)
!l wc look at all rcpcatcd nouns in thc passagc, wc nd thc samc
pattcrn conrmcd:
sonnc
nyght
coragcs
pilgrymagcs
Cantcrbury Talcs
56
pilgrimagc
coragc
nyght
sonnc
Tis kind ol pattcrning in mcdicval litcraturc has bccn obscrvcd
by a numbcr ol scholars. For cxamplc, in his articlc Ccntral and
isplaccd Sovcrcignty in Trcc Mcdicval Pocms (namcly, Te Awntrys
of Arthure, Hcnrysons Morall Fabillis, and Sir Gawain and the Green
Knight), A.C. Spcaring analyscs thc importancc ol thc ccntral linc ol
somc mcdicval pocms with thc claboratc pattcrning rccctcd by cach
hall, and aptly statcs: ! suggcst that its structurc is comparablc to that
ol a pictorial diptych.
9
Spcaring obscrvcs that diptych structurcs arc
common in mcdicval poctry, cvcn whcn a numcrological structurc is
abscnt (thc Ccyx and Alcyonc story and thc Man in 8lack in thc Book
of the Duchess, lor cxamplc). John Scattcrgood notcs a scllcnclosing,
loldovcr pattcrn in Chauccrs ABC, Anelida and Arcite, Te Complaint
unto Pity, and Womanly Noblesse.
10
P.M. Kcan, writing on Pearl, statcs:
Tc climax . . . is thc grcat stanza on Gods plcnitudc ol gracc which
comcs at thc cxact ccntrc ol thc pocm.
11
!an 8ishop, also writing
about Pearl, similarly rcmarks: thc author ol Pearl, instcad ol cnunci
ating his tcxt cxplicitly at thc bcginning ol his composition, placcs it
at thc ccntrcwhich is thc most important position in a pocm whosc
cxtcrnal structurc is ncarly circular and whosc intcrnal structurc is
morc or lcss symmctrical.
12
8oth Kcan and 8ishop also analysc that
pocms usc ol numcrology.
St Erkenwald is a classic diptych pocm. !t consists ol 352 lincs.
Linc 1 bcgins with a largc capital lcttcr, At London . . .. Tc only
othcr largc capital occurs dircctly altcr linc 176, thc hallway point in
thc pocm. Linc 177 rcads, Tcn hc turncs to thc toumbc and talkcs to
thc corcc . . ., whcrc thc word turncs draws attcntion to thc lcaving
ol onc sct ol considcrations to turn to anothcr.
13
Cliord Pctcrson,
in his cdition ol St Erkenwald, rcmarks: Tc prcscncc ol this capital
. . . is almost ccrtainly not accidcnt. !t dividcs thc pocm prcciscly into
two halvcs ol 176 lincs and coincidcs with thc bcginning ol a major
portion ol thc pocm, thc dialoguc bctwccn thc bishop and thc corpsc,
a dialoguc which brings out thc pocms main conccrns, hcavcnly and
worldly justicc and thc salvation ol thc rightcous hcathcn.
14
Gcorcy Chauccr
57
Numcrology is almost ccrtainly at work in thc Chauccrian
passagc. !t contains thirtylour lincs, and thc hallway division at linc
17 rcquircs thc two halvcs to sharc thc hinging rime riche couplct.
Augustinc, in a discussion ol thc numbcr ol sh in thc story ol thc
miraculous draught ol shcs (John 21:11), cxplains that 153 is thc
Pythagorcan triangular gurc ol 17, and that 17 is signicant bccausc
10 can dcnotc thc ccaloguc, and 7 thc gilts ol thc Holy Ghost
which makc it possiblc lor man to lull thc 10 laws and thus bccomc a
saint.
15
!n this numbcr |17| thcrc is lound, as in othcr numbcrs rcprc
scnting a combination ol symbols, a wondcrlul mystcry, Augustinc
writcs. Hc thcn gocs on to adducc thc cvidcncc ol Psalm 17, whcrc
avid praiscs God lor dclivcring him lrom thc hand ol Saul: Hc in
His Church, that is, His body, still cndurcs thc malicc ol cncmics.
!l Chauccr had in mind this particular passagc lrom Augustinc, thc
8cckctt parallcl would havc bccn sccn as particularly apt. Fowlcr
notcs that thc dominant intcrprctation by thc Church Fathcrs was
that 153 rcprcscntcd symbolically thc numbcr ol thc lcct.
16
!n Te
City of God, Augustinc again rcmarks on thc connotation ol 10 with
thc ccaloguc, and on thc saintly connotation ol thc numbcr 7: Tc
thcory ol numbcr is not to bc lightly rcgardcd, sincc it is madc quitc
clcar in many passagcs ol thc holy Scripturcs, how highly it is to bc
valucd . . . Tc numbcr scvcn is also pcrlcct . . . it was on thc scvcnth
day . . . that thc rcst ol God is cmphasiscd, and in this rcst wc hcar thc
rst mcntion ol sanctication.
17
!t is pcrhaps signicant that linc
17 ol thc Chauccrian passagc contains thc rst mcntion ol thc holy,
blislul |blcsscd| martyr, thc saint whosc shrinc at Cantcrbury is thc
objcct ol thc pilgrims qucst.
Tc pivotal balancc at thc rime riche lorms a hingc lor thc
cunningly intcgratcd diptych pattcrn ol thc passagc, whosc vcry lorm
rcinlorccs, is indccd part ol, its spiritual signicancc.
NOTES
1. Many commcntators acccpt that thc additional stanza is
authorial. Tc rcsulting 101 stanzas and 1212 lincs may bc
numcrologically signicant: thc pocm makcs constant rclcrcncc
to thc book ol Rcvclation, and mcntions thc 144,000 souls who
will bc savcd according to that book. Tc 1212 lincs in Pearl
Cantcrbury Talcs
58
may bc intcndcd to imply 12 x 12 - 144. Gollanz, howcvcr,
in thc TS lacsimilc cdition, rcmarks in rclcrcncc to thc
colourcd capital on lo. 52a, 8y an crror, this vcrsc bcgins a ncw
scction in thc MS.
2. Tc carlicst occurrcncc rccordcd in MED ol inspircd mcaning
to brcathc into is this Gcncral Prologuc instancc. !n \ulgatc
Gcncsis 2: 57 (thc Crcation story) wc arc told that, though
God had madc thc plants ol thc carth, thcy did not grow
bccausc Hc had not causcd rain to lall on thc ground. Hc
thcrclorc causcd thc carth to yicld a mist to watcr thc carth. Hc
thcn crcatcd a man lrom thc dust and brcathcd (inspiravit) thc
spirit into him: scd lons asccndcbat c tcrra, irrigans univcrsam
supcrcicm tcrrac. Formavit igitur ominus cus homincm
dc limo tcrrac, ct inspiravit in lacicm cius spiraculum vitac,
ct lactus cst homo in animam vivcntcm. Tc rst cxamplc in
MED ol inspirc mcaning to brcathc or put lilc into a human
body is in thc Vyclil 8iblc (c.1382), Visdom 15: 11. For thc
scnsc ll with rcligious ardour MED citcs a 1390 passagc, and
givcs many 15thccnt. cxamplcs. Chauccr uscs inspire/enspire
on thrcc lurthcr occasions: thc Canons Ycomans Talc, G, l.
1470 (mcaning cnlightcn), and in two cascs to imply that a
supcrnatural bcing takcs ovcr thc mind ol a human: Troilus and
Criseyde, !!!. 712 (\cnus, this nyght thow mc cnspirc), and !\.
187 (Vhat goost may yow cnspirc:).
3. Scc Bede: Opera de Temporibus, cd. C.V. Joncs (Cambridgc,
Mass., 1943): De ratione temporum, \!. 67, 1905.
4. Scc n. 2 abovc.
5. Scc L.. 8cnsons notc on Gcncral Prologuc, l. 2, in Te
Riverside Chaucer (8oston, Mass., 1987), 799, whcrc hc also
rclcrs to critical suggcstions about thc convcntion. Quotations
lrom Chauccr in this articlc lrom that cdition.
6. Scc T.V. Ross, Chaucers Bawdy (Ncw York, 1972), 1679.
7. For Langlands usc ol this sort ol wordplay, scc A.\.C.
Schmidt, Te Clerkly Maker: Langlands Poetic Art (Voodbridgc,
Suolk, 1987), 1258.
8. A. Fowlcr, Triumphal Forms (Cambridgc, 1970), 23.
9. RES xs 33/131 (1982), 24761.
Gcorcy Chauccr
59
10. A.J. Minnis with \.J. Scattcrgood and J.J. Smith (cds.), Te
Shorter Poems, xlord Guidcs to Chauccr (xlord, 1995). For
discussion ol thc scllcnclosing structurc ol ABC scc p. 464, ol
Anelida and Arcite, p. 471, ol Complaint unto Pity, pp. 4712,
and ol Womanly Noblesse, p. 479.
11. P.M. Kcan, Te Pearl (London, 1967), 178.
12. !. 8ishop, Pearl in its Setting (xlord, 1968), 35 and 28.
13. Tcrc is a uniquc copy ol thc work, 8L MS Harlcy 2250, los.
72
v
75
v
.
14. St Erkenwald, cd. C. Pctcrson (8crkclcy, Calil., 1977), 26.
15. Scc C. 8utlcr, Number Symbolism (London, 1970), 27, scc also
\.F. Hoppcr, Medieval Number Symbolism (Ncw York, 1938),
802. Te Works of Aurelius Augustine, trans. M. odds, 15
vols. (dinburgh, 18716), i. 22930: lcttcr L\. 17. 31. odds
supplics an illustration ol thc Pythagorcan trianglc with basc
17 on p. 230. Scc also Fowlcr, Triumphal Forms, 1845, and
M.S. Rostvig, Structurc as Prophccy: Tc !nucncc ol 8iblical
xcgcsis upon Tcorics ol Litcrary Structurc, in A. Fowlcr
(cd.), Silent Poetry (London, 1970), 3272, csp. pp. 4155.
16. Fowlcr, Triumphal Forms, 1845, whcrc thcrc is also a drawing
ol thc Pythagorcan trianglc with basc 17.
17. Trans. H. 8cttcnson (Harmondsworth, 1972), 4656.
Cantcrbury Talcs
61
CRIME AND PUNISHMENT
(FYODOR MIKHAILOVICH DOSTOEVSKY)
,.
Crime and Myth: Te Archetypal Pattern of
Rebirth in Tree Novels of Dostoevsky
by Alexandra F. Rudicina, in PMLA (1972)
I
In her essay, Alexandra Rudicina argues that, The salient
dimension of Dostoevskys creativity in his later phase is his
obsessive esthetic and metaphysical concern with ultimate
violence. According to Rudicina, Dostoevsky depicts murder
as an act generated exclusively by the rational mind of the
murderer . . . a product of pure intellection, a rationally argued
calculated act of violence. Thus, rationality is explicitly
linked with violent acts, but for Rudicina, rationality is more
than a theme: It is an underlying pattern reecting the
archetypal scheme of rebirth through transgression followed
by suffering, or expiation, which informs the central myth
of Christianity, the Fall of Man and his Redemption. In this
excerpt, which deals primarily with Crime and Punishment,
Rudicina focuses on the renewal and rebirth of the novels
protagonist, Raskolnikov.
f
Rudicina, Alexandra F. Crime and Myth: Te Archetypal Pattern of Rebirth in
Tree Novels of Dostoevsky. PMLA Vol. 87, No. 5 (Oct. 1972), 1,0651,074.
62
\crily, vcrily, ! say unto you, cxccpt a corn ol whcat lall into thc
ground and dic, it abidcth alonc, but il it dic, it bringcth lorth
much lruit.
John xii.24, uscd as a motto in Te Brothers Karamazov
Tc salicnt dimcnsion ol ostocvskys crcativity in his latcr phasc is
his obscssivc csthctic and mctaphysical conccrn with ultimatc violcncc.
!ndccd, in his grcat novcls, thc promincncc and urgcncy ol thc thcmc
ol murdcr bccomc thc cachct ol his crcativc mcthod.
Crime and Punishment, Te Possessed, and Te Brothers Karamazov
cmbody a rcasscrtion and an claboration ol this compclling conccrn
in tcrms ol both thcir thcmatic import and structural pattcrn. Murdcr
is prcscntcd as an act gcncratcd cxclusivcly by thc rational mind ol
thc murdcrcr. !t is a product ol purc intcllcction, a rationally argucd
calculatcd act ol violcncc, and as such it can bc charactcrizcd as lc
crimc parlait in thc scnsc Albcrt Camus uscs thc tcrm in his dialcctics
ol murdcrthat is, lc mcurtrc lgitim as distinguishcd lrom lc
mcurtrc dc latalit, or crimc ol passion.
1
Tc vcry urgcncy with which thcsc works all insist that lc mcurtrc
cst la qucstion (Camus, p. 15) makcs us pausc to inquirc into thc
dynamics ol thc organizing pattcrn around which thc thcmcs ol crimc
appcar to bc structurcd. Tis undcrlying pattcrn rcccts thc archc
typal schcmc ol rcbirth through transgrcssion lollowcd by sucring,
or cxpiation, which inlorms thc ccntral myth ol Christianity, thc
Fall ol Man and his Rcdcmption. And in accordancc with thc mcta
physical csthctics charactcristic ol his postcxilc Vcltanschauung,
2
his
Pascalismnay, his drcad ol mans autarkic intcllcct
3
ostocvsky
constitutcs thc crimc ol rcason as the transgression, but also as a
potcntial felix culpa in his vcrsion ol thc Fall and Rcdcmption as
applicd to modcrn man.
cspitc thc occasional probings ol scvcral critics into thc thcmcs
ol rcbirth or rcgcncration in ostocvskys ocuvrc, his major ction
has not bccn systcmatically cxplorcd lor thc thcmatic and structural
rclcvancc ol thc archctypal pattcrn ol rcbirth. My purposc is to isolatc
and lollow thc movcmcnt ol this pattcrn in tcrms ol its individuation
in cach ol thc thrcc novcls undcr study. ! will considcr thc charactcrs
cxistcntial rolc only in tcrms ol thcir involvcmcnt in thc mctaphysical
schcmc ol rcbirth.
Fyodor Mikhailovich ostocvsky
63
!n thc signicantly cntitlcd Crime and Punishment, ostocvsky
givcs his rst imaginativc statcmcnt ol what Allcn Tatc would call
a cosmic cxtcnsion ol thc moral prcdicamcnt.
4
!t is a Russian intcl
lcctual and, by cxtcnsion, man undcr thc aspcct ol modcrnity,
5
a
supcrman, whom ostocvsky lcaturcs as a suprcmc aggrcssor in
tcrms ol human law and as a mctaphysical transgrcssor against divinc
and univcrsal ordcr. His act ol aggrcssion is prcscntcd as sanctioncd
by thc rational impcrativc ol his intcllcct, his transgrcssion as an
cxpcrimcnt in uttcrmost and nal lrccdom.
6
Sccking, thus, to cstab
lish his protagonist in his rclationship to God,
7
ostocvsky will
rcsort to thc archctypal schcmc.
!n his proud and solitary intcllcction, Raskolnikov contcmplatcs a
vcnturc that hc prcsumcs will say a new word.
8
!mpcllcd by a rational
idca, an cxcrcsccncc ol his intcllcct, hc conccivcs a logical crimc,
claiming thc right ol an cxtraordinary man (pp. 24849, Pt. !!!,
Ch. v) to cstablish his own cthical norms and valucs. Spccically hc
asscrts that this cxtraordinary man may in all conscicncc authorizc
himscll to commit crimc il it is ncccssary . . . lor thc lulllmcnt ol
his idcas (p. 250).
Raskolnikovs rational mind brcaking loosc lrom thc common
bonds ol humanity, a mind drivcn by concupiscentia invincibilisthat
concupisccncc ol rcason that Lcv Shcstov dccms thc vcry causc ol
thc Fall ol Man
9
will prompt him to darc (p. 401, Pt. v, Ch. iv)
and to pcrmit his conscicncc to ovcrstcp . . . ccrtain obstaclcs (p.
249, Pt. !!!, Ch. v). Hc procccds to remove (p. 249) what hc calls a
lousc, . . . a usclcss, vilc, pcrnicious lousc (p. 399, Pt. v, Ch. iv), thc
old pawnbrokcr Alcna !vanovna.
Tc principlc ol rcbirth is sct in motion as soon as Raskolnikov
assays his lrccdom and powcr (p. 317, Pt. !\, Ch. iv) by stcp
ping ovcr thc barricrs (p. 402, Pt. v, Ch. iv) and murdcring thc old
moncylcndcr and hcr hallwittcd sistcr, Lizavcta. Pcrvcrting thc vcry
principlc ol lilc, hc thus signals his implication in an act ol mcta
physical transgrcssion. Tis act is the stcp ol ultimatc gravity through
which participation in thc schcmc ol rcbirth via sucring and cxpia
tion will bc hcld out to him.
Tc crimc mcrgcs with thc punishmcnt. As 8lackmur has
obscrvcd, Raskolnikov himscll bccomcs thc vcry product ol his
crimc (p. 122).
10
Tc samc intcllcction that has supplicd thc rationalc
Crimc and Punishmcnt
64
lor his projcct has also lurnishcd thc subtlcst, most rcncd tools lor
his punishmcnt. Tc hidcousncss ol his act is csscntially brought
homc to Raskolnikov in csthctic tcrms.
11
Soon cnough altcr thc dccd
Raskolnikov pcrccivcs thc ironic discrcpancy bctwccn thc rcgal sang
lroid and poisc ol a Napolcon marching ovcr corpscs (p. 250, Pt. !!!,
Ch. v) and his own mcssy cowcring proccdurcs in thc squashing ol
an old usurcr. Rccalling how hc crawlcd undcr thc moncylcndcrs bcd
lor his booty, hc picturcs Porry, thc cxamining magistratc, asking
sarcastically: ocs a Napolcon crawl undcr an old hags bcd:
12
Tcrc is unmistakably lurking in thc hcart ol Raskolnikov a
rankling scnsc ol an cxtrcmc impropricty ol his privatc murdcrous
act. Charactcristically hc himscll acknowlcdgcd that hc was nothing
but an csthctic lousc (p. 264, Pt. !!!, Ch. vi). Hcrc ostocvsky
skirts a Shakcspcarcan projcction ol thc impulsc to lormal propricty
disccrncd by Robcrt 8. Hcilman in thcllo, who conccivcd ol csdc
monas murdcr not as an act ol privatc rcvcngc but as a ritc ol justicc.
!t is that vcry proprictywhich, in Hcilmans tcrms, puts a good lacc
on murdcrthat Raskolnikov agonizingly pcrccivcs was lacking in
his own dccd.
13
Anothcr aspcct ol thc punishmcnt is his discasc, which rcprc
scnts, ironically, an unlorcsccn conscqucncc ol his calculatcd act.
!t will bc rcmcmbcrcd that in his articlc dcaling with thc right to
commit crimc (p. 248, Pt. !!!, Ch. v), Raskolnikov madc thc point
that a criminal act is almost invariably accompanicd by a collapsc ol
willpowcr and rcason. Such discasc, hc claimcd, was thc causc ol thc
criminals cxtraordinary childish hccdlcssncss that would incvitably
lcad to his dctcction. Raskolnikov considcrcd himscll immunc lrom
such distrcssing conscqucnccs simply bccausc what hc contcmplatcd
was no crimc (p. 68, Pt. !, Ch. vi).
8ut lollowing thc dccd hc collapscs into a stupor lrom which hc
awakcns only to discovcr in tcrror his own childish hccdlcssncss, his
carclcssncss in conccaling thc traccs ol his murdcrous dccd. Assailcd
by thc suspicion that cvcrything, cvcn mcmory, cvcn thc simplc
powcr ol rccction, was dcscrting him, hc ascribcs a punitivc, rctrib
utivc signicancc to what hc apprchcnds as thc onsct ol madncss:
Vhat il it is bcginning alrcady: Can this rcally bc thc bcginning ol
my punishmcnt: (pp. 8486, Pt. !!, Ch. i). As his punishmcnt grows,
wc lollow an incrcasingly harrowing spcctaclc ol humiliation and
Fyodor Mikhailovich ostocvsky
65
gradual disintcgration ol thc hcros pridcthat samc pridc that had
conccivcd thc dccd and had incitcd him to takc thc darc and ovcrstcp
thc limits.
Rcn Girard in his Dostoevsk: du double lunit spcaks ol unc
passion dc lorgucil modcrnc that hc sccs inhcrcnt in thc Napolconic
Promcthcism undcrlying thc modcl ol la surhumanit lor Raskol
nikov.
14
!n his words, Raskolnikov tuc, ct il tuc dlibrmcnt an
dasscoir son orgucil sur dcs bascs inbranlablcs (p. 71). Yct not oncc
docs his consciousncss ol thc cnactcd dccd stir in Raskolnikov a
proud vision ol himscll as thc rcal rulcr, as that Napolcon in whom,
as Girard says, Hcgcl saw lincarnation vivantc dc la divinit (p.
97). Tc man who, obscsscd with his own dcication,
15
cngagcd in
a daring cxpcrimcntwhich hc dccmcd cmblcmatic ol lrccdom and
powcr, but abovc all powcr (p. 317, Pt. !\, Ch. iv)nds himscll
unablc to makc good his claim and pass his tcst. Trappcd in what hc
calls his cowardicc, unncrvcd by thc humiliating rcalization ol thc
lailurc ol his projcct, his pridc disintcgrating, Raskolnikov submits to
Sonyas Christly mcdiation and givcs himscll up to thc policc.
Vc havc dcalt with thc growth and multiplication ol thc punish
mcnt in which thc protagonist has involvcd himscll in his qucst lor
rcbcllious lrccdom
16
and his arrogation ol thc right ovcr thc lilc and
dcath ol thc thcr. Yct thcrc is no cxpiatory aspcct, no rcdccming
sucring at this point in his pluridimcnsional punishmcnt. Tc awak
cning ol thc impulsc to rcbirth is rctardcd by his obduratc commit
mcnt to his idca. vcn as hc has rcachcd thc dccision to makc a
clcan brcast ol his crimc to thc authoritics, hc vchcmcntly protcsts
to Sonya that his dccd was no crimc. Crimc: Vhat crimc: hc
asks. Killing a loul, noxious lousc . . . who suckcd thc lilcblood ol
thc poor, so vilc that killing hcr ought to bring absolution lor lorty
sinswas that a crimc: (p. 498, Pt. \!, Ch. vii).
nc ol thc most controvcrsial issucs in ostocvsky criticism is
thc socallcd cpiloguc convcrsion: in thc last two pagcs ol thc novcl
ostocvsky tclls us that Raskolnikov and Sonya arc raiscd lrom thc
dcad through thc cpiphany ol thcir lovc, thc dawn ol a ncw luturc
and a pcrlcct rcsurrcction into a ncw lilc glowing in thcir whitc
sick laccs. Tc usual critical objcction to this latc convcrsion is to
its suddcnncss: it has bccn chargcd that thc protagonists changc
ol hcart is ncithcr psychologically nor artistically prcparcd lor in thc
Crimc and Punishmcnt
66
carlicr stagcs ol thc novcl. Morc particularly, rncst Simmons chargcs
that Raskolnikovs rcgcncration undcr thc inucncc ol thc Chris
tian humility and lovc ol Sonya is ncithcr artistically palatablc nor
psychologically sound (p. 153).
!n dclcnsc ol thc convcrsion ! must point out that onc cannot lail
to disccrn thc slow and tortuous but unmistakablc rhythm ol rcbirth
that involvcs in its momcntum thc hallrcsisting, hallwilling protago
nist who vacillatcs bctwccn thc polaritics ol pcrdition and salvation,
cmbodicd rcspcctivcly by Svidrigailov and Sonya Marmcladova.
Signicantly it is thc lamous sccnc in which thc murdcrcr and thc
harlot . . . had comc togcthcr so strangcly to rcad thc ctcrnal book that
most compcllingly lorcshadows Raskolnikovs rcsurrcction. Raskol
nikov asks thc saintly prostitutc, Vhcrc is that about thc raising ol
Lazarus: Find it lor mc. And Sonya, rcading to him lrom thc Gospcl
ol Saint John about thc blind, unbclicving Jcws who wcrc so soon, in
an instant, to lall to thc ground . . . bclicving in Lazarus rcsurrcction,
intuits that he, he who is also blind and unbclicving, hc also will hcar
in a momcnt, hc also will bclicvc. As shc rcads lurthcrAnd he that
was dead came forthshc cxults in anticipation ol Raskolnikov also
rising lrom thc dcad (pp. 31215, Pt. !\, Ch. iv).
Philip Rahv cxprcsscs impaticncc with such intimations at thc
closc ol thc novcl as promisc that Raskolnikovs ultimatc rccon
cilcmcnt and salvation will comc to pass in a ncw story (Rahv,
pp. 2223). Yct it may bc plausibly argucd that in activating thc
archctypc ol rcbirth as crystallizcd in thc Christian myth ol Fall
and Rcdcmption, ostocvsky was conccptually as wcll as artistically
bound to stay within his particular lramc ol rclcrcncc. clcrring to
an indcnitc luturc Raskolnikovs cmcrgcncc into pcrlcct rcsurrcc
tion and limiting himscll to mcrc intimations ol an undrcamcdol
rcality, ostocvsky lundamcntally lollows thc Christian myth, with
its promisc ol mans rcdcmption.
17
NOTES
1. Scc rncst J. Simmons, Dostoevsky: Te Making of a Novelist
(Ncw York: Knopl, 1962), pp. 15556, Martin Kancs, Zolas La
Bte humaine: A Study in Literary Creation, Univ. ol Calilornia
Publications in Modcrn Philology, No. 68 (8crkclcy and Los
Fyodor Mikhailovich ostocvsky
67
Angclcs: Univ. ol Calilornia Prcss, 1962), pp. 3133, and Albcrt
Camus, LHomme rvolt (Paris: Gallimard, 1951), !ntrod., pp.
13, 17.
2. \yachcslav !vanov, Freedom and the Tragic Life: A Study in
Dostoevsky, trans. Norman Camcron, cd. S. Konovalov (Ncw
York: Noonday, 1960), pp. 1517, .A. Travcrsi, ostocvsky,
Criterion, 16 (1937), rpt. in Dostoevsky: A Collection of Critical
Essays, Twcnticth Ccntury \icws, cd. Rcn Vcllck (nglcwood
Clis, N. J.: PrcnticcHall, 1961), pp. 16062.
3. !rving Howc, ostocvsky: Tc Politics ol Salvation, Politics
and the Novel (Ncw York: Horizon Prcss, 1957), rpt. in
Dostoevsky: A Collection of Critical Essays, pp. 5657.
4. Allcn Tatc, ur Cousin, Mr. Poc, Collected Essays (cnvcr,
Colo.: Swallow, 1959), rpt. in Modern Literary Criticism: An
Anthology, cd. !rving Howc (Ncw York: Grovc, 1961), p. 263.
5. Philip Rahv, ostocvsky in Crime and Punishment, Partisan
Review, 27 (1960), rpt. in Dostoevsky: A Collection of Critical
Essays, p. 21.
6. Nicholas 8crdyacv, Dostoevsky, trans. onald Attwatcr
(Clcvcland, hio: Vorld, 1964), p. 68.
7. R.P. 8lackmur, Crimc and Punishmcnt, Chimera, 1, No. 3
(1943), rpt. as Crimc and Punishmcnt: Murdcr in Your wn
Room, in Eleven Essays in the European Novel (Ncw York:
Harcourt, 1964), p. 139.
8. Crime and Punishment, Tc Coulson Translation, cd. Gcorgc
Gibian (Ncw York: Norton, 1964), p. 2 (Pt. i, Ch. i). Subscqucnt
rclcrcnccs arc to this cdition and arc placcd in thc tcxt, cxccpt
whcn statcd othcrwisc.
9. Kierkegaard and the Existential Philosophy, trans. linor Hcwitt
(Athcns: hio Univ. Prcss, 1969), p. 304.
10. Scc also Paul vdokimov, Dostoevsky et le problme du mal
(\alcncc: !mprimcrics Runics, 1942), p. 135.
11. Yanko Lavrin, Dostoevsky: A Study (Ncw York: Macmillan,
1947), p. 80.
12. F.M. ostocvskij, Prestuplenie i nakazanie: Roman v sesti castjax
s epilogom. Polnoe sobranie socinenij (Moskva: Gosudarstvcnnoc
lzdatclstvo Xudozcstvcnnoj Litcratury, 1956), v, 285, my
translation.
Crimc and Punishmcnt
68
13. Magic in the Web (Lcxington: Univ. ol Kcntucky Prcss, 1956), p.
159. Quotcd and commcntcd upon by Honor Matthcws in Te
Primal Curse: Te Myth of Cain and Abel (Ncw York: Schockcn,
1967), pp. 4647.
14. (Paris: Plon, 1963), p. 73.
15. Scc 8crdyacv, Dostoevsky, p. 99.
16. Scc 8crdyacv, p. 77.
17. Crime and Punishment, piloguc, Ch. ii, pp. 52627. Scc also
vdokimov, Dostoevsky et le problme du mal, p. 25.
Fyodor Mikhailovich ostocvsky
69
DIVINE COMEDY
(DANTE ALIGHIERI)
,.
To Can Grande della Scala
by antc Alighicri, in Dantis Alagherii
Epistolae: Te Letters of Dante (1920)
IN+voouc+:oN
In this letter to Can Grande della Scala, Dante Alighieris
leading patron, Dante provides a famous overview to the ways
of interpreting his Divine Comedy. He details how his work
is polysemous, having several meanings, often citing Aris-
totle to support his claims. Focusing on renewal and rebirth,
especially the souls existence after death, Dante outlines his
works subject and the principal ways of reading his text: For
if the subject of the whole work taken in the literal sense is
the state of souls after death, pure and simple, without limita-
tion, it is evident that in this part the same state is the subject,
but with a limitation, namely the state of blessed souls after
death. Thus, Dantes epic poem deals with the rebirth and
renewal of those who have lived a just earthly life, a rebirth
that is paralleled in Dante the Pilgrims journey and in those
seeking to understand Divine Comedy.
f
Alighicri, antc. To Can Grandc dclla Scala. Dantis Alagherii Epistolae: Te
Letters of Dante. Trans. Pagct Toynbcc. xlord: Clarcndon Prcss, 1966 (First
publishcd 1920). 160211.
70
5. As thc Philosophcr says in thc sccond book ol thc Metaphysics, as
a thing is in rcspcct ol bcing, so is it in rcspcct ol truth, thc rcason ol
which is, that thc truth conccrning a thing, which consists in thc truth
as in its subjcct, is thc pcrlcct likcncss ol thc thing as it is. Now ol
things which cxist, somc arc such as to havc absolutc bcing in thcm
sclvcs, whilc othcrs arc such as to havc thcir bcing dcpcndcnt upon
somcthing clsc, by virtuc ol a ccrtain rclation, as bcing in cxistcncc at
thc samc timc, or having rcspcct to somc othcr thing, as in thc casc
ol corrclativcs, such as lathcr and son, mastcr and scrvant, doublc
and hall, thc wholc and part, and othcr similar things, in so lar as
thcy arc rclatcd. !nasmuch, thcn, as thc bcing ol such things dcpcnds
upon somcthing clsc, it lollows that thc truth ol thcsc things likcwisc
dcpcnds upon somcthing clsc, lor il thc hall is unknown, its doublc
cannot bc known, and so ol thc rcst.
6. !l any onc, thcrclorc, is dcsirous ol ocring any sort ol intro
duction to part ol a work, it bchovcs him to lurnish somc notion ol
thc wholc ol which it is a part. Vhcrclorc !, too, bcing dcsirous ol
ocring somcthing by way ol introduction to thc abovcmcntioncd
part ol thc wholc Comedy, thought it incumbcnt on mc in thc rst
placc to say somcthing conccrning thc work as a wholc, in ordcr that
acccss to thc part might bc thc casicr and thc morc pcrlcct. Tcrc arc
six points, thcn, as to which inquiry must bc madc at thc bcginning
ol cvcry didactic work, namcly, thc subjcct, thc author, thc lorm, thc
aim, thc titlc ol thc book, and thc branch ol philosophy to which it
bclongs. Now ol thcsc six points thcrc arc thrcc in rcspcct ol which
thc part which ! havc had in mind to addrcss to you dicrs lrom thc
wholc work, namcly, thc subjcct, thc lorm, and thc titlc, whcrcas in
rcspcct ol thc othcrs thcrc is no dicrcncc, as is obvious to any onc
who considcrs thc mattcr. Conscqucntly, in an cxamination ol thc
wholc, thcsc thrcc points must bc madc thc subjcct ol a scparatc
inquiry, which bcing donc, thc way will bc sucicntly clcar lor thc
introduction to thc part. Latcr wc will cxaminc thc othcr thrcc points,
not only with rclcrcncc to thc wholc work, but also with rclcrcncc to
thc particular part which is ocrcd to you.
7. For thc clucidation, thcrclorc, ol what wc havc to say, it must
bc undcrstood that thc mcaning ol this work is not ol onc kind only,
rathcr thc work may bc dcscribcd as polyscmous, that is, having
scvcral mcanings, lor thc rst mcaning is that which is convcycd by
antc Alighicri
71
thc lcttcr, and thc ncxt is that which is convcycd by what thc lcttcr
signics, thc lormcr ol which is callcd litcral, whilc thc lattcr is
callcd allcgorical, or mystical. And lor thc bcttcr illustration ol this
mcthod ol cxposition wc may apply it to thc lollowing vcrscs: Vhcn
!sracl wcnt out ol gypt, thc housc ol Jacob lrom a pcoplc ol strangc
languagc, Judah was his sanctuary, and !sracl his dominion. For il wc
considcr thc lcttcr alonc, thc thing signicd to us is thc going out ol
thc childrcn ol !sracl lrom gypt in thc timc ol Moscs, il thc allcgory,
our rcdcmption through Christ is signicd, il thc moral scnsc, thc
convcrsion ol thc soul lrom thc sorrow and miscry ol sin to a statc ol
gracc is signicd, il thc anagogical, thc passing ol thc sancticd soul
lrom thc bondagc ol thc corruption ol this world to thc libcrty ol
cvcrlasting glory is signicd. And although thcsc mystical mcanings
arc callcd by various namcs, thcy may onc and all in a gcncral scnsc
bc tcrmcd allcgorical, inasmuch as thcy arc dicrcnt (diversi) lrom thc
litcral or historical, lor thc word allcgory is so callcd lrom thc Grcck
alleon, which in Latin is alienum (strangc) or diversum (dicrcnt).
8. Tis bcing undcrstood, it is clcar that thc subjcct, with rcgard
to which thc altcrnativc mcanings arc brought into play, must bc
twolold. And thcrclorc thc subjcct ol this work must bc considcrcd
in thc rst placc lrom thc point ol vicw ol thc litcral mcaning, and
ncxt lrom that ol thc allcgorical intcrprctation. Tc subjcct, thcn, ol
thc wholc work, takcn in thc litcral scnsc only, is thc statc ol souls
altcr dcath, purc and simplc. For on and about that thc argumcnt ol
thc wholc work turns. !l, howcvcr, thc work bc rcgardcd lrom thc
allcgorical point ol vicw, thc subjcct is man according as by his mcrits
or dcmcrits in thc cxcrcisc ol his lrcc will hc is dcscrving ol rcward or
punishmcnt by justicc.
9. And thc lorm is twololdthc lorm ol thc trcatisc, and thc
lorm ol thc trcatmcnt. Tc lorm ol thc trcatisc is thrcclold, according
to thc thrcclold division. Tc rst division is that whcrcby thc wholc
work is dividcd into thrcc cantichc, thc sccond, whcrcby cach cantica
is dividcd into cantos, and thc third, whcrcby cach canto is dividcd
into rhymcd lincs. Tc lorm or manncr ol trcatmcnt is poctic, ctivc,
dcscriptivc, digrcssivc, and gurativc, and lurthcr, it is dcnitivc,
analytical, probativc, rclutativc, and cxcmplicativc.
10. Tc titlc ol thc book is Hcrc bcgins thc Comedy ol
antc Alighicri, a Florcntinc by birth, not by disposition. For thc
ivinc Comcdy
72
undcrstanding ol which it must bc notcd that comcdy is so callcd
lrom comos, a villagc, and oda, a song, whcncc comcdy is as it wcrc
a rustic song. Now comcdy is a ccrtain kind ol poctical narration
which dicrs lrom all othcrs. !t dicrs, thcn, lrom tragcdy in its
subjcctmattcr, in that tragcdy at thc bcginning is admirablc and
placid, but at thc cnd or issuc is loul and horriblc. And tragcdy is so
callcd lrom tragos, a goat, and oda, as it wcrc a goatsong, that is to
say loul likc a goat, as appcars lrom thc tragcdics ol Scncca. Vhcrcas
comcdy bcgins with sundry advcrsc conditions, but cnds happily, as
appcars lrom thc comcdics ol Tcrcncc. And lor this rcason it is thc
custom ol somc writcrs in thcir salutation to say by way ol grccting:
a tragic bcginning and a comic cnding to you! Tragcdy and comcdy
dicr likcwisc in thcir stylc ol languagc, lor that ol tragcdy is high
own and sublimc, whilc that ol comcdy is unstudicd and lowly.
And this is implicd by Horacc in thc Art of Poetry, whcrc hc grants
that thc comcdian may on occasion usc thc languagc ol tragcdy, and
vicc vcrsa:
Yct somctimcs comcdy hcr voicc will raisc,
And angry Chrcmcs scold with swclling phrasc,
And prosy pcriods olt our cars assail
Vhcn Tclcphus and Pclcus tcll thcir tragic talc.
And lrom this it is clcar that thc prcscnt work is to bc dcscribcd as a
comcdy. For il wc considcr thc subjcctmattcr, at thc bcginning it is
horriblc and loul, as bcing Hell, but at thc closc it is happy, dcsirablc,
and plcasing, as bcing Paradise. As rcgards thc stylc ol languagc, thc
stylc is unstudicd and lowly, as bcing in thc vulgar tonguc, in which
cvcn womcnlolk hold thcir talk. And hcncc it is cvidcnt why thc
work is callcd a comcdy. And thcrc arc othcr kinds ol poctical narra
tion, such as thc pastoral pocm, thc clcgy, thc satirc, and thc votivc
song, as may also bc gathcrcd lrom Horacc in thc Art of Poetry, but ol
thcsc wc nccd say nothing at prcscnt.
11. !t can now bc shown in what manncr thc subjcct ol thc part
ocrcd to you is to bc dctcrmincd. For il thc subjcct ol thc wholc
work takcn in thc litcral scnsc is thc statc ol souls altcr dcath, purc
and simplc, without limitation, it is cvidcnt that in this part thc samc
statc is thc subjcct, but with a limitation, namcly thc statc ol blcsscd
antc Alighicri
73
souls altcr dcath. And il thc subjcct ol thc wholc work lrom thc allc
gorical point ol vicw is man according as by his mcrits or dcmcrits in
thc cxcrcisc ol his lrcc will hc is dcscrving ol rcward or punishmcnt
by justicc, it is cvidcnt that in this part this subjcct has a limitation,
and that it is man according as by his mcrits hc is dcscrving ol rcward
by justicc.
12. !n likc manncr thc lorm ol thc part is dctcrmincd by that ol
thc wholc work. For il thc lorm ol thc trcatisc as a wholc is thrcclold,
in this part it is twolold only, thc division bcing that ol thc cantica
and ol thc cantos. Tc rst division (into cantichc) cannot bc appli
cablc to thc lorm ol thc part, sincc thc cantica is itscll a part undcr
thc rst division.
13. Tc titlc ol thc book also is clcar. For thc titlc ol thc wholc
book is Hcrc bcgins thc Comedy, &c., as abovc, but thc titlc ol thc
part is Hcrc bcgins thc third cantica ol thc Comedy ol antc, which
is callcd Paradise.
14. Tcsc thrcc points, in which thc part dicrs lrom thc wholc,
having bccn cxamincd, wc may now turn our attcntion to thc othcr
thrcc, in rcspcct ol which thcrc is no dicrcncc bctwccn thc part and
thc wholc. Tc author, thcn, ol thc wholc and ol thc part is thc pcrson
mcntioncd abovc, who is sccn to bc such throughout.
15. Tc aim ol thc wholc and ol thc part might bc manilold,
as, lor instancc, immcdiatc and rcmotc. 8ut lcaving asidc any minutc
cxamination ol this qucstion, it may bc statcd bricy that thc aim ol
thc wholc and ol thc part is to rcmovc thosc living in this lilc lrom a
statc ol miscry, and to bring thcm to a statc ol happincss.
16. Tc branch ol philosophy to which thc work is subjcct, in
thc wholc as in thc part, is that ol morals or cthics, inasmuch as thc
wholc as wcll as thc part was conccivcd, not lor spcculation, but with
a practical objcct. For il in ccrtain parts or passagcs thc trcatmcnt is
altcr thc manncr ol spcculativc philosophy, that is not lor thc sakc
ol spcculation, but lor a practical purposc, sincc, as thc Philosophcr
says in thc sccond book ol thc Metaphysics: practical mcn occasionally
spcculatc on things in thcir particular and tcmporal rclations.
17. Having thcrclorc prcmiscd thcsc mattcrs, wc may now apply
oursclvcs to thc cxposition ol thc litcral mcaning, by way ol samplc, as
to which it must rst bc undcrstood that thc cxposition ol thc lcttcr
is in ccct but a dcmonstration ol thc lorm ol thc work. Tc part
ivinc Comcdy
74
in qucstion thcn, that is, this third cantica which is callcd Paradise,
lalls by its main division into two parts, namcly thc prologuc, and thc
cxccutivc part, which sccond part bcgins:
Surgc ai mortali pcr divcrsc loci.
18. As rcgards thc rst part, it should bc notcd that although
in common parlancc it might bc tcrmcd an cxordium, yct, propcrly
spcaking, it can only bc tcrmcd a prologuc, as thc Philosophcr sccms
to indicatc in thc third book ol his Rhetoric, whcrc hc says that thc
procm in a rhctorical oration answcrs to thc prologuc in poctry, and
to thc prcludc in utcplaying. !t must lurthcr bc obscrvcd that this
prcamblc, which may ordinarily bc tcrmcd an cxordium, is onc thing
in thc hands ol a poct, and anothcr in thosc ol an orator. For orators
arc wont to givc a lorccast ol what thcy arc about to say, in ordcr
to gain thc attcntion ol thcir hcarcrs. Now pocts not only do this,
but in addition thcy makc usc ol somc sort ol invocation altcrwards.
And this is tting in thcir casc, lor thcy havc nccd ol invocation in a
largc mcasurc, inasmuch as thcy havc to pctition thc supcrior bcings
lor somcthing bcyond thc ordinary rangc ol human powcrs, somc
thing almost in thc naturc ol a divinc gilt. Tcrclorc thc prcscnt
prologuc is dividcd into two parts: in thc rst is givcn a lorccast ol
what is to lollow, in thc sccond is an invocation to Apollo, which
sccond part bcgins
buono Apollo, all ultimo lavoro, &c.
19. Vith rclcrcncc to thc rst part it must bc obscrvcd that to
makc a good cxordium thrcc things arc rcquisitc, as Tully says in his
New Rhetoric, that thc hcarcr, namcly, should bc rcndcrcd lavour
ably disposcd, attcntivc, and willing to lcarn, and this is cspccially
nccdlul in thc casc ol a subjcct which is out ol thc common, as
Tully himscll rcmarks. !nasmuch, thcn, as thc subjcct dcalt with in
thc prcscnt work is out ol thc common, it is thc aim ol thc rst part
ol thc cxordium or prologuc to bring about thc abovcmcntioncd
thrcc rcsults with rcgard to this outolthcway subjcct. For thc
author dcclarcs that hc will rclatc such things as hc who bchcld
thcm in thc rst hcavcn was ablc to rctain. !n which statcmcnt all
antc Alighicri
75
thosc thrcc things arc compriscd, lor thc protablcncss ol what hc
is about to bc told bcgcts a lavourablc disposition in thc hcarcr,
its bcing out ol thc common cngagcs his attcntion, and its bcing
within thc rangc ol possibility rcndcrs him willing to lcarn. !ts
protablcncss hc givcs to bc undcrstood whcn hc says that hc shall
tcll ol that which abovc all things cxcitcs thc longing ol mankind,
namcly thc joys ol Paradisc, its uncommon naturc is indicatcd
whcn hc promiscs to trcat ol such cxaltcd and sublimc mattcrs as
thc conditions ol thc cclcstial kingdom, its bcing within thc rangc
ol possibility is dcmonstratcd whcn hc says that hc will tcll ol thosc
things which hc was ablc to rctain in his mindlor il hc was ablc,
so will othcrs bc also. All this is indicatcd in thc passagc whcrc hc
dcclarcs that hc had bccn in thc rst hcavcn, and that hc purposcs
to rclatc conccrning thc cclcstial kingdom whatsocvcr hc was ablc
to storc up, likc a trcasurc, in his mind. Having thus notcd thc
cxccllcncc and pcrlcction ol thc rst part ol thc prologuc, wc may
now procccd to thc litcral cxposition.
20. Hc says, thcn, that thc glory ol thc First Movcr, which
is God, shincs lorth in cvcry part ol thc univcrsc, but in such wisc
that it shincs in onc part morc and in anothcr lcss. Tat it shincs
in cvcry part both rcason and authority dcclarc. Rcason thus: vcry
thing which cxists has its bcing cithcr lrom itscll, or lrom somc
othcr thing. 8ut it is plain that scllcxistcncc can bc thc attributc ol
onc bcing only, namcly thc First or 8cginning, which is God, sincc
to havc bcing docs not arguc ncccssary scllcxistcncc, and ncccs
sary scllcxistcncc appcrtains to onc bcing only, namcly thc First
or 8cginning, which is thc causc ol all things, thcrclorc cvcrything
which cxists, cxccpt that nc itscll, has its bcing lrom somc othcr
thing. !l, thcn, wc takc, not any thing whatsocvcr, but that thing
which is thc most rcmotc in thc univcrsc, it is manilcst that this has
its bcing lrom somcthing, and that lrom which it dcrivcs cithcr has
its bcing lrom itscll, or lrom somcthing clsc. !l lrom itscll, thcn it is
primal, il lrom somcthing clsc, thcn that again must cithcr bc scll
cxistcnt, or dcrivc lrom somcthing clsc. 8ut in this way wc should
go on to innity in thc chain ol ccctivc causcs, as is shown in thc
sccond book ol thc Metaphysics. So wc must comc to a primal cxis
tcncc, which is God. Hcncc, mcdiatcly or immcdiatcly, cvcrything
that cxists has its bcing lrom Him, bccausc, inasmuch as
1
thc sccond
ivinc Comcdy
76
causc has its ccct
2
lrom thc rst, its inucncc on what it acts upon
3

is likc that ol a body which rcccivcs and rcccts a ray, sincc thc rst
causc is thc morc ccctivc causc. And this is statcd in thc book On
Causes, namcly, that cvcry primary causc has inucncc in a grcatcr
dcgrcc on what it acts upon
3
than any sccond causc. So much with
rcgard to bcing.
21. Vith rcgard to csscncc ! arguc in this wisc: vcry csscncc,
cxccpt thc rst, is causcd, othcrwisc thcrc would bc morc than onc
ncccssarily scllcxistcnt bcing, which is impossiblc. For what is causcd
is thc ccct cithcr ol naturc or ol intcllcct, and what is ol naturc is,
conscqucntly, causcd by intcllcct, inasmuch as naturc is thc work ol
intclligcncc. vcrything, thcn, which is causcd is thc ccct, mcdi
atcly or immcdiatcly, ol somc intcllcct. Sincc, thcn, virtuc lollows
thc csscncc whosc virtuc it is, il thc csscncc is ol intcllcct, thc virtuc
is wholly and solcly ol thc intcllcctual csscncc whosc ccct it is. And
so, just as wc had to go back to a rst causc in thc casc ol bcing, so
now wc must do so in thc casc ol csscncc and ol virtuc. Vhcncc it
is cvidcnt that cvcry csscncc and cvcry virtuc procccds lrom a primal
onc, and that thc lowcr intclligcnccs havc thcir ccct
4
as it wcrc lrom a
radiating body, and, altcr thc lashion ol mirrors, rccct thc rays ol thc
highcr to thc onc bclow thcm. Vhich mattcr appcars to bc discusscd
clcarly cnough by ionysius in his work On the Celestial Hierarchy.
And thcrclorc it is statcd in thc book On Causes that cvcry intclligcncc
is lull ol lorms. Rcason, thcn, as wc havc sccn, dcmonstratcs that thc
divinc light, that is to say thc divinc goodncss, wisdom, and virtuc,
shincs in cvcry part.
22. Authority likcwisc dcclarcs thc samc, but with morc knowl
cdgc. For thc Holy Spirit says by thc mouth ol Jcrcmiah: o not !
ll hcavcn and carth: And in thc Psalm: Vhithcr shall ! go lrom
thy Spirit: and whithcr shall ! cc lrom thy prcscncc: !l ! asccnd up
into hcavcn, thou art thcrc, il ! dcsccnd into hcll, thou art thcrc also.
!l ! takc my wings, &c. And Wisdom says: Tc Spirit ol thc Lord
hath llcd thc wholc world. And Ecclesiasticus, in thc lortysccond
chaptcr: His work is lull ol thc glory ol thc Lord. To which also
thc writings ol thc pagans bcar witncss, lor Lucan says in his ninth
book:
Jupitcr is whatcvcr thou sccst, whcrcvcr thou gocst.
antc Alighicri
77
23. Hc says wcll, thcn, whcn hc says that thc divinc ray, or
divinc glory, pcnctratcs and shincs through thc univcrsc, pcnctratcs,
as to csscncc, shincs lorth, as to bcing. And what hc adds as to morc
and lcss is manilcstly truc, sincc wc scc that onc csscncc cxists in a
morc cxccllcnt dcgrcc, and anothcr in a lcss, as is clcarly thc casc with
rcgard to thc hcavcn and thc clcmcnts, thc lormcr bcing incorrupt
iblc, whilc thc lattcr arc corruptiblc.
24. And having prcmiscd this truth, hc ncxt gocs on to indicatc
Paradisc by a circumlocution, and says that hc was in that hcavcn
which rcccivcs thc glory ol God, or his light, in most bountilul
mcasurc. As to which it must bc undcrstood that that hcavcn is thc
highcst hcavcn, which contains all thc bodics ol thc univcrsc, and is
containcd by nonc, within which all bodics movc (itscll rcmaining
cvcrlastingly at rcst), and which rcccivcs virtuc lrom no corporcal
substancc. And it is callcd thc mpyrcan, which is as much as to say,
thc hcavcn glowing with rc or hcat, not that thcrc is matcrial rc or
hcat thcrcin, but spiritual, which is holy lovc, or charity.
25. Now that this hcavcn rcccivcs morc ol thc divinc light than
any othcr can bc provcd by two things. Firstly, by its containing
all things, and bcing containcd by nonc, sccondly, by its statc ol
cvcrlasting rcst or pcacc. As to thc rst thc prool is as lollows: Tc
containing body stands in thc samc rclation to thc contcnt in natural
position as thc lormativc docs to thc lormablc, as wc arc told in thc
lourth book ol thc Physics. 8ut in thc natural position ol thc wholc
univcrsc thc rst hcavcn is thc hcavcn which contains all things,
conscqucntly it is rclatcd to all things as thc lormativc to thc lorm
ablc, which is to bc in thc rclation ol causc to ccct. And sincc cvcry
causativc lorcc is in thc naturc ol a ray cmanating lrom thc rst causc,
which is God, it is manilcst that that hcavcn which is in thc highcst
dcgrcc causativc rcccivcs most ol thc divinc light.
26. As to thc sccond thc prool is this: vcrything which has
motion movcs bccausc ol somcthing which it has not, and which is
thc tcrminus ol its motion. Tc hcavcn ol thc moon, lor instancc,
movcs bccausc ol somc part ol itscll which has not attaincd thc
station towards which it is moving, and bccausc no part whatsocvcr
ol it has attaincd any tcrminus whatsocvcr (as indccd it ncvcr can), it
movcs to anothcr station, and thus is always in motion, and is ncvcr
at rcst, which is what it dcsircs. And what ! say ol thc hcavcn ol thc
ivinc Comcdy
78
moon applics to all thc othcr hcavcns, cxccpt thc rst. vcrything,
thcn, which has motion is in somc rcspcct dclcctivc, and has not its
wholc bcing complctc. Tat hcavcn, thcrclorc, which is subjcct to no
movcmcnt, in itscll and in cvcry part whatsocvcr ol itscll has whatcvcr
it is capablc ol having in pcrlcct mcasurc, so that it has no nccd ol
motion lor its pcrlcction. And sincc cvcry pcrlcction is a ray ol thc
Primal nc, inasmuch as Hc is pcrlcction in thc highcst dcgrcc, it
is manilcst that thc rst hcavcn rcccivcs morc than any othcr ol thc
light ol thc Primal nc, which is God. Tis rcasoning, howcvcr, has
thc appcarancc ol an argumcnt bascd on thc dcnial ol thc antcccdcnt,
in that it is not a dircct prool
5
and according to syllogistic lorm. 8ut
il wc considcr its contcnt
6
it is a good prool, bccausc it dcals with a
thing ctcrnal, and assumcs it to bc capablc ol bcing ctcrnally dclcctivc,
so that, il God did not givc that hcavcn motion, it is cvidcnt that Hc
did not givc it matcrial in any rcspcct dclcctivc. And on this supposi
tion thc argumcnt holds good by rcason ol thc contcnt, and this lorm
ol argumcnt is much thc samc as though wc should rcason: il hc is
man, hc is ablc to laugh, lor in cvcry convcrtiblc proposition a likc
rcasoning holds good by virtuc ol thc contcnt. Hcncc it is clcar that
whcn thc author says in that hcavcn which rcccivcs morc ol thc light
ol God, hc intcnds by a circumlocution to indicatc Paradisc, or thc
hcavcn ol thc mpyrcan.
7
27. And in agrccmcnt with thc lorcgoing is what thc Philoso
phcr says in thc rst book On Heaven, namcly that a hcavcn has so
much thc morc honourablc matcrial than thosc bclow it as it is thc
lurthcr rcmovcd lrom tcrrcstrial things. !n addition to which might
bc adduccd what thc Apostlc says to thc phcsians ol Christ: Vho
asccndcd up lar abovc all hcavcns, that Hc might ll all things.
Tis is thc hcavcn ol thc dclights ol thc Lord, ol which dclights it is
said by zckicl against Lucilcr: Tou, thc scal ol similitudc,
8
lull ol
wisdom, bcautilul in pcrlcction,
9
wast in thc dclights ol thc Paradisc
ol God.
10
28. And altcr hc has said that hc was in that placc ol Paradisc
which hc dcscribcs by circumlocution, hc gocs on to say that hc
saw ccrtain things which hc who dcsccnds thcrclrom is powcr
lcss to rclatc. And hc givcs thc rcason, saying that thc intcllcct
plungcs itscll to such dcpth in its vcry longing, which is lor God,
that thc mcmory cannot lollow. For thc undcrstanding ol which
antc Alighicri
79
it must bc notcd that thc human intcllcct in this lilc, by rcason ol
its connaturality and anity to thc scparatc intcllcctual substancc,
whcn in cxaltation, rcachcs such a hcight ol cxaltation that altcr its
rcturn to itscll mcmory lails, sincc it has transccndcd thc rangc ol
human laculty. And this is convcycd to us by thc Apostlc whcrc hc
says, addrcssing thc Corinthians: ! know a man (whcthcr in thc
body, or out ol thc body, ! cannot tcll, God knowcth) how that hc
was caught up to thc third hcavcn, and hcard unspcakablc words,
which it is not lawlul lor a man to uttcr. 8chold, altcr thc intcllcct
had passcd bcyond thc bounds ol human laculty in its cxaltation, it
could not rccall what took placc outsidc ol its rangc. Tis again is
convcycd to us in Matthcw, whcrc wc rcad that thc thrcc disciplcs
lcll on thcir laccs, and rccord nothing thcrcaltcr, as though mcmory
had lailcd thcm. And in zckicl it is writtcn: And whcn ! saw it,
! lcll upon my lacc. And should thcsc not satisly thc cavillcrs, lct
thcm rcad Richard ol St. \ictor in his book On Contemplation, lct
thcm rcad 8crnard in his book On Consideration, lct thcm rcad
Augustinc in his book On the Capacity of the Soul, and thcy will
ccasc lrom thcir cavilling. 8ut il on account ol thc sinlulncss ol thc
spcakcr thcy should cry out against his claim to havc rcachcd such a
hcight ol cxaltation, lct thcm rcad anicl, whcrc thcy will nd that
cvcn Ncbuchadnczzar by divinc pcrmission bchcld ccrtain things
as a warning to sinncrs, and straightway lorgot thcm. For Hc who
makcth his sun to shinc on thc good and on thc cvil, and scndcth
rain on thc just and on thc unjust, somctimcs in compassion lor
thcir convcrsion, somctimcs in wrath lor thcir chastiscmcnt, in
grcatcr or lcsscr mcasurc, according as Hc wills, manilcsts his glory
to cvildocrs, bc thcy ncvcr so cvil.
29. Hc saw, thcn, as hc says, ccrtain things which hc who rcturns
has ncithcr knowlcdgc nor powcr to rclatc. Now it must bc carclully
notcd that hc says has ncithcr knowlcdgc nor powcrknowlcdgc hc
has not, bccausc hc has lorgottcn, powcr hc has not, bccausc cvcn il
hc rcmcmbcrs, and rctains it thcrcaltcr, ncvcrthclcss spccch lails him.
For wc pcrccivc many things by thc intcllcct lor which languagc has
no tcrmsa lact which Plato indicatcs plainly cnough in his books
by his cmploymcnt ol mctaphors, lor hc pcrccivcd many things by
thc light ol thc intcllcct which his cvcryday languagc was inadcquatc
to cxprcss.
ivinc Comcdy
80
30. Altcrwards thc author says that hc will rclatc conccrning thc
cclcstial kingdom such things as hc was ablc to rctain, and hc says that
this is thc subjcct ol his work, thc naturc and cxtcnt ol which things
will bc shown in thc cxccutivc part.
31. Tcn whcn hc says: buono Apollo, &c., hc makcs his
invocation. And this part is dividcd into two partsin thc rst, hc
invokcs thc dcity and makcs a pctition, in thc sccond, hc inclincs
Apollo to thc granting ol his pctition by thc promisc ol a ccrtain
rccompcnsc, which sccond part bcgins: divina virt. Tc rst part
again is dividcd into two partsin thc rst, hc prays lor divinc aid,
in thc sccond, hc advcrts to thc ncccssity lor his pctition, whcrcby hc
justics it, and this part bcgins:
!nno a qui l un giogo di Parnaso, &c.
32. Tis is thc gcncral mcaning ol thc sccond part ol thc prologuc,
thc particular mcaning ! shall not cxpound on thc prcscnt occasion,
lor anxicty as to my domcstic aairs
11
prcsscs so hcavily upon mc that
! must pcrlorcc abandon this and othcr tasks ol public utility. ! trust,
howcvcr, that your Magniccncc may aord mc thc opportunity to
continuc this usclul cxposition at somc othcr timc.
33. Vith rcgard to thc cxccutivc part ol thc work, which was
dividcd altcr thc samc manncr as thc prologuc takcn as a wholc, ! shall
say nothing cithcr as to its divisions or its intcrprctation at prcscnt,
savc only that thc proccss ol thc narrativc will bc by asccnt lrom hcavcn
to hcavcn, and that an account will bc givcn ol thc blcsscd spirits who
arc mct with in cach sphcrc, and that thcir truc blcsscdncss consists
in thc apprchcnsion ol Him who is thc bcginning ol truth, as appcars
lrom what John says: Tis is lilc ctcrnal, to know thcc thc truc God,
&c., and lrom what 8octius says in his third book On Consolation: To
bchold thcc is thc cnd. Hcncc it is that, in ordcr to rcvcal thc glory ol
thc blcsscdncss ol thosc spirits, many things which havc grcat prot
and dclight will bc askcd ol thcm, as ol thosc who bchold thc lullncss
ol truth. And sincc, whcn thc 8cginning or First, which is God, has
bccn rcachcd, thcrc is nought to bc sought lor bcyond, inasmuch as
Hc is Alpha and mcga, that is, thc 8cginning and thc nd, as thc
Vision ol John tclls us, thc work cnds in God Himscll, who is blcsscd
lor cvcrmorc, world without cnd.
antc Alighicri
81
NOTES
1. Ex eo quod.
2. Recipit, hcrc uscd absolutcly, as in 21, l. 402.
3. Causatum.
4. Recipiant, uscd absolutcly, as in 20, l. 376.
5. Simpliciter.
6. Materiam.
7. For hclp in rcndcring somc ol thc tcchnical passagcs in this
and othcr scctions ! am indcbtcd to my lricnd thc latc r. C.L.
Shadwcll, Provost ol ricl.
8. A.\. Tou scalcst up thc sum.
9. \ulg. pcrlcctus dccorc, A.\. pcrlcct in bcauty.
10. A.\. Tou hast bccn in dcn thc gardcn ol God.
11. ! lollow 8iagi hcrc in taking thc rclcrcncc to bc not to
straitcncd circumstanccs, but to thc prcssurc ol lamily aairs,
scc Bull. Soc. Dant. Ital., N.S. xvi. 29.
ivinc Comcdy
83
DOCTOR FAUSTUS
(CHRISTOPHER MARLOWE)
,.
Te Damnation of Faustus
by J.P. Brockbank,
in Marlowe: Dr. Faustus (1962)
I
In this detailed account of the allusions in Marlowes work, J.P.
Brockbank focuses on the way Dr. Faustus embodies Chris-
tian philosophy. While Brockbank acknowledges that Faust
is condemned at the end of the play, he notes that the title
character repents, vowing to burn his books and also uttering
the words of Jesus on the cross: My God, my God, why hast
thou forsaken me? Why are thou so far from helping me, and
from the words of my roaring? These words alone, according
to Brockbank, do not affect Faustuss damnation, but they do
indicate that a character that has lost his way has found it
again in his last moments of life, proclaiming salvation for all.
f
THE WORLDS REGARD
Faustuss performances before the Emperor are without the bizarre
and outrageous quality of the anti-papist antics. Sticking to its
Brockbank, J.P. Te Damnation of Faustus. Marlowe: Dr. Faustus. Woodbury,
N.Y.: Barrons Educational Series, 1962. 5160.
84
sourcc, thc play lapscs into its uncritical allcgianccs to civil authority.
Tc addition ol thc 8runo cpisodc makcs things worsc, sincc wc arc
not cxpcctcd to scc any irony in thc patriotic picty ol poor Faustus
whcn hc promiscs to 8oth lovc and scrvc thc Gcrman mpcror
And lay his lilc at holy 8runos lcct. Altcr thc impcrial ambitions
voiccd carly in thc play, Faustuss cxcrcisc ol thc privilcgcs ol powcr
is disappointing. !t is, ol coursc, appropriatc that it should bc, but
Marlowc docs not sucicntly bring homc to us thc naturc ol thc
disappointmcnt and bctrayal. Tc sccncs rcmind us that grcat magi
cians (cvcn Simon and Cornclius Agrippa) arc at bcst rcputablc
court cntcrtaincrs and not mastcrs ol cmpirc. 8ut Marlowc was
cvidcntly not much intcrcstcd in thc arts thcy practiscd or thc whims
thcy satiscd, and only at onc point docs hc turn his sccpticism and
indicrcncc into calculatcd dramatic bathoswhcrc thc mpcror,
to satisly his longing thoughts at lull asks to scc thc littlc wart
or molc on thc ncck ol Alcxandcrs paramour. Paticnt judgmcnts
may hcrc rccognisc a trivial appctitc lor curiosity and novclty, but
lor thc grcatcr part ol thc act this is thc only tastc that thc play itscll
trics to satisly.
Tc sport at thc cxpcnsc ol 8cnvolio (mainly lrom thc Faust
book) kccps alivc somcthing ol thc plays conccrn with hcroic vanity
(particularly at thc start ol !\. iii), but thc plcnitudc ol horns hardly
compcnsatcs lor thc cmptincss ol Marlowcs horn ol plcnitudc. Tc
lowlilc sccncs (!!!. iii, !\. v, vi, vii) arc likcwisc, as Faustus puts it,
whcn hc brings thcm to a crisis in thc mpcrors court, good subjcct
lor a mcrrimcnt. Robin, ick, thc Cartcr, thc horsccourscr and thc
Hostcss arc simplc pcoplc at thc mcrcy ol thc magus, thcir punish
mcnts, aptly administcrcd to saucy varlcts who try to gct thc bcttcr ol
supcrnatural powcr, makc artlul sport to drivc away thc sad thoughts
ol thc courticrs. Tcy try, as Mcphostophilis says ol Faustus, To ovcr
rcach thc dcvil, but all in vain.
\ain is pcrhaps thc kcyword lor thc imprcssion givcn by thc
lourth act. !t cxprcsscs what Faustus will call thc vain plcasurc ol
lour and twcnty ycars. 8ut in thc coursc ol thc act thc vanity, with
shouldcrshrugging good humour, is as oltcn indulgcd as cxposcd.
Vcrc it othcrwisc, thc last act would pcrhaps bc lcss imprcssivc in
calling Faustus and thc audicncc to nal account.
Christophcr Marlowc
85
THE DAMNATION OF FAUSTUS
Pico, in his Oration, rccalls that it was a saying ol Zoroastcr that thc
soul is wingcd and that, whcn thc wings drop o, shc lalls again into
thc body, and thcn, altcr hcr wings havc grown again sucicntly, shc
ics back to hcavcn. Altcr his hcadlong lall into thc body, Faustuss
wings sccm to grow again in thc last act.
The Vision of Helen
Vhcn music sounds and Hclcn passcs across thc stagc hcr sanctity is
mirrorcd in thc awcd calm ol thc scholars judgmcnts. Hcr hcavcnly
bcauty passcth all comparc, shc is thc pridc ol naturcs work and
a blcsscd sight. Tis vision lcnds intcnsity and compassion to thc
austcrc admonitions ol thc ld Man, who spcaks to Faustus whcn
thc scholars havc lclt. Marlowc anticipatcs Milton in nding a poctry
ol kind rcbukc, a moral music, to cacc thc magic that charms thc
soul to hcll. And in thc Scholars Too simplc is my wit to tcll hcr
praisc and thc ld Mans No mortal can cxprcss thc pains ol hcll,
hc sccms to sct himscll ncw tasks lor languagc to pcrlorm.
Vhcn Faustus rcsumcs his communion with Hclcn thc contcxt in
thc sccnc and thc play calls lor an cxtrcmc and simultancous cclcbra
tion ol thc rival valucs ol thc hcroic and moral ordcrs, and this is
accomplishcd with marvcllous cconomy. From a moral point ol vicw
Faustuss will is viciously cgoccntric: lct mc cravc ol thcc To glut thc
longing ol my hcarts dcsirc, and his cagcrncss to cxtinguish clcar
Tosc thoughts that do dissuadc mc lrom my vow is a manilcst sin
against thc Holy Spirit. And yct it is a dcdicatcd will, and thc scll
sccms transccndcd by thc sanctity ol its aspiration and allcgiancc.
Toughts that would dissuadc lrom a vow to a sccmingly unlallcn
Lucilcr arc cxtinguishcd lor thc sakc ol clcarncss and purity, and thc
swcct cmbracings ol hcavcnly Hclcn suggcst a divinc wcdding in
thc modc ol thc Song of Solomon rathcr than (lor cxamplc) thc whorc
doms ol Samaria and Jcrusalcm in Ezekiel (xxiii).
Mcphostophilis pcrlorms his last trick in twinkling ol an cyc.
!s Marlowc rccalling St. Paul: !n a momcnt, in thc twinkling ol
an cyc, at thc last trump: lor thc trumpct shall sound, and thc dcad
octor Faustus
86
shall bc raiscd incorruptiblc . . . this mortal must put on immortality
(1 Cor. xv. 52).
Vhcn Hclcn comcs again in pagcant stylc bctwccn two
Cupids Marlowc cndows Faustus with Tamburlaincs and idos
passions lor hcroic immortality. Tamburlainc had rcmcmbcrcd
lrom Homcrs !liads, Hellen, whosc bcauty sommond Grcccc to
armcs, And drcw a thousand ships to Tenedos (2 Tamb. 3054).
ido rccalls thc thousand ships that dcsolatcd Troy and crics that
hcr lovcr will makc hcr immortall with a kissc, whilc Acncas calls
wavcs toplcss hills and spcaks ol a thousand Grccians in whosc
stcrnc laccs shind thc qucnchlcss rc, Tat altcr burnt thc pridc ol
Asia (Dido, 1612, 1329, 1162, 481). Marlowc tclls Hclcns praiscs
by rccalling lrom thc hcroic past thc powcr that movcd on hcr
bchall and, cndowing thc scholar with a soldicrs imagination, hc
allows Faustuss rcsolution to rcncw it lor thc luturc: And ! will
combat with wcak Mcnclaus And wcar thy colours on my plumcd
crcst. Vc lccl too that Marlowc is vindicating his timcs innoccnt
lovc ol tournamcnt and chivalry.
8ut rival lcclings arc awakcncd also. Vithout alluding to thc ld
Tcstamcnt, Marlowc movcs in thc samc tcrritorics ol thc imagination,
and lccls zckicls lascination lor conjunctions ol bcauty, passion and
dcstruction (scc Ez. xxiii). Unlikc thc Sabcan harlots, Hclcn is divinc,
but thc sacking ol Troy and Vittcnbcrg lor hcr sakc is rclatcd to thc
8iblical imagc ol thc rcning rc purging prccious mctals: All is
dross that is not Hclcna. Tc spccch looks back not only to \aldcs
on thc quccn ol lovc, Faustuss hopc to livc in all voluptuousncss
and thc Prologucs cxcquy to proud audacious dccds but also to
Mcphostophiliss Last Judgmcnt whcn all thc world dissolvcs And
cvcry crcaturc shall bc puricd. Tc purity is charactcristically cvokcd
by thc cvcnings air, a thousand stars, aming Jupitcr and wanton
Arcthusas azurcd arms, rcconciling swcct plcasurc with Faustuss
dclight in bcholding thc hcavcns.
Vhcn Faustus kisscs Hclcn hc rcconcilcs prcscnt with luturc
satislactionsthc largc Romantic cry ! will. Shakcspcarcs Clcopatra
will say tcrnity was in our lips and cycs, and 8lakc that Tc Gatcs
ol thc Scnscs opcn upon tcrnity, and Marlowc hcrc pcrsuadcs us
that Gluttony and Lcchcry havc carricd Faustus through hcll to a
prospcct ol Hcavcn. Hcr lips suck lorth my soul may makc Faustus a
Christophcr Marlowc
87
witch and Hclcn a succuba, but scc whcrc it ics! is a Simonian cry ol
triumph. Marlowc will not casily ovcrrcach his own vcrbal magic.
The Plight of the Man
Faustus is but a man condcmncd to dic (!\. v. 21), has ocndcd
likc a man (\. i. 40) and has a distrcsscd soul (\. i. 65). His plight
is cxprcsscd in a scrap ol soliloquy, in his dcalings with thc ld Man
and in his last talk with thc scholars.
Tc comcdy rcquircs that Faustus should lall aslccp and losc his lcg
(!\. v), and thc opportunity is takcn to rcmind us that his latal timc
draws to a nal cnd. His distrcss is intcnsc, but its naturc unccrtain
wc cannot tcll il thc distrust that dcspair drivcs into his thoughts is
ol God or ol thc dcvil. Tc passions ol conscicncc, howcvcr, arc in
any casc salutary, and Faustus is to blamc lor (vcry humanly) trying
to conlound thcm with a quict slccp. Slccp, likc sloth, can bc a sin.
Faustus scttlcs down lor a nap in thc hopc ol dodging moral conict,
and his Tush, Christ did call thc thicl upon thc cross is not as Grcg
supposcs a scntimcntal picty but a complaccnt blasphcmy, in thc
Spira story and play thc samc scntimcnt is gravcly wcighcd.
Tc ld Mans compassionatc ccnsurc ol Faustus adds a ncw
dimcnsion to our scnsc ol thc human prcdicamcnt: Yct, yct, thou
hast an amiablc soul !l sin by custom grow not into naturc. Augus
tinc says, For thc law ol sin is thc violcncc ol custom, whcrcby thc
mind is drawn and holdcn, cvcn against its will, but dcscrvcdly,
lor that it willingly lcll into it (Confessions \!!!. 12). Faustus is in
this statc ol bcing dcscrvcdly hcld against will. Yct it is a bittcr
irony that thc will in its lrccdom can morc rcadily lall than climb.
!n putting so strong a strcss on thc will, it is casy to court thc
Pclagian hcrcsy, which hcld that thc human will can win salva
tion without gracc. Marlowc cncountcrs somc diculty in distin
guishing dramatically bctwccn rcpcntancc by an act ol lrcc will and
rcpcntancc through gracc. Tc ld Man dissuadcs Faustus lrom
using thc dcvils daggcr by tclling him ol a hovcring angcl with a
vial lull ol prccious gracc and plcading with him to call lor mcrcy
and avoid dcspair. !s it that Faustus cannot rcpcnt bccausc hc is
without gracc, and cannot havc gracc bccausc hc will not rcpcnt:
r is it that hc cannot rcccivc thc gracc ol justication lrom thc
octor Faustus
88
angclic vial bccausc hc has too oltcn dcnicd thc promptings ol
prcvcnicnt gracc: ithcr way, thc human rclationship has its own
dignity and powcr, and lcavcs us to wondcr why a gracclcss man
should bc so movcd by anothcrs compassion.
As hcll strivcs with gracc lor conqucst in Faustuss brcast, thc
powcrs ol light and darkncss sccm matchcd in thc Manichcan way.
8ut to paticnt judgmcnt it appcars that Faustuss yiclding to cvil is
voluntary, whilc thc ld Mans rcsistancc to it makcs it assist in thc
pcrlcction ol virtuc. Faustus is again trappcd by thc mctaphor ol
Lucilcr as sovcrcign lord with Mcphostophilis an cmissary cmpow
crcd to punish a traitor. Hc can only conccivc prcsumption as an
ocncc against thc tyranny ol Pridc, and it is his own pridc that
commits him to proud Lucilcr. Tc samc pridc movcs his addrcss
to Hclcn with its prcsumptions ol immortality and magniccncc,
it would bc admirablc wcrc it not a last vain bid to cscapc lrom thc
human condition as thc ld Man rcprcscnts it. !n thc lutility ol his
pridc Faustus commands that thc basc and agcd man should sucr
thc grcatcst tormcnts that our hcll Aords.
8ut thc ld Man triumphantly cndurcs thc tormcnts that in this
lilc pridc inicts on humility. Satan bcgins to silt mc with his pridc
rccalls Luke xxii. 31, Satan hath dcsircd to havc you, that hc may silt
you as whcat. !t is anothcr imagc ol purilying ordcal, and it is sucrcd
on carth in our hcllAs in this lurnacc God shall try my laith
(scc Is. xlviii. 10). Tc ld Man will y unto God whilc thc scholar
Faustus rcmains bclow. As Augustinc has it, Tc unlcarncd start up
and takc hcavcn by lorcc, and wc with our lcarning, and without hcart,
lo, whcrc wc wallow in csh and blood (Confessions, \!!!. 19).
Vhcn Lucilcr and his hcnchmcn takc up thcir positions to witncss
Faustuss cnd thcy arc likc thc gurcs ol rcvcngcplay (c.g. Te Spanish
Tragedy) who gloat upon thc ironic justicc thcy cxact lrom mcn. Hcrc,
howcvcr, as Mcphostophilis looks lorward to a spcctaclc ol dcspcratc
lunacy as mans labouring brain bcgcts idlc lantasics To ovcrrcach
thc dcvil, thc gloating takcs thc lorm ol a pitilcss objcctivity about
thc naturc ol cvil.
8ut thc talk with thc scholars supplics no idlc lantasics as Faustus
movingly rcassumcs his humanity and his lcllowship with othcr mcn.
Yct both arc awcd by his isolation and scnsc ol his uniquc doom:
had ! livcd with thcc, thcn had ! livcd still. Vc rccognisc humility
Christophcr Marlowc
89
stirring in his courtcsy, but his rcsolutc apartncss is subtly touchcd
with pridc. Hc blamcs thc dcvils lor thc paralysis ol his moral bcing:
! would wccp, but thc dcvil draws in my tcars. . . . ! would lilt up my
hands, but scc, thcy hold cm, thcy hold cm, but whcn thc scholars
chorus Vho Faustus: wc arc morc pcrsuadcd ol thc rcality ol thc
incapacitics lor gricl and pcnitcncc than ol thc powcr ol thc invisiblc
spirits. Scllasscrtion and scllcaccmcnt mcct in, Talk not ol mc,
but savc yoursclvcs and dcpart, as in thc will hc lcavcs lor Vagncr,
thcrc is a touch ol irony in his magnanimity. And thcrc is kccn pathos
in his larcwcll as it salvagcs a last prctcxt ol rcassurancc, !l ! livc till
morning !ll visit you.
A Last Judgment
Altcr thc scholars havc lclt, thc mockcry ol Mcphostophilis admin
istcrs a last turn ol thc scrcw: Twas !, that whcn thou wcrt i thc
way to hcavcn, ammcd up thy passagc, whcn thou tookst thc book
To vicw thc scripturcs, thcn ! turncd thc lcavcs And lcd thinc cyc.
Faustus wccps. !t is a tcrrilying spccch, rccoiling upon our wholc
cxpcricncc ol thc play. 8ut without it thc cxploration ol thc mystcry
ol cvil would not bc complctc, it is thc dramatic cquivalcnt ol thc
Gospcls cqually disturbing, Tcn cntcrcd Satan into Judas (Luke
xxii. 3). From onc point ol vicw thc plays dcvils arc only symbols ol
aspiring pridc and insolcncc, and it is simply Faustuss willul pridc
that turncd thc lcavcs and lcd his cyc. !t is as if thc dcvil wcrc dirccting
him. 8ut whcn Christianity cxtcrnaliscd and pcrsonaliscd pridc in its
dramatic mythology ol Satan it cxposcd itscll to thc hazard it mccts
hcrc: man is prcy to an advcrsary whosc powcr daunts cvcn Faustus
and, as wc havc sccn, dauntcd cvcn Pctcr in his contcsts with Simon.
!n thc tragic tradition, Satans powcr is likc a malignant latc (man is
punishcd lor thc pridc hc was born with), in thc Morality tradition
it has grown into an incxplicablc challcngc to thc powcr and mcrcy
ol God.
Yct thc Good Angcl dcnics thc dcvils ultimatc powcr ovcr man:
Hadst thou acctcd swcct dignity Hcll or thc dcvil had had no powcr
on thcc, and Faustuss lailurc to acct divinity is manilcstly voluntary
and culpablc. 8ut whcthcr wc takc Mcphostophiliss claim litcrally
or mctaphorically, wc arc lclt to rcpcat Augustincs unanswcrablc
octor Faustus
90
qucstion: what can causc thc wills cvil, thc will bcing solc causc ol
all cvil:
Tc nal angclic pronounccmcnts arc, as Grcg says, a Last Judg
mcnt upon Faustus. Altcr it Faustuss dcath is not thc natural dcath
ol thc body only, but also what Augustinc calls thc ctcrnal, pcnal
sccond dcath (rclcrrcd to in Rev. xx. 14), and his soul tumblcs dircctly
into conlusion. Tc hcllrc and thc tormcntcd glutton ol thc 8ad
Angcls dcscription rctain thcir traditional powcr (scc Luke xvi. 24)
and thcrc is no nccd to attributc thcm to a collaborator.
Damned Perpetually
Faustuss grcat nal soliloquy consummatcs thc play in both its
aspcctsMorality and Hcroic Tragcdyand cach in its own way
triumphs ovcr thc othcr. !n lcar wc acquicscc in thc littlcncss and
powcrlcssncss ol man, and in pity wc sharc his sucrings and cndorsc
his protcst.
Tc horriblc prospcct ol a man bcing burnt alivc, which Marlowc
(likc thc Christianity hc honours) docs not sparc us, accounts lor littlc
ol thc pathos and powcr. !n thc rst lincs wc arc much morc movcd
by thc magniccnt lutility ol thc human protcst against thc incxo
rablc movcmcnt ol timc as it cnacts an incxorablc moral law. Vc arc
rcmindcd that all things that movc bctwccn thc quict polcs arc at
thc command ol thc proccss Faustus would cscapc: thc cvcrmoving
sphcrcs cannot by dcnition stand still. Faustus had cxplaincd thc
scasonal circlcs to thc uchcss, who marvcllcd at thc wintcr grapcs
(!\. vii. 23), and hc had numbcrcd thc cyclcs ol thc sphcrcs, but now
his knowlcdgc is ol a dicrcnt ordcr. Tc cosmic rhythms cvokcd by
thc scnsc ol thc poctry sccm to hold dominion ovcr its movcmcnt.
Tc rst cquably strcsscd clcvcn words ccho thc striking clockAh
Faustus, Now hast thou but onc barc hour to livc, thc pcrpctu
ally that lalls with nality at thc cnd ol thc rst scntcncc rcturns in
thc mocking oxymoron pcrpctual day, and risc, risc again invokcs
prcciscly thc diurnal motion it sccks to arrcst.
Tc irony ol thc quotation lrom vid has long bccn cclcbratcd.
!n thc Amores (!. xiii. 40) it is thc plca ol ccstatic lovc, Clamares,
lente currite, noctis equi, which Marlowc had poorly translatcd, Tcn
wouldst thou cry, stay night and runnc not thus. 8ut hcrc thc Latin
Christophcr Marlowc
91
words in thcir nglish sctting sound likc a last attcmpt to cast a
spcll whosc vanity is bctraycd by thc rhythm as thc horscs sccm to
quickcn pacc through thc linc, and conlcsscd in thc stars movc still,
timc runs, thc clock will strikc. Vcrc thc soliloquy to cnd hcrc wc
should lccl that conncmcnt to timc is thc crucllcst lact ol mans
condition.
!n thc ncxt lincs, howcvcr, his ordcal is conncmcnt to carth: h,
!ll lcap up to my God! Vho pulls mc down: Tc imagc arming
thc immcnsity ol Christs Tcstamcnt also dcclarcs its unrcachablc
rcmotcncss: Scc scc whcrc Christs blood strcams in thc rmamcnt.
Marlowc may bc rcmcmbcring both thc gull bctwccn hcavcn and hcll
(Luke xvi. 26) and Tamburlainc, dcant in his mortal sickncss:
Comc lct us march against thc powcrs ol hcavcn,
And sct blackc strcamcrs in thc rmamcnt,
To signily thc slaughtcr ol thc Gods.
Ah lricnds, what shall ! do: ! cannot stand. (2, Tamb. 4441)
Christ has accomplishcd thc triumph ovcr mortality that Tambur
laincs labouring brain could only imaginc. Tc impcrial pagcant
hypcrbolc ol thc carlicr play has in thc latcr bccn madc to cxprcss
thc supcrhuman powcr ol Christ, but hc conqucrs by sacricc not
by slaughtcrhumility has bccomc hcroic. vcn without appcal
to Christian symbolism, thc play has madc thc strcaming blood
cmblcmatic ol ctcrnal lilc. 8lood rcluscs to ow whcn Faustus cuts
his arm, it drics with gricl as his conscicncc kills it, and it gushcs
lorth lrom his cycs instcad ol tcars. As Faustus plcads that onc drop
thcn hall a drop would savc his soul, hc conlcsscs his barrcn littlcncss
ol lilc in thc vastncss ol thc moral univcrsc.
As thc vision ol blood ladcs, Faustus mccts thc unappcascd wrath
ol God and crics lor thc mountains and hills to lall on him (scc, c.g.,
Luke xxiii. 30, Rev. vi. 16, Hos. x. 8). 8urial in carth bccomcs a privi
lcgc rcluscd to thc last paroxysms ol Faustuss will. Hc is again rc
cnacting thc lall ol Lucilcr, thc gurc in !saiah who is brought down
to hcll, to thc sidcs ol thc pit and cast out ol thc gravc likc an abomi
nablc branch (Is. xiv). Vhcn Faustus hopcs lor a rcning ordcal ol
dissolution and rcbirth in thc cntrails ol yon labouring clouds which
might vomit lorth his limbs and lct his soul asccnd to hcavcn his
octor Faustus
92
words sccm hauntcd by Lucilcrs! will asccnd abovc thc hcights ol
thc clouds, ! will bc likc thc Most High, and thc samc chaptcr could
supply thc strctching arm ol God and thc smokc ol thc Last ay (Is.
xiv). Marlowc has assimilatcd and rccrcatcd thc 8iblical imagcry,
howcvcr, and it is dramatically valid whcthcr or not wc supposc it
allusivc. Faustus, thc damncd hcro as thc play has lashioncd him,
has bccomc thc ttcst witncss ol apocalyptic vision. No chorus could
spcak with such moving authority, lor Faustus alonc has cnactcd all
thc lutilitics ol pridc.
Tc rst phasc ol thc soliloquy discovcrs thc lutility ol human
prctcnsions to powcr in thc lacc ol ovcrwhclming cataclysm, thc
sccond makcs us lccl thc lutility ol knowlcdgc and spcculation. Faus
tuss plca lor somc cnd to my inccssant pain (rccalling thc Faustbook
and thc Spira story and play) sums up that sidc ol thc Christian tradi
tion which, with Augustinc, is Against thosc that cxcludc both mcn
and dcvils lrom pain ctcrnal (City of God, XX!!. xxiii). Likc Pythag
oras mctcmpsychosis it is wishlul thinking. Te French Academy (!!.
85) could havc occasioncd thc allusion to Pythagoras and supplicd
thc distinction bctwccn thc souls ol brutcs (madc ol clcmcnts) and
thosc ol mcn (crcatcd ol nothing). And it would challcngc Faustuss
rcadincss to accusc thc stars that rcigncd at his nativity by asking, how
should thc hcavcns, stars and plancts givc that to thc soul which thcy
thcmsclvcs havc not: (!!. 87).
Faustus modcratcs his strugglc to cscapc thc pain ol rcsponsibility
as hc curscs his parcnts (scc Luke xxiii. 29) and thcn chccks himscll:
No Faustus, cursc thyscll, cursc Lucilcr Tat hath dcprivcd thcc ol
thc joys ol hcavcn. Again, il wc rcad Lucilcr as a mctaphor lor Pridc,
thc problcm ol rcsponsibility rcccdcs, but it rcturns whcn wc think ol
thc dcvil as a pcrson and cvil as a powcr outsidc thc consciousncss ol
man. !n cithcr casc, it is tting that thc pridc ol knowlcdgc should
bc nally purgcd with !ll burn my books! and thc lcllowship ol sin
pcrpctuatcd with Ah Mcphostophilis!
!n thc last sccnc, as in Shakcspcarcs tragcdics, normal lilc must
rcsumc as bcst it can. Marlowc (thcrc is no nccd to supposc a collabo
rator) abstains lrom thc grotcsquc nastincss ol thc Faustbook catas
trophc, and strikcs an apt balancc bctwccn horror, dismay and duc
rcvcrcncc. !l thc noisc that thc scholars rcport sccms a conccssion to
popular tastc, wc may rccct that it might bc a cluc to thc acting ol
Christophcr Marlowc
93 octor Faustus
Faustuss closing words, lrom My God, my God! Look not so crcc
on mc, and rcmcmbcr Psalm xxii:
My God, my God, why hast thou lorsakcn mc: why art thou so
lar lrom hclping mc, and lrom thc words ol my roaring:
EPILOGUE
Tc piloguc scals both thc Hcroicplay and thc Morality. !n
Cut is thc bough that might havc grown lull straight wc lccl that
thc pruning has bccn donc to maiming purposc. Marlowc may havc
rcmcmbcrcd thc imagc lrom Churchyards Shores Wife, whcrc it
also suggcsts wanton dcstruction, And bcnt thc wand that mought
havc grown lull strcight. 8ut thc 8iblc haunts thc lincs too, and thc
branch may bc dcad bccausc it has lailcd to takc nourishmcnt lrom
thc trcc (scc John xv. 47, Psalm lxxx). Tc ncxt nc, And burncd is
Apollos laurcl bough alludcs pcrhaps to thc lrustration ol Faustuss
prccmincncc in thc hiddcn mystcrics, but again thc dcstruction
may bc wanton. Tc last lincs arc a duc and wcighty warning against
cmulating lorward wits who practisc morc than hcavcnly powcr
pcrmits, yct thcy lcavc thc wisc still to wondcr at thc cnticing dccp
ncss ol unlawlul things.
Faustuss ordcal is spccically that ol thc aspiring mind (thc
unsatiablc spcculator as thc Faustbook has it), ol that part ol
our naturc which is dissatiscd with bcing mcrcly human and trics
vainly to comc to rcst in lantasics ol omnipotcncc and omniscicncc.
!t is a romantic agony which oscillatcs across an abyss bctwccn
cxtrcmitics ol hopc and dcspair. Marlowc, sccing it lor what it
was, rclatcd thc hopc to thc impcrial and spcculativc ambitions ol
his timc, and thc dcspair to that sidc ol Christianity which brings
homc to us thc incscapablc mortality and doom ol man. Gocthc,
in a scllconlcsscdly romantic agc, was indcpcndcntly to takc up
thc story again and, altcr many oscillations, cndorsc its potcntial ol
hopc. Marlowc stuck to thc basic shapc ol thc story and acccptcd
thc damnation ol his hcro. 8ut not complaccntly. .H. Lawrcncc,
who also undcrstood thc valuc ol cxtrcmc commitmcnts, said that a
work ol art must contain thc csscntial criticism on thc morality to
94
which it adhcrcs. And hcncc thc antinomy, hcncc thc conict ncccs
sary to cvcry tragic conccption. Dr. Faustus adhcrcs to thc rich and
scarching morality ol Augustinian thought, but it docs not allow us
to comc comlortably to rcst in it. !n thc Hcroicplay thc rcaching
mind that is punishcd by hcll is also thc mind that apprchcnds
hcavcn, and Faustusthc playwrights gmcntsucrs thc onc and
glimpscs thc othcr on thc audicnccs bchall.
Christophcr Marlowc
95
THE GREAT GATSBY
(F. SCOTT FITZGERALD)
,.
Boats Against the Current: Mortality and the
Myth of Renewal in Te Great Gatsby
by Jcrcy Stcinbrink,
in Twentieth Century Literature (1980)
IN+voouc+:oN
In this essay on F. Scott Fitzgeralds masterwork, Jeffrey
Steinbrink focuses on the myth of renewal as it is presented
in The Great Gatsby. For Steinbrink, Gatsby follows the illu-
sion that he can remake things and be born anew. But though
Gatsby is the victim of a tragic fate, Nick Carraway, the books
narrator, may be viewed as an observer who learns from
Gatsbys mistakes. In that sense, Nick is renewed, casting off
Gatsbys obsession with the past and an orgiastic future,
and instead entering a timeless present in which we must
continually be reborn.
f
Fitzgcrald wrotc thc bulk ol Te Great Gatsby in 1924, whcn hc was
twcntycight. !t might bc dcscribcd as an attcmpt to cxplorc thc
Stcinbrink, Jcrcy. 8oats Against thc Currcnt: Mortality and thc Myth ol
Rcncwal in Te Great Gatsby. Twentieth Century Literature, \ol. 26, No. 2
(Summcr 1980), 15770.
96
rclationship bctwccn thc past and thc prcscnt in thc hopc ol discov
cring a scnsc ol balancc bctwccn giddincss and dcspair capablc ol
sustaining a man without dclusion as hc cntcrs lilcs long dcclinc. !t
is many othcr things as wcll, ol coursc, but among its main conccrns
is how to lacc thc promisc ol . . . lonclincss . . . , a thinning briclcasc
ol cnthusiasm, thinning hair as wc drivc on toward dcath through
thc cooling twilight.
1
Te Great Gatsby cxhorts thosc ol us who would
bc rcconcilcd with thc luturc to scc thc past truly, to acknowlcdgc
its irrccovcrability, and to chastcn our cxpcctations in vicw ol our
slight staturc in thc world ol timc and our cvcrdiminishing storc ol
vitality.
Vc arc brought to this undcrstanding, howcvcr, only whcn wc
rcalizc and acccpt thc unlikclihood ol rcgcncration or rcncwal in an
cntropic univcrsc. Rcpcatcdly in Te Great Gatsby Fitzgcrald allows us
(and pcrhaps himscll as wcll) to cntcrtain thc hopc that it is possiblc to
makc a lrcsh startto undo thc calamitics ol thc past or to rclivc its
quintcsscntial momcnts. Tc gcographic dislocation ol all thc impor
tant charactcrs in thc novcl is in itscll suggcstivc ol this hopc, cach,
likc Fitzgcrald himscll, is a midwcstcrncr gonc cast, a dcsccndant ol
thc pionccrs trying to rcvcrsc thc ow ol history. l this countcr
migration Robcrt rnstcin has rcmarkcd that To Fitzgcrald . . . thc
lurc ol thc ast rcprcscnts a prolound displaccmcnt ol thc Amcrican
drcam, a turning back upon itscll ol thc historic pilgrimagc towards
thc lronticr which had, in lact, crcatcd and sustaincd that drcam.
2

Tc journcy lrom Vcst to ast, that is, symbolically suggcsts an
attcmpt to rccapturc thc drcam by drawing ncarcr its sourccs, to makc
a ncw start by gctting back to what Robcrt Frost calls thc bcginning
ol bcginnings in Vcstrunning 8rook. Having undcrtakcn that
journcy, cach ol thc books main charactcrs is madc to dcal with a
rcality which ncvcr quitc mccts his cxpcctations.
3
Tc notion that thc ow ol history can bc arrcstcd, pcrhaps cvcn
rcvcrscd, rccurs in Te Great Gatsby as a conscqucncc ol thc univcrsal
human capacity lor rcgrct and thc concomitant tcndcncy to wish lor
somcthing bcttcr. Nick Carraway has comc ast not simply to lcarn
thc bond busincss, but bccausc his wartimc cxpcricnccs havc lclt
him rcstlcss in his midwcstcrn homctown and bccausc hc wishcs to
makc a clcan brcak in his rclationship with a woman whom hc likcs
but has no intcntion ol marrying. Tc prcdominant traits ol Nicks
F. Scott Fitzgcrald
97
charactcrpaticncc, honcsty, and lcvclhcadcdncssdcrivc lrom his
surc scnscs ol history and social position, and yct in thc chronology
ol thc story hc is rst to succumb to thc idca that lilc is subjcct to
continual rcncwal. l his roots in timc and placc hc tclls us,
My lamily havc bccn promincnt, wclltodo pcoplc in
this Middlc Vcstcrn city lor thrcc gcncrations. Tc Carraways
arc somcthing ol a clan, and wc havc a tradition that wcrc
dcsccndcd lrom thc ukcs ol 8ucclcuch, but thc actual
loundcr ol my linc was my grandlathcrs brothcr, who camc
hcrc in ltyonc, scnt a substitutc to thc Civil Var, and startcd
thc wholcsalc hardwarc busincss that my lathcr carrics on to
day (pp. 23).
Tc lrcsh start Nick sccks in thc ast rcprcscnts not so much a rcjcc
tion ol his hcritagc as a dcclaration ol its inadcquacy to satisly thc
rathcr ambiguous ycarnings ol thc postwar gcncration. Stimulatcd
by his contact with thc tccming city and thc novclty ol his circum
stanccs ol Vcst gg, Nick givcs in to a most compclling illusion. !
had that lamiliar conviction, hc says, that lilc was bcginning ovcr
again with thc summcr (p. 4).
Tom and aisy 8uchanan, thcir marriagc in picccs, havc simi
larly comc ast, dctcrmincd to scttlc altcr scvcral ycars ol drilt|ing|
hcrc and thcrc unrcstlully whcrcvcr pcoplc playcd polo and wcrc rich
togcthcr (p. 6). !d bc a God damncd lool to livc anywhcrc clsc,
says Tom, whosc loolishncss is hardly a conscqucncc ol gcography.
Tom is a classic manilcstation ol cntropic thcory in human lorm.
Nick dcscribcs him as onc ol thosc mcn who rcach such an acutc
limitcd cxccllcncc at twcntyonc that cvcrything altcrward savors ol
anticlimax (p. 6). Toms singlc consolation may wcll bc his muddlcd
pcrccption that hc is not alonc in his lall. Civilization, hc says,
|is| going to picccs (p. 10). aisy livcs with a pcrpctual illusion ol
rccrcation, transparcnt cvcn to hcrscll, shc supposcs that thc mcaning
ol lilc can bc rcstorcd or rcvivcd by propcr supcrcial ministrations,
as rhincstoncs arc addcd to an old gown. Tus shc instigatcs scnsc
lcss and cncrvating trips to thc city, spcaks thrillingly ol dismal and
mundanc topics, and is charmcd by Jay Gatsbys dcvotion without
lully comprchcnding its mcaning.
Tc Grcat Gatsby
98
vcn Jordan 8akcr, hard, cool, and pcrhaps thc most rcsolutcly
cynical ol Fitzgcralds charactcrs, givcs lip scrvicc to thc rcgcncration
myth. To aisys thcatrical but hcartlclt qucstion, Vhatll wc do
with oursclvcs this altcrnoon . . . , and thc day altcr that, and thc ncxt
thirty ycars: Jordan rcsponds, ont bc morbid. . . . Lilc starts all
ovcr again whcn it gcts crisp in thc lall (p. 118). Hcr rcmark ncatly
complcmcnts Nicks carlicr acknowlcdgcmcnt ol a scnsc ol rcbirth
with thc coming ol summcr, but Nick discovcrs (as Jordan apparcntly
docs not) that whilc thcsc illusions may givc momcntary comlort,
to surrcndcr to thc myth ol rcjuvcnation is to dcny both thc naturc
ol rcality and thc chancc lor a modicum ol contcntmcnt. Jordan, ol
coursc, surrcndcrs to nothing and so is unlikcly to bc much acctcd
by hcr misconccptions.
Tc samc cannot bc said ol thc Grcat Gatsby himscll. Likc Nick,
aisy, Tom, and Jordan, Gatsby has cmigratcd lrom thc hcart ol thc
contincnt to cstablish himscll in thc ast, and likc thcm hc is anxious
to bclicvc that thc possibilitics ol lilc do not diminish with timc,
unlikc thcm, howcvcr, hc adopts thc myth ol rcgcncration as thc singlc
sustaining principlc ol his cxistcncc. Gatsbys past is punctuatcd by a
scrics ol sccming lrcsh starts: As a young boy hc jottcd Franklincsquc
rcsolutions in his copy ol Hopalong Cassidy, proving to his lathcrs
satislaction that hc was bound to gct ahcad. As a scvcntccnycar
old combing thc bcachcs ol Lakc Supcrior hc rcadicd himscll lor thc
luturc by lashioning a wholly ncw idcntity. As a protcg ol an Cody
hc acquircd thc cxpcricncc which bcgan turning his romantic musings
into hard rcalitics. As an army occr hc assumcd a manncr in kccping
with thc dclcrcncc paid him by socicty and took aisy Fay as a kind
ol cmotional hostagc. Altcr thc war hc did what hc thought ncccssary
to bccomc what hc had lct aisy bclicvc hc was, and to ransom hcr
back.
Gatsbys accomplishmcnts arc a crcdit to his cncrgy, cnthusiasm,
and singlcmindcdncss, his shccr dctcrmination at all costs to stcm thc
ow ol historys currcnt. Tcrc was somcthing gorgcous about him,
Nick says, somc hcightcncd scnsitivity to thc promiscs ol lilc . . .it
was an cxtraordinary gilt lor hopc, a romantic rcadincss such as ! havc
ncvcr lound in any othcr pcrson and which it is not likcly ! shall cvcr
nd again (p. 2). His gilt lor hopc, as it turns out, is Gatsbys cursc
as wcll as his blcssing, sincc it insulatcs him lrom thc rational and
F. Scott Fitzgcrald
99
cxpcricntial rcstraints which might othcrwisc tcmpcr thc intcnsity ol
his ambition. Having managcd so wcll at apparcnt scllcrcation and
rccrcation, hc allows his scnsitivity to lilcs promiscs to blur into a
bclicl in its limitlcss possibilitics, ultimatcly hc longs to conqucr thc
passagc ol timc itscll. History is a vcry rcal lorcc to Gatsbyin lact,
almost a tangiblc commodityand his paticnt, arduous assault upon
it somctimcs sccms likcly to succccd.
Tc cxtraordinary odysscy ol Jay Gatsby bcgan in thc Minnc
sota backcountry, whcrc a rcstlcssncss to bccomc somcthing othcr
than a dirt larmcr drovc a rathcr callow Jamcs Gatz to thc shorcs
ol thc Grcat Lakcs and cvcntually into thc company ol an Cody.
Scrving in thc cntouragc ol millionairc Cody, whom Nick dcscribcs
as thc pionccr dcbauchcc (p. 101), was instrumcntal not so much
in molding thc young advcnturcrs charactcr as in lcnding tangi
bility to his matcrialistic lantasics and in indoctrinating him to thc
ruthlcssncss which casy moncy gcncratcs. Tc truth, says Nick,
was that Jay Gatsby ol Vcst gg, Long !sland, sprang lrom his
platonic conccption ol himscll. Hc was a son ol Goda phrasc
which, il it mcans anything, mcans just thatand hc must bc about
His Fathcrs busincss, thc scrvicc ol a vast, vulgar, and mcrctricious
bcauty. So hc invcntcd just thc sort ol Jay Gatsby that a scvcntccn
ycarold boy would bc likcly to invcnt, and to this conccption hc
was laithlul to thc cnd (p. 99).
Tc act ol scllgcncration, a marvclous cxcrcisc ol will in thc lacc
ol thc lorcc ol history, cstablishcd thc tcrms ol Gatsbys lilc and sct
thc tonc ol his subscqucnt bchavior. Hc lcarncd carly that dctach
mcnt, disingcnuousncss, chicancry, and ncrvc oltcn rcndcrcd cvcn thc
most imposing circumstanccs mallcablc, cspccially undcr thc protcc
tivc mantlc ol his army licutcnancy hc lound himscll capablc ol taking
lrom thc world almost anything hc wantcd, virtually without pcnalty.
!n taking aisy, howcvcr, hc allowcd his dctachmcnt to slip, and oncc
morc hc cntcrcd thc world ol timcol human tics, mcmorics, and
dccay. Gatsby had sidcstcppcd tcmporality momcntarily by shcdding
his humanity and bccoming a manipulator ol rathcr than a partici
pator in cvcnts. Tc costand thc rccompcnscol his loving aisy
was to surrcndcr his Platonic drcams to a tangiblc, corruptiblc rcality
and to rccntcr thc strcam ol history. Hc kncw, says Nick ol Gatsby
at thc momcnt ol that surrcndcr, that whcn hc kisscd this girl, and
Tc Grcat Gatsby
100
lorcvcr wcd his unuttcrablc visions to hcr pcrishablc brcath, his mind
would ncvcr romp again likc thc mind ol God (p. 112).
His aair with aisy bccomcs thc dcnitivc circumstancc ol Gats
bys past. !n a scnsc it is thc only circumstancc, all othcrshis cxpcri
cnccs in thc war, his vcmonths study at xlord, his gonncgtion
with Mcycr Vollshcim, his lavish Long !sland particssccming to
him signicant or rclcvant only insolar as thcy rclatcd to his rcgaining
hcr lovc. Gatsby rcalizcs thc intcnsity ol his commitmcnt to this past
only whcn hc rcturns lrom thc war to visit Louisvillc, aisys homc
town, altcr shc has wcd Tom 8uchanan. Hc nds amid thc lamiliar
walks and houscs no vcstigc ol thc happincss hc had known thcrc and
hc undcrstands that his mcmorics lic buricd in timc as wcll as spacc.
n thc train which carrics him away to thc ast Gatsbys longing to
rclivc a momcnt ol that timc bccomcs almost palpablc:
Tc track curvcd and now it was going away lrom thc sun,
which, as it sank lowcr, sccmcd to sprcad itscll in bcncdiction
ovcr thc vanishing city whcrc shc had drawn hcr brcath. Hc
strctchcd out his hand dcspcratcly as il to snatch only a wisp
ol air, to savc a lragmcnt ol thc spot shc had madc lovcly lor
him. 8ut it was all going by too last now lor his blurrcd cycs
and hc kncw that hc had lost that part ol it, thc lrcshcst and
bcst, lorcvcr (p. 153).
Tat this longing pcrsists, undiminishcd, is suggcstcd by Gatsbys
striking a similar attitudc whcn Nick rst sccs him, pccring across thc
bay toward aisys grccn light, vc ycars latcr. Hc strctchcd out his
arms toward thc dark watcr in a curious way, Nick says, and, lar as !
was lrom him, ! could havc sworn hc was trcmbling (p. 21).
8ccausc hc bclicvcs in thc myth ol rcgcncration and misapprc
hcnds thc naturc ol history in an cntropic cosmos, Gatsby bccomcs
a victim ol his past. Hc tclls Nick that hc has driltcd about sincc thc
war trying to lorgct somcthing vcry sad that happcncd to mc long
ago (p. 66), but in truth hc has not only kcpt alivc his mcmory ol
losing aisy but dcvotcd all his cncrgics to gctting hcr back. As his
sympathy lor his cxtraordinary ncighbor grows Nick comcs gradu
ally to apprcciatc thc scopc and sinccrity ol Gatsbys singlc passion.
Hc talkcd a lot about thc past, Nick says, and ! gathcrcd that hc
F. Scott Fitzgcrald
101
wantcd to rccovcr somcthing, somc idca ol himscll pcrhaps, that had
gonc into loving aisy. His lilc had bccn conluscd and disordcrcd
sincc thcn, but il hc could oncc rcturn to a ccrtain starting placc and
go ovcr it all slowly, hc could nd out what that thing was . . . (pp.
11112). To rcturn to a ccrtain starting placc is prcciscly Gatsbys
ambitionto ght back through timc and makc a lrcsh start in ordcr
to corrcct history and suspcnd thc stcady dissipation ol thc univcrsc.
!n a passagc lrom an carly vcrsion ol Chaptcr \!!! which was cvcntu
ally dclctcd Gatsby cxclaims to Nick, Vhy !m only thirtytwo. !
might bc a grcat man il ! could lorgct that oncc ! lost aisy. 8ut my
carccr has got to bc likc this. Hc drcw a slanting linc lrom thc lawn
to thc stars. !ts got to kccp going up.
4
Gatsbys dcclaration cxplicitly dcmonstratcs his lundamcntal
misundcrstanding ol thc cntropic world which Fitzgcralds charactcrs
inhabit. Tc linc hc draws toward thc stars lor Nick pcrpcndicularly
intcrsccts thc cntropic curvc and indicatcs Gatsbys dctcrmination to
bcnd history to his will. Tats what !vc got to do, hc says in thc
samc dclctcd passagc, livc thc past all ovcr again. And ! dont
want to start by running away . . . ! want to turn thc wholc world
upsidc down and givc pcoplc somcthing to think about.
5
Tc statc
mcnt is rcmarkablc bccausc in Gatsbys casc turning thc world upsidc
down has thc ring ol litcral truth, his intcntion is to altcr rcality in
ordcr to bring it in linc with his drcam. Vhat morc colossal hubris
can a son ol God commit, asks R.V. Stallman, than to tinkcr with
thc tcmporal ordcr ol thc univcrsc! To x timc and rcinstatc thus thc
past in thc prcscnt (as though thc intcrim wcrc unrcckoncd and lilc
has passcd unclockcd) to wipc thc slatc clcan and bcgin ancwthat is
Gatsbys illusion.
6
Vhilc cach ol thc books major charactcrs bctrays
somc small laith in thc myth ol rcgcncration or rcncwal, Gatsby
bclicvcs in it ultimatcly, absolutcly.
Although this truth comcs to Nick slowly as thc thrcads ol thc
story gradually unravcl in his hands hc is ncvcrthclcss awcstruck by
thc proportions ol Gatsbys ambition, thc quality ol his hopc, and
thc dcgrcc ol his conlusion. Hc wantcd nothing lcss ol aisy, Nick
marvcls, than that shc should go to Tom and say: ! ncvcr lovcd you.
Altcr shc had oblitcratcd lour ycars with that scntcncc thcy could
dccidc upon thc morc practical mcasurcs to bc takcn. nc ol thcm
was that, altcr shc was lrcc, thcy wcrc to go back to Louisvillc and
Tc Grcat Gatsby
102
bc marricd lrom hcr houscjust as il it wcrc vc ycars ago (p. 111).
Tc custodian ol common scnsc and ol historical consciousncss, Nick
urgcs modcration. ! wouldnt ask too much ol hcr, hc says. You
cant rcpcat thc past. Cant rcpcat thc past: Gatsby crics incrcdu
lously. Vhy ol coursc you can . . . ! !m going to x cvcrything just
thc way it was bclorc. . . . Shcll scc (p. 111). Hcrc, thcn, is an opcn
acknowlcdgcmcnt ol Gatsbys prcsumptionol his grcatncss and his
crror. Hc will x thc past just as Vollshcim xcd thc 1919 Vorld
Scrics, by manipulating pcoplc and circumstanccs to suit his ncccssi
tics. Gatsby, says Noblc, would bring aisy back to 1917. Hc would
oblitcratc hcr marriagc and hcr mothcrhood. Hc would rcstorc hcr
virginity.
7
!t is thc suprcmc tcst ol his Platonic will and ol his laith in
thc human capacity lor rcncwal, a tcst which hc can only lail.
Tc sccnc ol that lailurc is thc conlrontation bctwccn Gatsby and
Tom 8uchanan which takcs placc in a Plaza Hotcl suitc on a hot
August altcrnoon. Tcrc Gatsby, who assurcs aisy that hcr unhappy
rclationship with Tom is all ovcr now, insists that !t docsnt
mattcr any morc. Tcll him thc truth, hc urgcs, that you ncvcr
lovcd himand its all wipcd out lorcvcr (p. 132). Hcrc, howcvcr,
thc irrcvcrsibility ol human cxpcricncc asscrts itscll as Tombrutish
and scllindulgcnt and surc ol his instinctsbrcaks aisys spirit ol
rcbcllion by showing that it rcsts on a lic. h, you want too much!
shc crics to Gatsby. ! lovc you nowisnt that cnough: ! cant hclp
whats past . . . ! did lovc him oncc but ! lovcd you too (p. 133).
Tat aisy cant hclp whats past marks thc cnd ol Gatsbys
hopcs lor thc luturc, sincc it is prcciscly that hclp which hc had
cxpcctcd ol hcr. Nick, who is as prcparcd to acccpt aisys limitations
as Gatsby is dctcrmincd to dcny thcm, obscrvcs that altcr hcr admis
sion . . . only thc dcad drcam lought on as thc altcrnoon slippcd
away, trying to touch what was no longcr tangiblc . . . (p. 135).
uring thc conlrontation, hc says, Jay Gatsby had brokcn up likc
glass against Toms hard malicc, and thc long sccrct cxtravaganza was
playcd out (p. 148). Tc truth is that thc gorgcous illusion lashioncd
by Jamcs Gatz on thc shorcs ol Lakc Supcrior and cnhanccd by his
vision ol aisy was dcstincd almost lrom its inccption to brcak up
against thc hard rcalitics ol human cxpcricncc. Forccd by Toms vcry
dcnsity, his bulking obtuscncss, to scc that thc past, too, is solid,
xcd, and irrclutablc, Gatsby scnscs that thc ccrtaintics around which
F. Scott Fitzgcrald
103
his lilc has bccn so paticntly organizcd havc dcscrtcd him altogcthcr.
As Nick puts it,
. . . hc must havc lclt that hc had lost thc old warm world,
paid a high pricc lor living too long with a singlc drcam. Hc
must havc lookcd up at an unlamiliar sky through lrightcning
lcavcs and shivcrcd as hc lound what a grotcsquc thing a rosc
is and how raw thc sunlight was upon thc scarccly crcatcd
grass. A ncw world, matcrial without bcing rcal, whcrc poor
ghosts, brcathing drcams likc air, driltcd lortuitously about . . .
(p. 162).
His cxtravaganza playcd out, Gatsbys dcath lollows quickly,
almost mcrcilully. vcn bclorc thc shooting Nick nds it virtually
impossiblc to think ol his ncighbor and closc lricnd disposscsscd
ol his drcam (and in thc passagc quotcd abovc imagincs that Gatsby
himscll sharcs this attitudc). Gatsby gocs to his gravc a poor son ol
a bitch, thc victim and martyr ol his romantic obscssion to intcrrupt
lor a momcnt thc coursc ol univcrsal dcclinc in ordcr that it might
accommodatc his splcndid illusion. Hc is not givcn timc to contcm
platc his lall or to lcarn vcry much lrom it, no ncw laith, not cvcn
dcspair, cstablishcs itscll bclorc hc is murdcrcd. !t rcmains rathcr lor
Nick Carraway, in many scnscs Gatsbys complcmcnt as wcll as his
chroniclcr, to intcrprct thcir mutual cxpcricnccs ovcr thc summcr and
to apply thc lcsson ol Gatsbys lilc to his own.
8
Tat hc docs so is only implicitly cvidcnt at thc storys cnd. Having
dctcrmincd to rcturn to his nativc Minncsota, Nick wandcrs onto
Gatsbys dcscrtcd bcach during his last night in thc ast, pcrhapsas
hc had said carlicr ol Gatsby himscllto dctcrminc what sharc is to
rcmain his ol thc local hcavcns. Gradually, hc says,
! bccamc awarc ol thc old island hcrc that owcrcd oncc lor
utch sailors cycsa lrcsh, grccn brcast ol thc ncw world. !ts
vanishcd trccs, thc trccs that had madc way lor Gatsbys housc,
had oncc pandcrcd in whispcrs to thc last and grcatcst ol all
human drcams, lor a transitory cnchantcd momcnt man must
havc hcld his brcath in thc prcscncc ol this contincnt, compcllcd
into an acsthctic contcmplation hc ncithcr undcrstood nor
Tc Grcat Gatsby
104
dcsircd, lacc to lacc lor thc last timc in history with somcthing
commcnsuratc to his capacity lor wondcr.
And as ! sat thcrc brooding on thc old, unknown world, !
thought ol Gatsbys wondcr whcn hc rst pickcd out thc grccn
light at thc cnd ol aisys dock. Hc had comc a long way to
this bluc lawn, and his drcam must havc sccmcd so closc that hc
could hardly lail to grasp it. Hc did not know that it was alrcady
bchind him, somcwhcrc back in that vast obscurity bcyond thc
city, whcrc thc dark clds ol thc rcpublic rollcd on undcr thc
night (p. 182).
!n having Nick cstablish thcsc parallcls bctwccn Gatsby and thc
utch sailors Fitzgcrald makcs scvcral points conccrning thc
outcomc and signicancc ol his story with grcat cconomy.
9
First,
Gatsby is to bc admircd lor thc scopc ol his vision and thc sinccrity
with which hc dcvotcs himscll to its rcalization. His grcatncss is
carncd, thc appcllation hardly ironic. Sccond, likc thc utch sailors,
Gatsby lails to comprchcnd lully thc cnormity ol thc task which his
wondcr inspircs. To lulll thc promisc inhcrcnt in thc virgin land
islikc Gatsbys ambition to rclivc thc pastncccssarily an impos
sibility, givcn thc boundlcssncss ol human hopcs and thc stricturcs
ol an cntropic univcrsc. Tird, any attcmpt to rcalizc thc drcam is
dcstincd not only to lail but to sully thc drcam itscll. Tc actual
scttlcmcnt ol this country, by thc utch and othcrs, gavc risc not to
cdcnic bliss but to mcrcantilc avaricc, divisivcncss, and war. Gatsbys
drcam ol aisy is pcrlcct only until thc tangiblc aisy rcappcars,
thcn hc bcgins to scnsc disappointmcnt, cvcn bclorc his ultimatc
disillusionmcnt.
Gatsbys drcam, thc cxcrcisc ol his Platonic will, obscurcs his
vision ol thc world as it is and clouds his undcrstanding ol thc
historical proccss. !t bccomcs Nicks rcsponsibility, in tclling Gatsbys
story, to scc that proccss truly and to rcconcilc to it thc cvcnts ol thc
summcr ol 1922. Hc is, in lact, drivcn toward this intcgrativc vicw
ol past and prcscnt both by his pcnchant lor honcsty and by a scnsc
ol thc conncctcdncss ol timc which is part ol his inhcritancc as a
Carraway. Unlikc Gatsby, Nick acccpts thc circumstancc ol bcing
rootcd in spacc and timc, acknowlcdging both thc limitations and thc
rcassuranccs which thosc roots providc.
10
Spcaking ol his homc at thc
F. Scott Fitzgcrald
105
cnd ol thc bookno longcr thc raggcd cdgc ol thc univcrsc but my
Middlc VcstNick says, ! am part ol that, a littlc solcmn with
thc lccl ol thosc long wintcrs, a littlc complaccnt lrom growing up in
thc Carraway housc in a city whcrc dwcllings arc still callcd through
dccadcs by a lamilys namc (p. 177).
Nick rcturns to that homc altcr Gatsbys dcath, rcvcrsing thc
tcndcncy toward castcrn migration with which thc story bcgan and
indicating an intcntion to takc up lilc whcrc hc had lclt itto rccntcr
thc ow ol his own pcrsonal history rathcr than rcsist it. !n doing so
hc sccms to many to bc admitting dclcat and withdrawing lrom thc
unccrtaintics ol thc prcscnt into thc sccurity ol thc past. Having had
his glimpsc ol lilcs lutility, proponcnts ol this rcading asscrt, Nick
shrinks lrom lurthcr involvcmcnt and sccks a kind ol nonlilc ncar
thc anccstral hcarth.
11
Finally to rcgard Nick in this way, howcvcr,
sccms to placc him ultimatcly in thc camp ol thc 8uchanans, whosc
rclationship with thc world at largc has dctcrioratcd to a scrics ol
rctrcats, cscapcs, and cvasions. Nick has ncithcr thc callousncss nor
thc moral opacity to bchavc with thc vast carclcssncss ol Tom and
aisy, and to rcducc him to thcir staturc is to dcny thc gcnuinc
sympathy, cvcn lovc, with which hc tclls Gatsbys story.
Tc tclling ol that story itscll is pcrhaps thc bcst cvidcncc that
Nick rcluscs simply to withdraw lrom thc cxpcricnccs ol thc summcr
but sccks rathcr to lcarn lrom thcm. Ccrtainly his capacity lor opti
mismtogcthcr with his adolcsccnt rcstlcssncsshas bccn grcatly
diminishcd by his having bccn so privilcgcd a witncss ol Gatsbys
lall. Hc rcturns to Minncsota a sombcr, saddcr, and morc modcst
man than hc lclt. And yct lor him to rctirc lrom lilc altogcthcr would
amount to an ultimatc rcpudiation ol Gatsby and his lragilc, latcd
drcam. Nick is dctcrmincd, rathcr, to dcmonstratc Gatsbys grcat
ncss as wcll as his monumcntal loolishncss, and in tclling thc story to
cxaminc thc intcrplay ol vision and rcstraint, ol timclcss imagination
and historical rcality, in thc hopc ol striking a propcr balancc bctwccn
thc two. Hc sccs that it is thc tcnsion bctwccn thc inccssant dimi
nution ol cncrgy in an cntropic univcrsc and thc pcrcnnial thrust ol
human cxpcctations which givcs lilc mcaning.
!t is on this notc ol accommodation, ol vcry modcst drcams in
light ol thc sobcring rcalitics ol history, that Te Great Gatsby cnds.
Looking simultancously back ovcr thc story hc has told and lorward
Tc Grcat Gatsby
106
to the future, Nick acknowledges with gratitude mans gift for hope
while he accepts with equanimity the disillusionment which that gift
often precipitates:
Gatsby believed in the green light, the orgiastic future
that year by year recedes before us. It eluded us then, but thats
no mattertomorrow we will run faster, stretch our arms
farther. . . . And one ne morning
So we beat on, boats against the current, borne back
ceaselessly into the past (p. 182).
And so we must, apparently, for according to Fitzgerald man
lives successfully only in a state of equilibrium between resistance
to the current and surrender to its ow. He must accommodate the
lessons of his past to his visions of the future, giving it to neither,
in order to stand poised for happiness or disappointment in the
present.
NOTES
1. F. Scott Fitzgerald, Te Great Gatsby (New York: Charles
Scribners Sons, 1953; rst published 1925), pp. 13637. Future
page references to this text will appear parenthetically in the
body of the essay.
2. Robert Ornstein, Scott Fitzgeralds Fable of East and West,
College English, 18 (195657), 141.
3. Milton R. Stern makes a similar observation somewhat more
demonstratively. In Te Great Gatsby, he says, Fitzgerald
made out of his life with Zelda and his dream a moral history
of the gnawing and murderous disappointment attendant upon
discovering that the gorgeousness of America exists not in her
glittering actualities, past or present, East or West, but in the
fantastic sense of possibilities that drives the imagination of
the archetypal American, the eternal pioneer in search of the
golden moment dreamed in the past and to be recaptured in
the imagined future. Te Golden Moment: Te Novels of
F. Scott Fitzgerald (Urbana: Univ. of Illinois Press, 1970),
p. 165.
F. Scott Fitzgerald
107
4. Quoted in Henry Dan Piper, F. Scott Fitzgerald: A Critical
Portrait (Carbondale, Ill.: Southern Illinois Univ. Press, 1968),
p. 149.
5. Quoted in Piper; p. 149.
6. R.W. Stallman, Gatsby and the Hole in Time, Modern Fiction
Studies, 1 (Nov. 1955), 4.
7. Noble, p. 158.
8. Of this complementary relationship between Gatsby and
Nick, John Henry Raleigh has said, Taken together they
contain most of the essential polarities that go to make up the
human mind and its existence. Allegorically considered, Nick
is reason, experience, waking, reality, and history, while Gatsby
is imagination, innocence, sleeping, dream, and eternity . . .
Nicks mind is conservative and historical, as is his lineage;
Gatsbys is radical and apocalypticas rootless as his heritage.
Nick is too much immersed in time and in reality; Gatsby is
hopelessly out of it . . . Tey are generically two of the best
types of humanity: the moralist and the radical, F. Scott
Fitzgeralds Te Great Gatsby: Legendary Bases and Allegorical
Signicances, University of Kansas City Review, 24 (Oct.
1957), 57.
9. Te identication of Gatsby with Nicks imaginary mariners
has generated much discussion. Gatsby is the spiritual
descendant of these Dutch sailors, claims Ornstein. Like
them, he set out for gold and stumbled on a dream. But he
journeys in the wrong direction in time as well as space. Te
transitory enchanted moment has come and gone for him and
for the others, making the romantic promise of the future an
illusory reection of the past (p. 141).
Like the sailors, observes Charles Tomas Samuels,
Gatsby tried to return to the source of life, to imbibe
wonder at its breast. But man ages, time goes on, and life
is a slow dying . . . When Gatsby loved Daisy he lost his
dream; when the sailors took the new world they began
the degradation of Americas promise; when God saw
what he had incarnated he went back to Heaven leaving
only a blind sign of the business he would not now
open. Te past is our future. We have come to the end
Te Great Gatsby
108
of possibility. Te Greatness of Gatsby, Te Massa-
chusetts Review, 7 (Autumn 1966), 793.
10. Maintaining that Fitzgerald represents the past both as a loss
and as a source of strength, Tomas A. Hanzo asserts that
. . . in the Carraway family tradition, it confers a discipline and
standards which, even as survivals of an old morality, may still
produce better conduct than Nick witnesses on Long Island.
Te Teme and the Narrator of Te Great Gatsby, Modern
Fiction Studies, 2 (Winter 195657), 189.
11. Tis argument is often made with considerable enthusiasm:
[Nicks] return [to the Middle West] is not a positive
rediscovery of the well-springs of American life, insists
Ornstein. Instead it seems a melancholy retreat from the
ruined promise of the East, from the empty present to the
childhood memory of the past, pp. 142143.
Similarly, Gary J. Scrimgeour maintains that . . . Carraways
distinctiveness as a character is that he fails to learn anything
from his story, that he can continue to blind himself even after
his privileged overview of Gatsbys fate. Te defeat evident in
his disillusionment is followed not by progress but by retreat.
He returns not only to his safe environment in the Mid-West
but also to the same attitudes from which he started. . . . He
has learned nothing. Against Te Great Gatsby, Criticism, 8
(Winter 1966), 8384.
F. Scott Fitzgerald
109
HEART OF DARKNESS
( JOSEPH CONRAD)
,.
Te Journey Within
by Albert J. Guerard,
in Conrad the Novelist (1958)
I
For Albert J. Guerard, Heart of Darkness represents the
rebirth-by way of a dark interior journey-of both Marlow, the
novels narrator, and Conrad, its author. As Guerard details,
Marlow reiterates often enough that he is recounting a spiri-
tual voyage of self-discovery. Thus, for Guerard the physical
journey Marlow makes is also symbolic: It is an outward sign
of inner renewal and also a dark representation of our inner
world, one animated by a drive for life and an overwhelming
fear of death.
f
Heart of Darkness is the most famous of [Conrads] personal short
novels: a Pilgrims Progress for our pessimistic and psychologizing age.
Before the Congo I was just a mere animal.
1
Te living nightmare of
1890 seems to have aected Conrad quite as importantly as did Gides
Congo experience thirty-six years later. Te autobiographical basis of
Guerard, Albert J., Te Journey Within. Conrad the Novelist. Cambridge,
Mass.: Harvard UP, 1958. pp. 159.
110
thc narrativc is wcll known, and its introspcctivc bias obvious, this
is Conrads longcst journcy into scll. 8ut it is wcll to rcmcmbcr that
Heart of Darkness is also othcr il morc supcrcial things: a scnsitivc
and vivid travcloguc, and a commcnt on thc vilcst scramblc lor loot
that cvcr disgurcd thc history ol human conscicncc and gcographical
cxploration.
2
Tc Congo was much in thc public mind in 1889,
whcn Hcnry Stanlcys rclicl cxpcdition lound min Pasha (who likc
Kurtz did not want to bc rcscucd), and it is intcrcsting to notc that
Conrad was in 8russcls during or immcdiatcly altcr Stanlcys trium
phant wclcomc thcrc in April 1890.
3
Tis was just bclorc hc sct out
on his own Congo journcy. Vc do not know how much thc Gcorgcs
Antoinc Klcin who dicd on board thc Roi des Belges rcscmblcd thc
ctional Kurtz, but Stanlcy himscll providcd no mcan cxamplc ol a
man who could gloss ovcr thc cxtcrmination ol savagcs with pious
moralisms which wcrc vcry possibly sinccrc.
Heart of Darkness thus has its important public sidc, as an angry
documcnt on absurd and brutal cxploitation. Marlow is trcatcd to thc
spcctaclc ol a Frcnch manolwar shclling an unsccn cncmy villagc
in thc bush, and prcscntly hc will wandcr into thc grovc at thc rst
company station whcrc thc starving and sick Ncgrocs withdraw to dic.
!t is onc ol thc grcatcst ol Conrads many momcnts ol compassionatc
rcndcring. Tc compassion cxtcnds cvcn to thc cannibal crcw ol thc Roi
des Belges. cprivcd ol thc rottcn hippo mcat thcy had brought along
lor lood, and paid thrcc nincinch picccs ol brass wirc a wcck, thcy
appcar to subsist on lumps ol somc stu likc hallcookcd dough, ol a
dirty lavcndcr color which thcy kccp wrappcd in lcavcs. Conrad hcrc
opcratcs through ambiguous suggcstion (arc thc lumps human csh:)
but clscwhcrc hc wants, likc Gidc altcr him, to makc his complaccnt
uropcan rcadcr see: scc, lor instancc, thc drunkcn unkcmpt ocial
mct on thc road and thrcc milcs larthcr on thc body ol thc Ncgro with
a bullct holc in his lorchcad.
4
Heart of Darkness is a rccord ol things
sccn and donc. 8ut also Conrad was rcacting to thc humanitarian
prctcnscs ol somc ol thc lootcrs prcciscly as thc novclist today rcacts to
thc moralisms ol coldwar propaganda. Tcn it was ivory that pourcd
lrom thc hcart ol darkncss, now it is uranium. Conrad shrcwdly
rccognizcdan intuition amply dcvclopcd in Nostromothat dcccp
tion is most sinistcr whcn it bccomcs sclldcccption, and thc propa
gandist takcs scriously his own ctions. Kurtz could gct himscll to
Joscph Conrad
111
bclicvc anythinganything. Tc bcncvolcnt rhctoric ol his scvcn
tccnpagc rcport lor thc !ntcrnational Socicty lor thc Supprcssion ol
Savagc Customs was mcant sinccrcly cnough. 8ut a dccpcr sinccrity
spokc through his scrawlcd postscript: xtcrminatc all thc brutcs!
Tc conscrvativc Conrad (who lound onkin t to bc a labor lcadcr)
spcaks through thc journalist who says that Kurtzs propcr sphcrc
ought to havc bccn politics on thc popular sidc.
Conrad, again likc many novclists today, was both drawn to
idcalism and rcpcllcd by its hypocritical abusc. Tc conqucst ol thc
carth, which mostly mcans thc taking it away lrom thosc who havc
a dicrcnt complcxion or slightly attcr noscs than oursclvcs, is not
a prctty thing whcn you look into it too much. Vhat rcdccms it is
thc idca only. An idca at thc back ol it, not a scntimcntal prctcncc
but an idca, and an unsclsh bclicl in thc idca . . . Marlow commits
himscll to thc yct unsccn agcnt partly bccausc Kurtz had comc out
cquippcd with moral idcas ol somc sort. Anything would sccm
prclcrablc to thc dcmoralizcd grccd and total cynicism ol thc othcrs,
thc abby dcvil ol thc Ccntral Station. Latcr, whcn hc discovcrs
what has happcncd to Kurtzs moral idcas, hc rcmains laithlul to thc
nightmarc ol my choicc. !n Under Western Eyes Sophia Antonovna
makcs a distinction bctwccn thosc who burn and thosc who rot, and
rcmarks that it is somctimcs prclcrablc to burn. Tc Kurtz who had
madc himscll litcrally onc ol thc dcvils ol thc land, and who in soli
tudc had kickcd himscll loosc ol thc carth, burns whilc thc othcrs
rot. Trough violcnt not abby cvil hc cxists in thc moral univcrsc
cvcn bclorc pronouncing judgmcnt on himscll with his dying brcath.
A littlc too much has bccn madc, ! think, ol thc rcdcmptivc valuc ol
thosc two wordsTc horror! 8ut nonc ol thc company pilgrims
could havc uttcrcd thcm.
Tc rcdcmptivc vicw is Catholic, ol coursc, though no pricst was
in attcndancc, Kurtz can rcpcnt as thc gunman ol Te Power and
the Glory cannot. Heart of Darkness (still at this public and wholly
conscious lcvcl) combincs a \ictorian cthic and latc \ictorian lcar ol
thc whitc mans dctcrioration with a distinctly Catholic psychology.
Vc arc protcctcd lrom oursclvcs by socicty with its laws and its
watchlul ncighbors, Marlow obscrvcs. And wc arc protcctcd by work.
You wondcr ! didnt go ashorc lor a howl and a dancc: Vcll, no!
didnt. Finc scntimcnts, you say: Finc scntimcnts, bc hangcd! ! had
Hcart ol arkncss
112
no timc. ! had to mcss about with whitclcad and strips ol woolcn
blankct hclping to put bandagcs on thosc lcaky stcampipcs. 8ut
whcn thc cxtcrnal rcstraints ol socicty and work arc rcmovcd, wc must
mcct thc challcngc and tcmptation ol savagc rcvcrsion with our own
inborn strcngth. Principlcs wont do. Tis inborn strcngth appcars
to includc rcstraintthc rcstraint that Kurtz lackcd and thc cannibal
crcw ol thc Roi des Belges surprisingly posscsscd. Tc hollow man,
whosc cvil is thc cvil ol vacancy, succumbs. And in thcir dicrcnt
dcgrccs thc pilgrims and Kurtz sharc this hollowncss. Pcrhaps thcrc
was nothing within thc managcr ol thc Ccntral Station. Such a
suspicion madc onc pausclor out thcrc thcrc wcrc no cxtcrnal
chccks. And thcrc was nothing insidc thc brickmakcr, that papicr
mach Mcphistophclcs, but a littlc loosc dirt, maybc.
As lor Kurtz, thc wildcrncss cchocd loudly within him bccausc
hc was hollow at thc corc. Pcrhaps thc chicl contradiction ol Heart
of Darkness is that it suggcsts and dramatizcs cvil as an activc cncrgy
(Kurtz and his unspcakablc lusts) but dcncs cvil as vacancy. Tc prim
itivc (and hcrc thc contradiction is only vcrbal) is compact ol passion
and apathy. ! was struck by thc rc ol his cycs and thc composcd
languor ol his cxprcssion . . . Tis shadow lookcd satiatcd and calm,
as though lor thc momcnt it had had its ll ol all thc cmotions. l
thc two mcnaccsthc unspcakablc dcsircs and thc apathyapathy
surcly sccmcd thc grcatcr to Conrad. Hcncc wc cannot quitc bclicvc
thc rcsponsc ol Marlows hcart to thc bcating ol thc tomtoms. Tis
is, ! think, thc storys minor but ccntral aw, and thc sourcc ol an
unlruitlul ambiguity: that it slightly ovcrdocs thc kinship with thc
passionatc uproar, slightly undcrvalucs thc tcmptation ol incrtia.
!n any cvcnt, it is timc to rccognizc that thc story is not primarily
about Kurtz or about thc brutality ol 8clgian ocials but about
Marlow its narrator. To what cxtcnt it also cxprcsscs thc Joscph
Conrad a biographcr might conccivably rccovcr, who in 1898 still lclt
a dcbt must bc paid lor his Congo journcy and who paid it by thc
writing ol this story, is doubtlcss an insolublc qucstion. ! suspcct two
lacts (ol a possiblc scvcral hundrcd) arc important. First, that going
to thc Congo was thc cnactmcnt ol a childhood wish associatcd with
thc disapprovcd childhood ambition to go to sca, and that this bclatcd
cnactmcnt was itscll proloundly disapprovcd, in 1890, by thc unclc
and guardian.
5
!t was anothcr gcsturc ol a man bcnt on throwing his
Joscph Conrad
113
lilc away. 8ut cvcn morc important may bc thc guilt ol complicity,
just such a guilt as many novclists ol thc Sccond Vorld Var havc
bccn obligcd to work o. Vhat Conrad thought ol thc cxpcdition
ol thc Katanga Company ol 18901892 is accuratcly rccctcd in his
rcmarks on thc ldorado xploring xpcdition ol Heart of Dark-
ness: !t was rccklcss without hardihood, grccdy without audacity,
and crucl without couragc . . . with no morc moral purposc at thc
back ol it than thcrc is in burglars brcaking into a salc. Yct Conrad
hopcd to obtain command ol thc cxpcditions ship cvcn altcr hc had
rcturncd lrom thc initiatory voyagc dramatizcd in his novcl. Tus thc
advcnturous Conrad and Conrad thc moralist may havc cxpcricnccd
collision. 8ut thc collision, again as with so many novclists ol thc
sccond war, could wcll havc bccn dclcrrcd and rctrospcctivc, not lclt
intcnscly at thc timc.
So much lor thc clusivc Conrad ol thc biographcrs and ol thc
Congo iary. Substantially and in its ccntral cmphasis Heart of
Darkness conccrns Marlow (projcction to whatcvcr grcat or small
dcgrcc ol a morc irrccovcrablc Conrad) and his journcy toward and
through ccrtain laccts or potcntialitics ol scll. F.R. Lcavis sccms to
rcgard him as a narrator only, providing a spccic and concrctcly
rcalizcd point ol vicw.
6
8ut Marlow rcitcratcs oltcn cnough that hc
is rccounting a spiritual voyagc ol sclldiscovcry. Hc rcmarks casually
but crucially that hc did not know himscll bclorc sctting out, and that
hc likcs work lor thc chancc it providcs to nd yourscll . . . what
no othcr man can cvcr know. Tc !nncr Station was thc larthcst
point ol navigation and thc culminating point ol my cxpcricncc.
At a matcrial and rathcr supcrcial lcvcl, thc journcy is through thc
tcmptation ol atavism. !t is a rccord ol rcmotc kinship with thc
wild and passionatc uproar, ol a tracc ol a rcsponsc to it, ol a nal
rcjcction ol thc lascination ol thc abomination. And why should
thcrc not bc thc tracc ol a rcsponsc: Tc mind ol man is capablc ol
anythingbccausc cvcrything is in it, all thc past as wcll as all thc
luturc. Marlows tcmptation is madc concrctc through his cxposurc
to Kurtz, a whitc man and somctimc idcalist who had lully rcspondcd
to thc wildcrncss: a potcntial and lallcn scll. ! had turncd to thc
wildcrncss rcally, not to Mr. Kurtz. At thc climax Marlow lollows
Kurtz ashorc, conlounds thc bcat ol thc drum with thc bcating ol his
hcart, gocs through thc ordcal ol looking into Kurtzs mad soul,
Hcart ol arkncss
114
and brings him back to thc ship. Hc rcturns to uropc a changcd
and morc knowing man. rdinary pcoplc arc now intrudcrs whosc
knowlcdgc ol lilc was to mc an irritating prctcncc, bccausc ! lclt so
surc thcy could not possibly know thc things ! kncw.
n this litcral planc, and whcn thc cvcnts arc so abstractcd lrom
thc drcamscnsation convcying thcm, it is hard to takc Marlows
plight vcry scriously. Vill hc, thc busy captain and moralizing
narrator, also rcvcrt to savagcry, go ashorc lor a howl and a dancc,
indulgc unspcakablc lusts: Tc latc \ictorian rcadcr (and possibly
Conrad himscll) could takc this morc scriously than wc, could litcr
ally bclicvc not mcrcly in a Kurtzs dctcrioration through months ol
solitudc but also in thc suddcn rcvcrsions to thc bcast ol natural
istic ction. !nsolar as Conrad docs want us to takc it scriously and
litcrally, wc must admit thc nominal triumph ol a currcntly acccptcd
but lalsc psychology ovcr his own trucr intuitions. 8ut thc triumph is
only nominal. For thc pcrsonal narrativc is unmistakably authcntic,
which mcans that it cxplorcs somcthing trucr, morc lundamcntal,
and distinctly lcss matcrial: thc night journcy into thc unconscious,
and conlrontation ol an cntity within thc scll. ! ung onc shoc
ovcrboard, and bccamc awarc that that was cxactly what ! had bccn
looking lorward toa talk with Kurtz. !t littlc mattcrs what, in
tcrms ol psychological symbolism, wc call this doublc or say hc
rcprcscnts: whcthcr thc Frcudian id or thc Jungian shadow or morc
vagucly thc outlaw. And ! am alraid it is impossiblc to say whcrc
Conrads conscious undcrstanding ol his story bcgan and cndcd. Tc
important thing is that thc introspcctivc plungc and powcrlul drcam
sccm truc, and arc thcrclorc incvitably moving.
Ccrtain circumstanccs ol Marlows voyagc, lookcd at in thcsc
tcrms, takc on a ncw importancc. Tc truc night journcy can occur
(cxccpt during analysis) only in slccp or in thc waking drcam ol a
proloundly intuitivc mind. Marlow insists morc than is ncccssary on
thc drcamlikc quality ol his narrativc. !t sccms to mc ! am trying to
tcll you a drcammaking a vain attcmpt, bccausc no rclation ol a
drcam can convcy thc drcamscnsation, that commingling ol absur
dity, surprisc, and bcwildcrmcnt in a trcmor ol struggling rcvolt . . .
vcn bclorc lcaving 8russcls Marlow lclt as though hc wcrc about
to sct o lor thc ccntcr ol thc carth, not thc ccntcr ol a contincnt.
7

Tc introspcctivc voyagcr lcavcs his lamiliar rational world, is cut
Joscph Conrad
115
o lrom thc comprchcnsion ol his surroundings, his stcamcr toils
along slowly on thc cdgc ol a black and incomprchcnsiblc lrcnzy.
As thc crisis approachcs, thc drcamcr and his ship movc through a
silcncc that sccmcd unnatural, likc a statc ol trancc, thcn cntcr (a
lcw milcs bclow thc !nncr Station) a dccp log. Tc approach to this
Kurtz grubbing lor ivory in thc wrctchcd bush was bcsct by as many
dangcrs as though hc had bccn an cnchantcd princcss slccping in a
labulous castlc.
8
Latcr, Marlows task is to try to brcak thc spcll ol
thc wildcrncss that holds Kurtz cntranccd.
Tc approach to thc unconscious and primitivc may bc aidcd by
a savagc or hallsavagc guidc, and may rcquirc thc tokcn rcmoval ol
civilizcd trappings or aids, both conccptions arc bcautilully drama
tizcd in Faulkncrs Tc 8car. !n Heart of Darkness thc tokcn rclin
quishmcnt and thc dcath ol thc hallsavagc guidc arc conncctcd. Tc
hclmsman lalling at Marlows lcct casts blood on his shocs, which hc
is morbidly anxious to changc and in lact throws ovcrboard.
9
(Tc
rcscuc ol Vait in Te Nigger of the Narcissus shows a similar pattcrn.)
Hcrc wc havc prcsumably cntcrcd an arca ol unconscious crcation,
thc drcam is truc but thc tcllcr may havc no idca why it is. So too,
possibly, a psychic nccd as wcll as litcrary tact compcllcd Conrad to
dclcr thc mccting bctwccn Marlow and Kurtz lor somc thrcc thou
sand words altcr announcing that it took placc. Vc think wc arc
about to mcct Kurtz at last. 8ut instcad Marlow lcaps ahcad to his
mccting with thc !ntcndcd, commcnts on Kurtzs mcgalomania and
assumption ol his placc among thc dcvils ol thc land, rcports on thc
scvcntccnpagc pamphlct, rclatcs his mccting and convcrsation with
Kurtzs harlcquin disciplcand only thcn tclls ol sccing through his
binoculars thc hcads on thc stakcs surrounding Kurtzs housc. Tis
is thc cvasivc Conrad in lull play, dclcrring what wc most want to
know and scc, pcrhaps compcllcd to dclcr climax in this way. Tc
tactic is dramatically ccctivc, though possibly carricd to cxccss: wc
arc told on thc authority ol complctcd knowlcdgc ccrtain things wc
would havc lound hard to bclicvc had thcy bccn prcscntcd through a
slow consccutivc rcalistic discovcry. 8ut also it can bc argucd that it
was psychologically impossiblc lor Marlow to go at oncc to Kurtzs
housc with thc othcrs. Tc doublc must bc brought on board thc ship,
and thc rst conlrontation must occur thcrc. Vc arc rcmindcd ol
Lcggatt in thc narrators cabin, ol thc trappcd Vait on thc Narcissus.
Hcart ol arkncss
116
Tc incorporation and alliancc bctwccn thc two bccomcs matcrial,
and thc idcntication ol sclvcs.
Hcncc thc shock Marlow cxpcricnccs whcn hc discovcrs that
Kurtzs cabin is cmpty and his sccrct sharcr gonc, a part ol himscll has
vanishcd. Vhat madc this cmotion so ovcrpowcring washow shall
! dcnc it:thc moral shock ! rcccivcd, as il somcthing altogcthcr
monstrous, intolcrablc to thought and odious to thc soul, had bccn
thrust upon mc uncxpcctcdly. And now hc must risk thc ultimatc
conlrontation in a truc solitudc and must do so on shorc. ! was
anxious to dcal with this shadow by myscll aloncand to this day !
dont know why ! was so jcalous ol sharing with anyonc thc pcculiar
blackncss ol that cxpcricncc. Hc lollows thc crawling Kurtz through
thc grass, comcs upon him long, palc, indistinct, likc a vapor cxhalcd
by thc carth. (! had cut him o clcvcrly . . .) Vc arc told vcry littlc
ol what Kurtz said in thc momcnts that lollow, and littlc ol his inco
hcrcnt discourscs altcr hc is brought back to thc ship. His was an
impcnctrablc darkncss. ! lookcd at him as you pccr down at a man who
is lying at thc bottom ol a prccipicc whcrc thc sun ncvcr shincsa
commcnt lcss vaguc and rhctorical, in tcrms ol psychic gcography,
than it may sccm at a rst rcading. And thcn Kurtz is dcad, takcn o
thc ship, his body buricd in a muddy holc. Vith thc conlrontation
ovcr, Marlow must still cmcrgc lrom cnvironing darkncss, and docs
so through that othcr dccp log ol sickncss. Tc idcntication is not
yct complctcly brokcn. And it is not my own cxtrcmity ! rcmcmbcr
bcsta vision ol grayncss without lorm llcd with physical pain, and
a carclcss contcmpt lor thc cvancsccncc ol all thingscvcn ol this
pain itscll. No! !t is his cxtrcmity that ! sccm to havc livcd through.
nly in thc atoncmcnt ol his lic to Kurtzs !ntcndcd, back in thc
scpulchral city, docs thc cxpcricncc comc truly to an cnd. ! laid thc
ghost ol his gilts at last with a lic . . .
Such sccms to bc thc contcnt ol thc drcam. !l my summary has
cvcn a partial validity it should cxplain and to an cxtcnt justily somc
ol thc adjcctival and worsc than supcrcrogatory insistcncc to which
F.R. Lcavis (who sccs only thc travcloguc and thc portrait ol Kurtz)
objccts. ! am willing to grant that thc unspcakablc ritcs and unspcak
ablc sccrcts bccomc wcarisomc, but thc lactat oncc litcrary and
psychologicalis that thcy must rcmain unspoken. A conlrontation
with such a doublc and lacct ol thc unconscious cannot bc rcportcd
Joscph Conrad
117
through rcalistic dialoguc, thc convcrsations must rcmain as shadowy
as thc narrators convcrsations with Lcggatt. So too whcn Marlow
nds it hard to dcnc thc moral shock hc rcccivcd on sccing thc cmpty
cabin, or whcn hc says hc docsnt know why hc was jcalous ol sharing
his cxpcricncc, ! think wc can takc him litcrally . . . and in a scnsc cvcn
bc thanklul lor his unccrtainty. Tc grcatcr tautncss and cconomy ol
Tc Sccrct Sharcr comcs lrom its largcr conscious awarcncss ol thc
psychological proccss it dcscribcs, lrom its morc dclibcratc usc ol thc
doublc as symbol. And ol thc two storics ! happcn to prclcr it. 8ut it
may bc thc groping, lumbling Heart of Darkness that takcs us into a
dccpcr rcgion ol thc mind. !l thc story is not about this dccpcr rcgion,
and not about Marlow himscll, its lcngth is quitc indclcnsiblc. 8ut
cvcn il onc wcrc to allow that thc nal scction is about Kurtz (which
! think simply absurd), a vivid pictorial rccord ol his unspcakablc
lusts and gratications would surcly havc bccn ludicrous. ! sharc Mr.
Lcavis admiration lor thc hcads on thc stakcs. 8ut not cvcn Kurtz
could havc supportcd many such particulars.
10
! listcncd on thc watch lor thc scntcncc, lor thc word, that would
givc mc thc cluc to thc laint uncasincss inspircd by this narrativc that
sccmcd to shapc itscll without human lips in thc hcavy night air ol
thc rivcr. Tus onc ol Marlows listcncrs, thc original ! who lramcs
thc story, commcnts on its initial ccct. Hc has discovcrcd how alcrt
onc must bc to thc cbb and ow ol Marlows narrativc, and hcrc warns
thc rcadcr. 8ut thcrc is no singlc word, not cvcn thc word trance will
do. For thc shilting play ol thought and lccling and imagc and cvcnt
is vcry intricatc. !t is not vivid dctail alonc, thc hcads on stakcs or
thc bloody shocs, nor only thc dark mass ol moralizing abstraction,
nor thc dramatizcd psychological intuitions apart lrom thcir contcxt
that givc Heart of Darkness its brooding wcight. Tc imprcssionist
mcthodonc cannot lcavc this story without subscribing to thc
obviousnds hcrc onc ol its grcat triumphs ol tonc. Tc random
movcmcnt ol thc nightmarc is also thc controllcd movcmcnt ol a
pocm, in which a quality ol lccling may bc statcd or suggcstcd and
only much latcr justicd. 8ut it is justicd at last.
Tc mcthod is in important ways dicrcnt lrom that ol Lord Jim,
though thc short novcl was writtcn during an intcrval in thc long onc,
and though Marlow spcaks to us in both. For wc do not havc hcrc thc
radical obluscations and suddcn wrcnchings and violcnt chronological
Hcart ol arkncss
118
ambiguitics ol Lord Jim. Nor arc wc, as in Nostromo, at thc mcrcy ol
a wayward ashlight moving rapidly in a cluttcrcd room. Heart of
Darkness is no such truc cxamplc ol spatial lorm. !nstcad thc narrativc
advanccs and withdraws as in a succcssion ol long dark wavcs bornc by
an incoming tidc. Tc wavcs cncroach lairly cvcnly on thc shorc, and
prcscntly a lcw morc lcct ol sand havc bccn won. 8ut an occasional
wavc thrusts up uncxpcctcdly, much larthcr than thc othcrs: cvcn as
lar, say, as Kurtz and his !nncr Station. r, to takc thc othcr gurc:
thc ashlight is hcld rmly, thcrc arc no whimsical jcrkings lrom sidc
to sidc. 8ut now and thcn it is raiscd highcr, and lor a bricl momcnt in
a suddcn clcar light wc disccrn cnigmatic mattcrs to bc cxplorcd much
latcr. Tus thc movcmcnt ol thc story is sinuously progrcssivc, with
much incrcmcntal rcpctition. Tc intcnt is not to subjcct thc rcadcr
to multiplc strains and ambiguitics, but rathcr to throw ovcr him a
brooding gloom, such a warm pall as thosc two Fatcs in thc homc
occ might knit, back in thc scpulchral city.
Yct no gurc can convcy Heart of Darkness in all its rcsonancc and
tcncbrous atmosphcrc. Tc movcmcnt is not onc ol pcnctration and
withdrawal only, it is also thc tracing ol a largc grand circlc ol awarc
ncss. !t bcgins with thc lricnds on thc yacht undcr thc dark abovc
Gravcscnd and at last rcturns to thcm, to thc tranquil watcrway that
lcading to thc uttcrmost cnds ol thc carth owcd sombrc undcr an
ovcrcast skysccmcd to lcad into thc hcart ol an immcnsc darkncss.
For this also has bccn onc ol thc dark placcs ol thc carth, and Marlow
cmploys lrom thc rst his mcthods ol rccxivc rclcrcncc and casual
lorcshadowing. Tc Romans wcrc mcn cnough to lacc this darkncss ol
thc Tamcs running bctwccn savagc shorcs. Hcrc and thcrc a military
camp lost in a wildcrncss, likc a nccdlc in a bundlc ol haycold, log,
tcmpcsts, discasc, cxilc, and dcathdcath skulking in thc air, in thc
watcr, in thc bush. 8ut thcsc Romans wcrc no colonists, no morc
than thc pilgrims ol thc Congo ninctccn hundrcd ycars latcr, thcir
administration was mcrcly a squcczc. Tus carly Marlow cstablishcs
ccrtain political valucs. Tc Frcnch gunboat ring into a contincnt
anticipatcs thc blind ring ol thc pilgrims into thc junglc whcn thc
ship has bccn attackcd. And Marlow hcars ol Kurtzs rst attcmpt to
cmcrgc lrom thc wildcrncss long bclorc hc mccts Kurtz in thc csh,
and wrcstlcs with his rcluctancc to lcavc. Marlow rcturns again and
again, with incrcasing irony, to Kurtzs bcncvolcnt pamphlct.
Joscph Conrad
119
Tc travcloguc as travcloguc is not to bc ignorcd, and onc ol
Rogcr Cascmcnts consular succcssors in thc Congo (to whom !
introduccd Heart of Darkness in 1957) rcmarkcd at oncc that Conrad
ccrtainly had a lccl lor thc country. Tc dcmoralization ol thc rst
company station is rcndcrcd by a boilcr wallowing in thc grass,
by a railway truck with its whccls in thc air. Prcscntly Marlow will
discovcr a scar in thc hillsidc into which drainagc pipcs lor thc
scttlcmcnt had bccn tumblcd, thcn will walk into thc grovc whcrc
thc Ncgrocs arc lrcc to dic in a grccnish gloom. Tc sharply visu
alizcd particulars suddcnly intrudc on thc sombcr intcllcctual ow
ol Marlows mcditation: magnicd, arrcsting. Tc boilcrmakcr who
had to crawl in thc mud undcr thc bottom ol thc stcamboat . . .
would tic up that bcard ol his in a kind ol whitc scrvicttc hc brought
lor thc purposc. !t had loops to go ovcr his cars. Tc papicrmach
Mcphistophclcs is as vivid, with his dclicatc hookcd nosc and
glittcring mica cycs. So too is Kurtzs harlcquin companion and
admircr, humbly dissociating himscll lrom thc mastcrs lusts and
gratications. !! !! ! am a simplc man. ! havc no grcat thoughts.
And cvcn Kurtz, shadow and symbol though hc bc, thc man ol
cloqucncc who in this story is almost voicclcss, and ncccssarily
socvcn Kurtz is sharply visualizcd, an animatcd imagc ol dcath,
a skull and body cmcrging as lrom a winding shcct, thc cagc ol his
ribs all astir, thc boncs ol his arm waving.
Tis is Alrica and its abby inhabitants, Conrad did indccd havc
a lccl lor thc country. Yct thc dark tonalitics and nal brooding
imprcssion dcrivc as much lrom rhythm and rhctoric as lrom such
visual dctails: dcrivc lrom thc high alool ironics and lrom a prosc
that itscll advanccs and rcccdcs in wavcs. Tis initiatcd wraith
lrom thc back ol Nowhcrc honorcd mc with its amazing condcncc
bclorc it vanishcd altogcthcr. r, !t is strangc how ! acccptcd this
unlorsccn partncrship, this choicc ol nightmarcs lorccd upon mc in
thc tcncbrous land invadcd by thcsc mcan and grccdy phantoms.
Tcsc arc truc Conradian rhythms, but thcy arc also rhythms ol
thought. Tc immcdiatc prcscnt can bc rcndcrcd with grcat compact
ncss and drama: thc ship staggcring within tcn lcct ol thc bank at thc
timc ol thc attack, and Marlows suddcn glimpsc ol a lacc amongst
thc lcavcs, thcn ol thc bush swarming with human limbs. 8ut still
morc immcdiatc and pcrsonal, it may bc, arc thc mcditativc passagcs
Hcart ol arkncss
120
cvoking vast tracts ol timc, and thc rst ol mcn taking posscssion ol
an accurscd inhcritancc. Tc prosc is varicd, lar morc so than is usual
in thc carly work, both in rhythm and in thc movcmcnts lrom thc
gcncral to thc particular and back. 8ut thc shapcd scntcncc collccting
and lully cxpcnding its brcath appcars to bc thc norm. Somc ol thc
bcst passagcs bcgin and cnd with thcm:
Going up that rivcr was likc travcling back to thc carlicst
bcginnings ol thc world, whcn vcgctation riotcd on thc
carth and thc big trccs wcrc kings. An cmpty strcam, a grcat
silcncc, an impcnctrablc lorcst. Tc air was warm, thick, hcavy,
sluggish. Tcrc was no joy in thc brilliancc ol sunshinc. Tc
long strctchcs ol thc watcrway ran on, dcscrtcd, into thc gloom
ol ovcrshadowcd distanccs. n silvcry sandbanks hippos and
alligators sunncd thcmsclvcs sidc by sidc.
11
Tc insistcncc on darkncss, nally, and quitc apart lrom cthical or
mythical ovcrtonc, sccms a right onc lor this cxtrcmcly pcrsonal statc
mcnt. Tcrc is a darkncss ol passivity, paralysis, immobilization, it is
lrom thc statc ol cntranccd languor rathcr than lrom thc monstrous
dcsircs that thc doublc Kurtz, this shadow, must bc savcd. !n Frcudian
thcory, wc arc told, such prcoccupation may indicatc lcar ol thc lcmi
ninc and passivc. 8ut may it not also bc conncctcd, through onc ol
thc spirits multiplc disguiscs, with a radical lcar ol dcath, that othcr
darkncss: ! had turncd to thc wildcrncss rcally, not to Mr. Kurtz,
who, ! was rcady to admit, was as good as buricd. And lor a momcnt it
sccmcd to mc as il ! also wcrc buricd in a vast gravc lull ol unspcakablc
sccrcts. ! lclt an intolcrablc wcight opprcssing my brcast, thc smcll
ol thc damp carth, thc unsccn prcscncc ol victorious corruption, thc
darkncss ol an impcnctrablc night.
!t would bc lolly to try to limit thc mcnacc ol vcgctation in thc
rcstlcss lilc ol Conradian imagc and symbol. 8ut thc passagc rcminds
us again ol thc storys rccxivc rclcrcnccs, and its imagcs ol dcathly
immobilization in grass. Most striking arc thc black shadows dying in
thc grccnish gloom ol thc grovc at thc rst station. 8ut grass sprouts
bctwccn thc stoncs ol thc uropcan city, a whitcd scpulchcr, and
on thc samc pagc Marlow anticipatcs coming upon thc rcmains ol
his prcdcccssor: thc grass growing through his ribs was tall cnough
Joscph Conrad
121 Hcart ol arkncss
to hidc his boncs. Tc critical mccting with Kurtz occurs on a trail
through thc grass. !s thcrc not pcrhaps an intcnsc horror bchind
thc casualncss with which Marlow rcports his discovcrics, say ol thc
Ncgro with thc bullct in his lorchcad: r: Now and thcn a carricr
dcad in harncss, at rcst in thc long grass ncar thc path, with an cmpty
watcr gourd and his long sta lying by his sidc.
All this, onc must acknowlcdgc, docs not makc up an ordinary
light travcloguc. Tcrc is no littlc irony in thc lcttcr ol Novcmbcr 9,
1891, Conrad rcccivcd lrom his guardian altcr rcturning lrom thc
Congo, and whilc physically disablcd and scriously dcprcsscd: ! am
surc that with your mclancholy tcmpcramcnt you ought to avoid all
mcditations which lcad to pcssimistic conclusions. ! advisc you to lcad
a morc activc lilc than cvcr and to cultivatc chccrlul habits.
12
Uncvcn
in languagc on ccrtain pagcs, and lacking Tc Sccrct Sharcrs
cconomy, Heart of Darkness ncvcrthclcss rcmains onc ol thc grcat
dark mcditations in litcraturc, and onc ol thc purcst cxprcssions ol a
mclancholy tcmpcramcnt.
NOTES
1. JcanAubry, Life and Letters, !, 141, and Te Sea Dreamer, p.
175. Rcportcdly said to dward Garnctt. !n his Joseph Conrad
in the Congo (London, 1926), p. 73, JcanAubry givcs a slightly
dicrcnt wording: 8clorc thc Congo ! was only a simplc
animal.
2. Last Essays, p. 17. !n Heart of Darkness Conrad makcs oncc
his usual distinction bctwccn 8ritish impcrialism and thc
impcrialism ol othcr nations. n thc map in 8russcls thcrc
was a vast amount ol rcdgood to scc at any timc, bccausc
onc knows that somc rcal work is donc in thcrc. His 1899
lcttcrs to .L. Sandcrson and to Mmc. Anglc Zagrska on
thc 8ocr war cxprcss his position clcarly. Tc conspiracy to
oust thc 8riton is rcady to bc hatchcd in othcr rcgions. !t
. . . is cvcrlastingly skulking in thc Far ast. A war thcrc or
anywhcrc but in S. Alrica would havc bccn conclusivc,would
havc bccn worth thc sacriccs ( JcanAubry, Life and Letters, !,
286). Tat thcythc 8ocrsarc struggling in good laith lor
thcir indcpcndcncc cannot bc doubtcd, but it is also a lact that
122
thcy havc no idca ol libcrty, which can only bc lound undcr thc
nglish ag all ovcr thc world (ibid., !, 288).
3. Life and Letters, !, 121, 124, Te Sea Dreamer, pp. 154159.
4. Comparc Tc Congo iary, Last Essays, p. 163. Conrad did
not usc thc skclcton ticd to a post that hc saw on Tucsday,
July 29 (ibid., p. 169). !t might havc sccmcd too blatant or
too litcrary in a novcl dcpcnding on mortuary imagcry lrom
bcginning to cnd.
5. Life and Letters, !, 137, Te Sea Dreamer, p. 171.
6. F.R. Lcavis, Te Great Tradition (London, 1948), p. 183.
7. Lilian Fcdcr nds a numbcr ol parallcls with thc sixth book
ol thc Aeneid in Marlows csccnt into Hcll, Nineteenth-
Century Fiction, !X (March 1955) 280292, Robcrt . vans
nds chicy thc inucncc ol antcs Inferno in Conrads
Undcrworld, Modern Fiction Studies, !! (May 1956), 5662. My
vicws on litcrary inucncc dicr lrom thosc ol Miss Fcdcr and
Mr. vans. 8ut cchocs and ovcrtoncs may cxist. Vc may apply
to Heart of Darkness Tomas Manns words on Death in Venice: a
littlc work ol incxhaustiblc allusivcncss.
8. Tc analogy ol unspcakablc Kurtz and cnchantcd princcss may
wcll bc an intcndcd irony. 8ut thcrc may bc somc signicancc
in thc lact that this oncc thc doublc is imagincd as an cntranccd
lcmininc gurc.
9. Likc any obscurc human act, this onc invitcs scvcral
intcrprctations, bcginning with thc simplc washing away ol
guilt. Tc lcar ol thc blood may bc, howcvcr, a lcar ol thc
primitivc toward which Marlow is moving. To throw thc shocs
ovcrboard would thcn mcan a tokcn rcjcction ol thc savagc, not
thc civilizcdrational. !n any cvcnt it sccms plausiblc to havc
blood at this stagc ol a truc initiation story.
10. Tc rcadcr irritatcd by thc hallucinatcd atmosphcrc and
subjcctivc prcoccupation ol Heart of Darkness should turn
to Robcrt Louis Stcvcnsons short novcl, Te Beach of Fales
(1892). A ncw tradcr, Viltshirc, takcs a nativc mistrcss, and
nds himscllthanks to a rival tradcr (Casc)virtually
cxcommunicatcd. Tc situation distantly rcscmblcs that ol
Villcms in Te Outcast of the Islands. Latcr, Viltshirc gocs
inland to discovcr thc sourcc ol Cascs powcr ovcr thc nativcs,
Joscph Conrad
123
he has heard stories that his rival worships or tracs with
devils. He nds an olian harp in a tree (to simulate ghostly
voices) and presently the place of worship:
Along all the top of it was a line of queer gures, idols
or scarecrows, or what not. Tey had carved and painted
faces, ugly to view, their eyes and teeth were of shell,
their hair and their bright clothes blew in the wind, and
some of them worked with the tugging . . .
Ten it came in my mind that Case had let out
to me the rst day that he was a good forger of island
curiosities, a thing by which so many traders turn an
honest penny. And with that I saw the whole business,
and how this display served the man a double purpose:
rst of all, to season his curiosities and then to frighten
those that came to visit him.
Had Conrad read Te Beach of Fales before writing Heart of
Darkness? Te question is unimportant. Te important thing
is to recognize the immense distance from Cases carved faces
to the skulls on Kurtzs palisade; from Cases pretended trac
with devils to Kurtzs role as one of the devils of the land; from
Wiltshires canny outwitting of a rival trader to Marlows dark
inward journey; from the inert jungle of Stevensons South
Pacic to the charged symbolic jungle of Conrads Congo. Te
nighttime meeting of Case and Wiltshire is merely an exciting
physical struggle. Te Beach of Fales is a good manly yarn
totally bereft of psychological intuition.
11. Heart of Darkness, Youth, pp. 9293.
12. Life and Letters, I, 148. Te Sea Dreamer, p. 183, oers a slightly
dierent translation of these lines.
Heart of Darkness
125
THE HOLY SONNETS
( JOHN DONNE)
,.
Renewal and Rebirth
in ]ohn onnes Te Holy Sonnets
by Gary ttari,
thc Univcrsity ol North Carolina at Ashcvillc
John onncs Te Holy Sonnets, writtcn latcr in his lilc, is a scrics ol
ninctccn sonncts in which onnc dircctly addrcsscs God in ordcr to
bccomc morc cnlightcncd about thc dicultics ol living a dcvout and
laithlul Christian lilc. Yct thcsc sonncts arc not, as thcir namc might
imply, calm and mcasurcd convcrsations with God. Rathcr, onnc,
as in his carly lovc poctry, spcaks to God in an ardcnt and, somc
may say, irrcvcrcnt voicc. Rcadcrs ol thcsc pocms oltcn notc that
thc spcakcr in thc Holy Sonnets sccms at timcs dccidcdly unholy. Tc
uniqucncss ol onncs poctic voicc and his complcx rclationship with
dcity makc him onc ol thc most cngaging voiccs ol thc carly modcrn
pcriod. !n his sonncts, onnc abandons thc gcntlc and modcst voicc
with which prcvious pocts addrcsscd God and instcad dcmands Gods
salvation. Hc obscsscs ovcr his own mortality and cvcntual dcath, yct
also acknowlcdgcs that dcath is but a path to Gods gracc, a way ol
rcncwal and rcbirth.
To undcrstand onncs complcx spirituality, it hclps to considcr
his background. onnc was born in London to a Roman Catholic
lamily in 1572. At that timc, Roman Catholicism was barcly tolcr
atcd in ngland, cspccially in thc morc populatcd urban arcas. Quccn
lizabcth !s lathcr, Hcnry \!!!, had madc a brcak with thc Roman
126
Catholic Church bccausc it would not annul his marriagc to his rst
wilc, Cathcrinc, in ordcr that hc could marry Annc 8olcyn. Hcnry
cvcntually loundcd thc Church ol ngland, and it was thc gcncral
tcndcncy ol thc nglish pcoplc lor many dccadcs altcrward to bc
suspicious ol, il not outright hostilc toward, thc Roman Catholic
Church, its doctrincs, and its adhcrcnts. 8clorc onnc was born,
Quccn lizabcth ovcrsaw thc passing ol thc Act ol Unilormity
(1559), which madc attcndancc at a Sunday scrvicc in an Anglican
church mandatory. 8y thc timc onnc grcw into young manhood, thc
quccn had outlawcd thc pcrlormancc ol Catholic rituals altogcthcr.
Such rcligious tcnsions wcrc not uniquc to ngland in thc
sixtccnth ccntury, but onnc, as a mcmbcr ol a pcrsccutcd rcligious
minority, would havc grown up in a contcntious and oltcn conlusing
thcological atmosphcrc. Tings wcrc lurthcr complicatcd lor onnc
in 1593 whcn his brothcr Hcnry, arrcstcd lor providing sanctuary to a
Catholic pricst, dicd ol a lcvcr in prison. Tis cvcnt lcd him to qucs
tion his laith, a skcpticism that pcrsistcd cvcn altcr hc convcrtcd to thc
Anglican Church and cvcntually cntcrcd thc ministry in 1615. 8y this
timc, hc had writtcn two antiCatholic tracts, Pseudo-Martyr (1610)
and Ignatius his Conclave (1611). Te Holy Sonnets, most likcly writtcn
in 1618, rccct onncs complcx rclationship with God as wcll as thc
intcrnal conicts and sclldoubt hc lclt as somconc who had lclt onc
laith lor anothcr.
Tc spcakcr ol Te Holy Sonnets oltcn dcspairs ovcr lcclings ol
pcrsonal unworthincss or lcar ol dcath. !n most ol thc pocms, hc
rcachcs out to God, sccking comlort in Gods gracc dcspitc his own
lailings. Sonnct !, lor cxamplc, bcgins
Tou hast madc mc, and shall Ty work dccay:
Rcpair mc now, lor now minc cnd doth hastc,
! run to dcath and dcath mccts mc as last,
And all my plcasurcs arc likc ycstcrday. (14)
Tc qucstion that bcgins thc sonnct rcccts both thc nccd thc spcakcr
lccls lor Gods prcscncc in his lilc and thc anxicty hc lccls rcgarding
thc lack ol that prcscncc. Tc only way hc will not dccay, hc rcalizcs,
is il hc rcmcmbcrs that hc is a crcation ol God. Tc thrcc lincs altcr
thc initial qucstion indicatc that thc spcakcr indccd lcars dcath and
John onnc
127
has a prcoccupation with worldly cxpcricnccs (plcasurcs) that both
prcvcnts onc bcing prcparcd lor dcath and hastcns dcaths arrival. !n
his rcqucst lor God to rcpair him, thc spcakcr acknowlcdgcs that hc
cannot carn salvation or absolution himscll but must do so through
Gods mcrcy.
Tc prcoccupation with dcath that appcars in Sonnct ! is takcn
up again in various sonncts, most notably Sonnct X (cath 8c Not
Proud). Hcrc, thc spcakcr sccms momcntarily rclicvcd ol his lcar ol
dcath and sounds dcantly triumphant:
cath, bc not proud, though somc havc callcd thcc
Mighty and drcadlul, lor thou art not so,
For thosc whom thou thinkst thou dost ovcrthrow
ic not, poor dcath, nor yct canst thou kill mc. (14)
Tc dircct addrcss to dcath and thc spcakcrs almost smug attitudc
indicatc that hc has achicvcd, at lcast momcntarily, a pcacc ol mind
that cludcd him in thc rst sonnct. cath is no longcr to bc lcarcd,
is not mighty or drcadlul, but is instcad poor bccausc it only
brings a tcmporary ccssation ol lilc. Latcr in thc pocm, onnc notcs
that nc short slccp past, wc wakc ctcrnally (13), implying that thc
dcath ol thc body is akin to littlc morc than an altcrnoon nap in thc
contcxt ol thc Christian notion ol thc bodys rcsurrcction at Judgmcnt
ay. Tc last linc ol thc pocm, lor cxamplc, rcitcratcs thc idca that
dcath is mcrcly tcmporary: dcath shall bc no morc, dcath, thou shalt
dic (14). cath, sccn by thc unlaithlul as somcthing to bc lcarcd, is,
to thc spcakcr ol thc pocm, simply a tcmporary statc that, oncc Jcsus
rcturns to arth and Judgmcnt ay occurs, will no longcr cxist.
Vhilc onncs prcoccupation with his own mortality might sccm
macabrc to us, it is important to undcrstand that in thc carly modcrn
pcriod, thc prospcct ol dcath was not as rcmotc as it is in our modcrn
agc, whcrc avcragc human lilc cxpcctancy is almost 80 ycars. !n
onncs timc, thcrc was vcry littlc in thc way ol mcdical scicncc as wc
know it now. Tcrc wcrc no antibiotics or aspirin and only a rudimcn
tary undcrstanding ol how discascs and viruscs workcd or sprcad. Tc
plaguc was a constant worry, thc litcrary thcmc ol carpe diem (scizc
thc day) adviscd both mcn and womcn to nd lovc and marry young,
and thc high inlant mortality ratc, combincd with thc lack ol sanitary
Tc Holy Sonncts
128
conditions and what wc would considcr to bc primitivc mcthods ol
trcating discascs, mcant that thc avcragc lilc span in onncs timc was
somcwhcrc in thc mid40s. Tc cvcrprcscnt thrcat ol dcath, as Te
Holy Sonnets dcmonstratc, also mcant that, likc onnc, many pcoplc
at this timc turncd to God lor comlort whcn laccd with thc prospcct
ol thcir own dcmisc. Latcr in his lilc, onnc was almost obscsscd
with thc idca ol his own dcath. Shortly bclorc hc dicd at thc agc ol 59,
hc prcachcd his own luncral scrmon, Deaths Duel, and hc poscd lor
a painting in his own dcath shroud. Tat painting was uscd to crcatc
an cgy lor his tomb.
Tc prcvalcncc ol dcath during onncs timc should not bc
undcrcstimatcd. vcn whcn lovc was thc ostcnsiblc subjcct ol a play or
pocm, it was oltcn linkcd with dcath. !n Shakcspcarcs Twelfth Night,
lor cxamplc, thc Countcss livia, having just cspicd thc charactcr ol
\iola disguiscd as Ccsario, says: How now:/vcn so quickly may onc
catch thc plaguc:/Mcthinks ! lccl this youths pcrlcctions/Vith an
invisiblc and subtlc stcalth/To crccp in at minc cycs (!. v. 29498).
Tc striking thing about this passagc is not only thc association livia
makcs bctwccn crotic dcsirc and thc plaguc but also thc symptoms
ol lovc. Tc invisiblc and subtlc stcalth with which thc bclovcds
pcrlcctions cntcr livias cycs sounds almost sinistcr on thc onc
hand and likc thc dcscription ol thc onsct ol a discasc on thc othcr.
Such conncctions bctwccn lovc and dcath wcrc common in onncs
timc and hclp us undcrstand that cvcn somcthing as dclightlul and
joyous as lovc was tingcd with thc cvcrprcscnt rcalization that thc
body, no mattcr its joys or sorrows, is incvitably subjcct to dccay and
dcath.
onncs prcoccupation with dcath is rclatcd to anothcr major
thcmc ol Te Holy Sonnets: a dcsirc lor spiritual rcncwal. Tc spcakcr
ol Te Holy Sonnets, bcsidcs bcing prcoccupicd with dcath, ardcntly
sccks spiritual rcncwal lrom God. !n pcrhaps onc ol onncs bcst
known pocms, Holy Sonnct X!\, thc spcakcr paradoxically dcsircs a
dcstruction ol scll in ordcr that God may rcbuild him:
8attcr my hcart, thrccpcrsoncd God, lor you
As yct but knock, brcathc, shinc, and scck to mcnd,
Tat ! may risc and stand, ocrthrow mc, and bcnd
Your lorcc to brcak, blow, burn and makc mc ncw. (14)
John onnc
129
!n thc rst quatrain ol thc sonnct, onncs choicc ol vcrbs is
tclling. Tc contrast bctwccn thc actions that God has so lar takcn
in thc spcakcrs journcy ol rcncwal, knock, brcathc, shinc as wcll
as mcnd, all imply a rclativcly bcnign dcity who gcntly sccks to
mcnd thc spcakcr. Tis, as thc lollowing scrics ol vcrbs indicatcs,
is insucicnt to achicvc thc ncwncss that thc spcakcr sccks in linc
4. Tc actions hc wants God to takc arc morc dcstructivc (brcak,
blow, burn), which may sccm initially paradoxical, but bccausc thc
spcakcr wishcs to risc and stand, that is, bc rcncwcd and madc
wholc through Gods gracc and powcr, hc sccks rst to bc uttcrly
brought low. Such an idca is common in Christian thought. !n thc
Ncw Tcstamcnt, lor cxamplc, Christ, whcn giving his Scrmon on thc
Mount, statcs that thc mcck shall inhcrit thc carth (Matthcw 5:5)
and thc poor in spirit will posscss thc kingdom ol hcavcn (Matthcw
5:3), and hc latcr says that thc last shall bc rst (Matthcw 19:30).
Tc implication ol both onncs and Christs words is that salva
tion and rcncwal in a Christian contcxt cannot bc achicvcd unlcss a
bclicvcr cxhibits sucicnt humility and sclcssncss in ordcr to obtain
Gods gracc and, cvcntually, hcavcn.
onnc, howcvcr, docs not mcrcly appropriatc thc languagc ol
Christianity in his scarch lor a spiritual ccntcr. !n thc last lincs ol
Sonnct X!\, hc makcs startling rcqucsts ol God:
Takc mc to you, imprison mc, lor !,
xccpt you cnthrall mc, ncvcr shall bc lrcc,
Nor cvcr chastc, cxccpt you ravish mc. (1214)
!n thc attcmpt to gain spiritual ncwncss, onnc gocs bcyond cvcn
thc paradoxical languagc mcntioncd prcviously. Tcsc nal lincs
indicatc both thc intcnsity ol thc spcakcrs dcsirc to bc closcr to God
and his lrustration with God. Tc spcakcr hcrc nccds God to bc not
lathcrly and loving but rathcr to lunction as both jailcr and violator
ol his body, wishing to bc both imprisoncd by God and ravishcd
(rapcd) by him. Such languagc is violcnt, urgcnt, passionatc, and,
somc might say, sacrilcgious. Howcvcr, what is clcar lrom this sonnct
and many othcrs in thc scqucncc, is that thc intcnsity and zcal ol
onncs languagc rcccts his intcnsity and dcsirc lor Gods lovc. Tc
distinguishing charactcristic ol Te Holy Sonnets, in othcr words, is
Tc Holy Sonncts
130
not that thcir author sought God but rathcr that hc sought him using
such uniquc and unusual languagc.
For thc sakc ol comparison, considcr a pocm writtcn by anothcr
dcvotional poct, Gcorgc Hcrbcrt. A contcmporary ol onncs (his
mothcr was onc ol onncs patronsin lact, onnc dcdicatcd Te
Holy Sonnets to hcr) and also a poct who took holy ordcrs in thc
Anglican Church, Hcrbcrt, likc many writcrs ol thc day, wrcstlcd with
issucs ol laith. !n onc ol his wcllknown pocms, Tc Collar, Hcrbcrt
addrcsscs God, asking, Shall ! cvcr sigh and pinc: (3). Hcrbcrt thcn
asscrts, My lincs and lilc arc lrcc (4), prcsumably bccausc hc wishcs
thcm to bc cxcmpt lrom Gods authority. Likc onnc, Hcrbcrt somc
timcs chalcd at thc constraints ol a Christian lilc, but oltcn, in his
pocms, thc rcsolution to such dicultics comcs morc casily to Hcrbcrt
than it docs to onnc. At thc cnd ol Tc Collar, lor cxamplc, thc
spcakcr says,
8ut as ! ravd and grcw morc crcc and wildc
At cvcry word,
Mc thoughts ! hcard onc calling, Childe:
And ! rcplyd, My Lord. (3336)
Two things arc immcdiatcly apparcnt in thc pocms closing lincs: 1)
thc spcakcr in Tc Collar, likc thc spcakcr ol Te Holy Sonnets, is
lrustratcd about his rclationship with God, and 2) thc spcakcr ol Tc
Collar achicvcs a rcsolution that thc spcakcr ol Te Holy Sonnets docs
not. Notc also that God spcaks in this pocm and that thc spcakcr, in
thc vcry last linc, rcplics to him. Tis docs not ncccssarily imply that
all problcms thc spcakcr has cncountcrcd vanish in thc momcnt ol his
rcply, but, unlikc onncs work, God spcaks dircctly to thc pocms
spcakcr and thcrc is in thc spcakcrs rcply at lcast an acknowlcdgmcnt
ol Gods prcscncc and pcrhaps, in that rccognition, a kind ol comlort
that onnc sccms ncvcr to achicvc.
Tcrc arc, howcvcr, ways that thc spcakcr comlorts himscll
throughout Te Holy Sonnets cvcn as hc sccms to dcspair. nc chicl
way hc docs this is by acknowlcdging his divinc origins. Sonnct !
bcgins, lor cxamplc, with thc qucstion, Tou hast madc mc, and
shall Ty work dccay: (1), and in Sonnct !!, onnc writcs, rst
! was madc/8y Tcc, and lor Tcc, and whcn ! was dccaycd/Ty
John onnc
131
blood bought that, thc which bclorc was Tinc (24). Vhilc thc
spcakcr strugglcs against his lcar ol dcath and dcspairs ol his salva
tion, hc also occasionally cxpcricnccs solacc, il not joy, in rcmcm
bcring that hc is a crcation ol a loving and bcncvolcnt God. Tc
lincs in Sonnct !! clcarly rclcr to thc rcdcmptivc powcr ol Christs
blood, and both quotcs show thc spcakcr rcturning to his origins
and sccking comlort in bcing onc ol Gods crcations. Tc samc can
bc said lor Sonnct \, whcrc thc spcakcr opcns thc pocm with a
dcclaration: ! am a littlc world madc cunningly/l clcmcnts and
an angclic spritc (12).
Tc spcakcrs attcmpts to conncct with God via a rcmcmbrancc ol
his origins is ncvcr, howcvcr, an casy onc. For all that onnc dcsircs
a conncction to dcity, his paradoxical naturc prcvcnts him lrom
achicving thc vcry thing hc sccks. At thc conclusion ol Sonnct X!X,
thc last sonnct in thc scqucncc, thc spcakcr appcars to contradict his
dcsirc to bc rcncwcd by God:
! durst not vicw hcavcn ycstcrday, and today
!n praycrs and attcring spccchcs ! court God:
Tomorrow ! quakc with truc lcar ol his rod.
So my dcvout ts comc and go away
Likc a lantastic aguc, savc that hcrc
Tosc arc my bcst days, whcn ! shakc with lcarc. (914)
Tc paradox ol thc sonncts closing linc could dcscribc thc ovcr
arching thcmc ol thc cntirc scqucncc. Tc lantastic aguc mcntioncd
a lcw lincs carlicr cchocs thc lcarlul shaking ol thc last linc and thc
corrcsponding contradiction that, whcn shaking with lcar, thc spcakcr
cxpcricnccs his bcst days. n thc surlacc, thc spcakcr appcars
miscrablc, lrightcncd ol thc dcity hc sccks so zcalously. Howcvcr, thc
dcscription ol his intcractions with God a lcw lincs carlicr indicatcs
that thc sccming paradox bctwccn bcst days and lcarc arc not as
contradictory as wc might supposc. Hc tclls us that hc court(s) God
with praycrs and attcring spccchcs and thcn quakcs in lcar at his
rod or powcr. Tc rclationship bctwccn calling upon God and thcn
lcaring his rcsponsc cstablishcs that thc spcakcr is accustomcd to such
lcar and, lurthcr, that hc bclicvcs thc proccss will lcad to an cnjoying
ol Gods prcscncc.
Tc Holy Sonncts
132
Tcrc is throughout onncs work a strain ol hopc cvcn whilc hc
laccs thc sccmingly incscapablc miscry that somctimcs accompanics
mortal lilc. !n Meditation XVII lrom Devotions upon Emergent Occa-
sions, hc writcs:
Tribulation is trcasurc in thc naturc ol it, but it is not currcnt
moncy in thc usc ol it, cxccpt wc gct ncarcr and ncarcr our homc,
hcavcn, by it. Anothcr man may bc sick too, and sick to dcath,
and this aiction may lic in his bowcls as gold in a minc and
bc ol no usc to him, but this bcll that tclls mc ol his aiction
digs out and applics that gold to mc, il by this considcration ol
anothcrs dangcrs ! takc minc own into contcmplation and so
sccurc myscll by making my rccoursc to my God, who is our
only sccurity.
According to onnc, thc trials that wc cndurc hcrc arc ablc, il wc
posscss thc corrcct lramc ol mind, to prcparc us to mcct God. Furthcr,
it is not only our own aictions but also thc aictions ol othcrs
that can pcrlorm this task. !l wc posscss cmpathy (considcration ol
anothcrs dangcrs), wc can sccurc oursclvcs by turning to God and
rccognizing that hc is thc only truc sourcc ol comlort.
Anothcr point onnc makcs in Te Holy Sonnets is thc importancc
ol rcalizing thc ccting naturc ol mortality. !n Sonnct \!, hc calls lilc
a racc which is !dly, yct quickly run (23). Tc implicit assumption
in thosc lincs is that, bccausc lilc is so bricl, wc must spcnd our timc
on arth wiscly and usc that short spacc to comc to thc knowlcdgc
ol God and cschcw worldly conccrns. Latcr in that samc pocm, thc
spcakcr mcntions that thc sins hc commits with his carthborn body
will, unlcss hc locuscs on thc divinc, prcss him to hcll. Tis pocm,
likc so many ol thcsc sonncts, cnds with imagcs ol both dcath and
rcbirth: !mputc mc rightcous, thus purgd ol cvil,/For thus ! lcavc
thc world, thc csh, thc dcvil (1314). Tc spcakcr actually looks
lorward to his timc ol dying, that hc might lcavc bchind not only his
corrupt body but also thc dcvils inucncc ovcr it. His dcsirc to bc
rightcous, hc bclicvcs, will allow him to triumph ovcr both csh and
Satan, pcrmitting a doublc victory. !ndccd, in this pocm as in many
othcrs in this scqucncc, onnc rccognizcs that sucring and dcath arc
ncccssary prcrcquisitcs to achicving a highcr planc.
John onnc
133
For onnc, thcn, thc paradoxcs and contradictions inhcrcnt
in Te Holy Sonnets and in lilc itscll arc thc only way to cstablish a
lruitlul rclationship with God. Vhcn thought ol in that contcxt, thc
association ol dcath and joy bccomcs undcrstandablc. onnc can only
cxpcricncc joy whcn hc lccls lcar ol Gods wrathnot bccausc joy
and lcar arc thc samc thing, but bccausc lcaring God mcans that God
is an activc prcscncc in his lilc who guidcs his rcncwal and rcbirth and
aords at lcast thc possibility ol joy.
Tc Holy Sonncts
135
I KNOW WHY THE CAGED BIRD SINGS
(MAYA ANGELOU)
,.
eath, Rebirth, and Renewal in Maya
Angelous I Know Why the Caged Bird Sings
by Robcrt C. vans,
Auburn Univcrsity at Montgomcry
!n an carly and oltcnrcprintcd 1976 cssay on Maya Angclous
autobiographical tcxt I Know Why the Caged Bird Sings, Lilianc K.
Arcnsbcrg argucs in passing that thc work suggcsts a scnsc ol scll as
pcrpctually in thc proccss ol bccoming, ol dying and bcing rcborn,
in all its ramications (115). Latcr, Arcnsbcrg similarly asscrts that
thc cnding ol thc book is in kccping with its authors dcathand
rcbirth lantasy, so that in at lcast two ways Maya Angclou is rcborn:
oncc, into a lilcarming idcntity rccordcd within thc pagcs ol hcr
narrativc, and again, whcn shc rccrcatcs that lilc as author ol hcr
autobiography (126).
nc scgmcnt in particular ol Angclous book sccms worth
cxamining lrom this pcrspcctivc ol mctaphorical dcath giving way
to gurativc lilc, and that is thc crucial scgmcnt in which cight
ycarold Maya is scxually abuscd, and thcn cvcntually rapcd, by hcr
mothcrs livcin boylricnd, thc ironically namcd Mr. Frccman, who
accomplishcs his dccds without thc knowlcdgc ol anyonc clsc in thc
houschold. vcntually thc rapc and abusc arc accidcntally discovcrcd
(Mr. Frccman had thrcatcncd to harm both Maya and hcr bclovcd
brothcr, 8ailcy, il Maya rcvcalcd what had happcncd). Frccman is
placcd on trial, Maya, during tcstimony, rcluscs to acknowlcdgc that
136
thcrc had bccn any contact bctwccn thcm bclorc thc rapc itscll, and
thcn Frccman, whilc tcmporarily lrcc, is lound dcadprcsumably
murdcrcd by somc ol Mayas lcarsomc malc rclativcs. Young Maya
lccls guilty lor having bccn lcss than cntircly honcst during hcr tcsti
mony. Shc blamcs hcrscll, in part, lor Frccmans dcath, and shc lapscs
into an cxtcndcd silcncc that lasts until shc is ultimatcly pcrsuadcd to
spcak again by an cldcrly lricnd ol thc lamily namcd 8crtha Flowcrs.
Tis wholc cpisodc, thcn, cpitomizcs thc pattcrn ol dying and bcing
rcborn that Arcnsbcrg has idcnticd as crucial to Angclous cntirc
book.
!n hcr initial dcscriptions ol Mr. Frccman, thc rstpcrson
narrator ol Angclous work dcscribcs him as a kind ol pathctic crca
turc who noncthclcss posscsscs a ccrtain appcal: Mr. Frccman movcd
gracclully, likc a big brown bcar, and scldom spokc to us |i.c., to thc
childrcn|. Hc simply waitcd lor Mothcr and put his wholc scll into
thc waiting. Hc ncvcr rcad thc papcr or pattcd his loot to thc radio.
Hc waitcd. Tat was all (69). Frccmans passivity and lack ol activity
will latcr comc to sccm highly ironic in light ol thc pcrvcrsc initia
tivc hc takcs latcr in thc book, but lor thc momcnt hc sccms almost
humiliatingly dcpcndcnt on Mayas mothcr: !l shc camc homc bclorc
wc wcnt to bcd, wc saw thc man comc alivc. Hc would start out ol thc
big chair, likc a man coming out ol slccp, smiling (69). For thc most
part, though, hc sccms borcd, boring, untalcntcd (hc couldnt dancc
|70|), and an objcct ol both pity and condcsccnsion, cvcn on thc part
ol thc cightycarold Maya:
! lclt sorry lor Mr. Frccman. ! lclt sorry lor him as ! had
lclt lor a littcr ol hclplcss pigs born in our backyard sty in
Arkansas. Vc lattcncd thc pigs all ycar long lor slaughtcr on
thc rst good lrost, and cvcn as ! sucrcd lor thc cutc littlc
wiggly things, ! kncw how much ! was going to cnjoy thc
lrcsh sausagc and hogs hcadchccsc thcy would givc mc only
with thcir dcaths. (70)
Tc phrasing in this passagc sccms ironic in light ol latcr cvcnts. Maya
imagincs hcrscll in a position ol supcriority to Frccman, but latcr, ol
coursc, thcir rolcs will bc prcciscly rcvcrscd. Frccman will indccd dic
during thc coursc ol this tcxt, but in anothcr way, so will young Maya.
Maya Angclou
137
Tc dicrcncc is that Maya will bc symbolically rcborn. For thc timc
bcing, howcvcr, Maya can assumc a kind ol supcriority to Frccman:
His brcasts, shc mcntions, uscd to cmbarrass mc whcn hc walkcd
around in his undcrshirt. Tcy lay on his chcst likc at tittics (67).
Tis commcnt will latcr sccm doublccdgcd whcn Frccman dccidcs
to asscrt his masculinity in a most disgusting way.
Partly as a rcsult ol typical childhood nightmarcs, young Maya is
allowcd to sharc thc bcd in which hcr mothcr and Mr. Frccman slccp.
Tis arrangcmcnt lcads to an cvcnt lar morc horric than any night
marc Maya could havc imagincd, lor whcn hcr mothcr ariscs carly
onc morning and lcavcs thc young girl and Frccman in bcd togcthcr,
Maya awakcs to a prcssurc, a strangc lccling on my lclt lcg. !t was
too solt to bc a hand, and it wasnt thc touch ol clothcs (70). Shc
discovcrs that it is Mr. Frccmans thing on hcr lcg (71). !ronically,
thcn, hcr proccss ol litcral awakcning plungcs hcr into a strangc kind
ol darkncssan immoral darkncss cngcndcrcd by Frccman and a
psychological darkncss, or cognitivc conlusion, cxpcricnccd by Maya
hcrscll. Shc docsnt, at rst, know what to think: ! wasnt alraid, a
littlc apprchcnsivc, maybc, but not alraid (71).
Vhcn Frccman, now lully cxposcd, pulls hcr on top ol him, shc
notcs, his hcart was bcating so hard that ! was alraid that hc would
dic. Ghost storics rcvcalcd how pcoplc who dicd wouldnt lct go ol
whatcvcr thcy wcrc holding. ! wondcrcd il Mr. Frccman dicd holding
mc how ! would cvcr gct lrcc (71). All thc imagcry ol dcath hcrc is,
ol coursc, highly rclcvant to thc thcmc ol rcbirth and rcncwal. Young
Maya thinks that Frccman may prcscntly dic, but it is actually shc
who will cxpcricncc a kind ol symbolic dcath as a rcsult ol this wholc
cpisodc and its altcrmath. And yct Frccman, too, will litcrally dic as a
conscqucncc ol his actions, and Mayas guilt ovcr his dcath will kccp
hcr in a kind ol bondagc to hima kind ol cmotional and psycholog
ical dcathlor a long timc altcr hc is killcd. Hc will, indccd, kccp on
holding hcr long altcr hc cxpircs, hc will bccomc a kind ol ghost
who will haunt hcr imagination.
For now, howcvcr, thc young girl discovcrs that shc cnjoys aspccts
ol this strangc ncw intimacy with Mr. Frccman: Hc hcld mc so soltly
that ! wishcd hc wouldnt cvcr lct mc go. ! lclt at homc. !ronically,
shc thinks that lrom thc way hc was holding mc ! kncw hcd ncvcr
lct mc go or lct anything bad cvcr happcn to mc (71). Shc cvcn
! Know Vhy thc Cagcd 8ird Sings
138
lantasizcs that hc was probably my rcal lathcr and wc had lound
cach othcr at last (71). Shc associatcs him with thc sourcc ol hcr
own bcing and cxistcncc, but this association is shortlivcd. Altcr Mr.
Frccman quickly ariscs lrom thc bcd and hcads lor thc bathroom and
latcr thrcatcns to kill hcr brothcr il Maya tclls what has happcncd, hc
bccomcs an obvious symbol ol litcral and gurativc dcath (7172).
Hc will rcmain such a symbol, in onc way or anothcr, lor thc rcst
ol his lilc and cvcn bcyond his dcath. Until thcn, Maya notcs that
thcrc was ncvcr any qucstion ol my disliking Mr. Frccman. ! simply
didnt undcrstand him . . . (7273). Frccman, mcanwhilc, now trcats
hcr with a gru distancc, dcspitc hcr dcsirc lor lurthcr contact. Hcr
pcculiar ncw intimacy with him sccms, thcrclorc, to havc bccn born
quickly and thcn to havc sucrcd just as quick a dcath. !t is bricy
and incomplctcly rcvivcd (at Mayas initiativc), but thcn it dics oncc
morc (73).
For months, shc thcn rcports, hc stoppcd spcaking to mc
again, this lorcshadows hcr own cxtcndcd silcncc latcr in thc tcxt.
Maya cntcrtains hcrscll by rcading lantasy storics and ncwspapcr
comicssymbols ol a navc, youthlul innoccncc that will soon cnd
lorcvcr (74). Tc crucial turning point occurs onc morning whcn
Maya is summoncd by Frccman, whosc pants wcrc opcn and whosc
thing was standing out ol his britchcs by itscll (75). Tis timc,
whcn Maya asscrts a ncwlound scnsc ol rcsistancc and indcpcndcncc,
Frccman grabbcd my arm and pullcd mc bctwccn his lcgs (75). Hc
now rapcs hcr, thrcatcning to kill hcr il shc scrcams and to kill hcr
young brothcr il shc tclls. Frccmans lunction as a symbol ol dcath in
this cpisodc is all too clcar, cspccially whcn Maya rccounts thc phys
ical violcncc and cxcruciating pain ol thc rapc. Tc thcmatic cmphasis
on dcath bccomcs quitc cxplicit whcn shc rcports, ! thought ! had
dicd! wokc up in a whitcwallcd world, and it had to bc hcavcn.
8ut Mr. Frccman was thcrc and hc was washing mc (76). Tc irony
ol Frccman washing thc child hc has just mctaphorically pollutcd
and dirticd is clcar, and it also sccms ironic that, to gct hcr out ol thc
housc, hc scnds hcr to thc public library, a symbol ol all that is most
rational and civilizcd in any culturc.
Maya is in cnormous pain, and whcn shc rcturns homc, hcr
mothcr assumcs that shc must bc sick, not rcalizing that Frccman is
Maya Angclou
139
thc rcal sourcc ol illncss in thc housc. ncc again, Frccman sccrctly
thrcatcns to kill Maya il shc rcvcals thc truth, and altcr Frccman
lcavcs thc housc lollowing an argumcnt with Mayas mothcr, Maya
again imagincs that shc is dying. Shc notcs, ! longcd lor dcath, but
! didnt want to dic anywhcrc ncar Mr. Frccman. ! kncw that cvcn
now hc wouldnt havc allowcd dcath to havc mc unlcss hc wishcd
it to (80). Mayas brothcr accidcntally discovcrs thc soilcd pantics
shc had hiddcn, and only thcn is thc sccrct at last uncovcrcd. Maya
is hospitalizcd, thc thrcats ol dcath arc nally rcvcalcd, Frccman
is apprchcndcd and arrcstcd, and a trial is hcld. !n thc courtroom,
Frccmans lawycrs try to gct Maya to conlcss to intimatc contact
long bclorc thc rapc so thcy can makc hcr sccm partly rcsponsiblc lor
thc crimc. cspitc lccling guilty about lying, Maya dcnics any such
contact, cvcn though it did occur. Frccman is convictcd and is givcn
a scntcncc ol onc ycar and onc day (83), hc is bricy rclcascd and
thcn latcr is lound dcad on thc lot bchind thc slaughtcrhousc (a
highly appropriatc location that rccalls thc slaughtcrcdpig imagcry
lrom carlicr in thc tcxt |83|).
Rathcr than lccling any joy or rclicl at Frccmans dcath, howcvcr,
Maya lccls somc guilt: A man was dcad bccausc ! licd. Vhcrc was
thc balancc in that: nc lic surcly wouldnt bc worth a mans lilc,
shc notcs in a scntcncc that niccly balanccs thc words lic and lilc
(84). !n rcsponsc to Frccmans litcral, physical dcath, Maya comcs
to lccl that shc dcscrvcs an ctcrnal, spiritual dcath: bviously ! had
lorlcitcd my placc in hcavcn lorcvcr. . . . vcn Christ turncd his back
on Satan. Vouldnt hc turn his back on mc: (84). Partly as a way to
punish hcrscll lor hcr traumatic scnsc ol guilt, Maya plungcs hcrscll
into a world ol isolatcd silcncc:
! had sold myscll to thc cvil and thcrc could bc no cscapc.
Tc only thing ! could do was to stop talking to pcoplc othcr
than 8ailcy. !nstinctivcly, or somchow, ! kncw that bccausc !
lovcd him so much !d ncvcr hurt him, but il ! talkcd to anyonc
clsc that pcrson might dic too. Just my brcath, carrying my
words out, might poison pcoplc and thcyd curl up and dic likc
thc black lat slugs that only prctcndcd.
! had to stop talking. (85)
! Know Vhy thc Cagcd 8ird Sings
140
Tat last, wondcrlully bricl, oncparagraph scntcncc mimics thc vcry
rcticcncc it announccs. Having bccn plungcd into a kind ol mctaphor
ical dcath by Mr. Frccman and thcn having causcd (at lcast to hcr own
way ol thinking) Frccmans dcath by hcr lailurc to tcll thc wholc truth,
Maya comcs to considcr hcrscll an agcnt ol dcath and thus commits a
kind ol prccmptivc communicativc suicidc.
At rst hcr rclativcs arc undcrstanding, but soon thcy bccomc
annoycd and lrustratcd: Vhcn ! rcluscd to bc thc child thcy kncw
and acccptcd mc to bc, ! was callcd impudcnt and my mutcncss
sullcnncss. !ndccd, lor a whilc ! was punishcd lor bcing so uppity
that ! wouldnt spcak, and thcn camc thc thrashings, givcn by any
rclativc who lclt himscll ocndcd (85). Tc ironics lurking within
this passagc arc numcrous. Tc child who is dcprcsscd and who trics
to cast hcrscll down is accuscd ol bcing uppity, thc child who lccls
humiliatcd, guiltriddcn, and ashamcd is accuscd ol bcing impudcnt,
thc child who has dcsccndcd into silcncc thanks to psychic trauma is
thcn punishcd by physical abusc not unlikc thc mistrcatmcnt that
ultimatcly lcd to thc initial trauma. Latcr, having rcturncd to thc
small town in Arkansas whcrc hcr grandmothcr livcs, Maya lccls that
shc has cntcrcd a kind ol cocoon (86), this imagc implics isolation,
scclusion, and cvcn protcction, but it also promiscs rcbirth.
For almost a ycar Maya rctains hcr gcncral silcnccuntil shc has a
crucial cncountcr with a poiscd, intclligcnt, and wisc old black woman
namcd 8crtha Flowcrs, also callcd Sistcr Flowcrs by Mayas grand
mothcr. Tc various namcs ol this woman (also callcd Mrs. Flowcrs)
sccm divcrscly symbolic. !t would probably bc pushing an argumcnt
too lar to suggcst that hcr rst namc links hcr with thc idca ol birth,
but clcarly hcr last namc links hcr with thc imagcry ol springtimc,
bcauty, and vitality. As Sistcr Flowcrs shc is, morcovcr, a kind ol
mctaphorical mcmbcr ol an cxtcndcd lamily, cvcn though shc attcnds
a dicrcnt church than docs Mayas grandmothcr. !n any casc, Mrs.
Flowcrs rcprcscnts to Maya all that sccms worthy about human cxis
tcncc: Shc was onc ol thc lcw gcntlcwomcn ! havc cvcr known, and
has rcmaincd throughout my lilc thc mcasurc ol what a human bcing
can bc (91). !t is largcly thanks to Mrs. Flowcrs that Mayas human
spiritas wcll as thc human capacity lor spccchis rcborn.
!n contrast to thc constant usc ol dcath imagcry associatcd with
Mr. Frccman, thc lcw uscs ol such imagcry in conncction with Mrs.
Maya Angclou
141
Flowcrs arc mcrcly humorous. Tus Mayas grandmothcr (who is
callcd Momma), to display hcr own skill as a drcssmakcr, pulls
Mayas skirt up ovcr Mayas hcad bclorc thc girl can rcsist (a comic
invcrsion ol thc carlicr rapc). !n rcsponsc, Maya is morticd:
! wouldnt look at cithcr ol thcm. Momma hadnt thought
that taking o my drcss in lront ol Mrs. Flowcrs would havc
killcd mc stonc dcad. . . . Mrs. Flowcrs had known that !
would bc cmbarrasscd and that was cvcn worsc. . . . !t would
bc tting il ! got sunstrokc and dicd. . . . Just droppcd dcad on
thc slanting porch. (94)
All thc imagcry ol dcath hcrc, unlikc thc usc ol similar imagcry
in conncction with Mr. Frccman, mcrcly provokcs smilcs, and thc
adult narrator is, in rctrospcct, amuscd at hcr own youthlul cmbar
rassmcnt. Mrs. Flowcrs symbolizcs thc oppositc ol anything associ
atcd with dcath, shc is thus thc oppositcthc cxtrcmc antitypcol
Mr. Frccman. Shc rcprcscnts spiritual lilc, cmotional rcncwal, and
psychological rcbirth, whcrcas hc rcprcscntcd only physical dcgrada
tion and abusc.
Mrs. Flowcrs, lor onc thing, trcats Maya with thc rcspcct and
conccrn that had bccn grossly violatcd by Mr. Frccman. Shc calls
Maya by hcr lormal namc ol Margucritc, and instcad ol trying to
cajolc or cvcn thrcatcn thc girl into brcaking hcr silcncc, shc spcaks
to hcr with kindncss and rcason. Now no onc is going to makc
you talkpossibly no onc can. 8ut bcar in mind, languagc is mans
way ol communicating with his lcllow man and it is languagc alonc
which scparatcs him lrom thc lowcr animals. Tat was a totally ncw
idca to mc, Maya rcmarks, and ! would nccd timc to think about
it (95). Mrs. Flowcrs thus provokcs thc vcry kind ol rationality and
thoughtlulncss shc praiscs. Shc, thc adult, docs not try to lorcc hcr
will upon Maya, thc child (as Mr. Frccman had so dcspicably donc),
instcad, shc trcats Maya as an cqual. Shc addrcsscs hcr not as a child,
nor cvcn as a lcllow lcmalc, nor cvcn as an Alrican Amcrican, instcad,
shc addrcsscs hcr as a lcllow human bcing, thcrcby both displaying
and bcstowing dignity. Shc makcs it clcar to Maya that by dcnying
hcr own spccch, Maya is dcnying hcr own humanity, shc is killing
thc vcry thing that makcs hcr most human. To rclusc to spcak is to
! Know Vhy thc Cagcd 8ird Sings
142
bchavc likc an animal (as Mr. Frccman had also donc, in his own
pcrvcrsc way). !n contrast, to choosc to spcak is to acknowlcdgc and
arm oncs human worth. To do so is to bc rcborn and rcncwcd as a
lully human bcing.
Mrs. Flowcrs givcs Maya hcr timc, shc shows Maya hcr conccrn,
shc prcscnts Maya with books, and shc cncouragcs Maya to rcad thosc
books aloud. Vords mcan morc, shc tclls Maya, than what is sct
down on papcr. !t takcs thc human voicc to inlusc thcm with dccpcr
shadcs ol mcaning (95). Vhcrcas Mr. Frccman scldom spokc (69)
to Maya, and thcn spokc mainly to cajolc or thrcatcn, Mrs. Flowcrs
spcaks cloqucntly and thoughtlully. !ndccd, thc only thrcat Mrs.
Flowcr cvcr issucs is an obviously comic onc: !ll acccpt no cxcusc il
you rcturn a book to mc that has bccn badly handlcd. !n rcsponsc,
Mayas imagination bogglcd at thc punishmcnt ! would dcscrvc il in
lact ! did abusc a book ol Mrs. Flowcrs. cath would bc too kind
and bricl (95). Tc mcntion ol dcath hcrc is mcrcly an obvious, cxag
gcratcd jokc, whcrcas with Mr. Frccman any mcntion ol dcath had
sccmcd lrightcningly rcal.
Mrs. Flowcrs sccms associatcd with lilc and vitality, and not
only bccausc ol hcr intcllcct, hcr kindncss, hcr scllrcspcct, and hcr
rcspcct lor othcrs. Hcr housc is llcd with wondcrlul smclls associ
atcd with nourishmcnt and hcalth: Tc odors in thc housc surpriscd
mc. Somchow ! had ncvcr conncctcd Mrs. Flowcrs with lood or
cating or any othcr common cxpcricncc ol common pcoplc. . . . Tc
swcct sccnt ol vanilla had mct us as shc opcncd thc door (96). Shc
ocrs Maya cookics and lcmonadc and also a litcral and gurativc
scat at hcr tablc. As Maya rcports, As ! atc shc bcgan thc rst ol
what wc latcr callcd my lcssons in living (97). Physical nutrition,
thcn, is combincd with spiritual, intcllcctual, and cmotional sustc
nancc, and whcn Mrs. Flowcrs rcads lrom a ickcns novcl, Maya
lccls as il shc is hcaring poctry lor thc rst timc in my lilc (97).
Shc lccls as il shc is suddcnly alivc in a way shc had not bccn bclorc.
!n all thcsc numcrous ways, Mrs. Frccman is a powcrlul symbol
and agcnt ol Mayas rcncwal and rcbirth, ol hcr cscapc lrom dark
ncss and silcncc, ol hcr rcinitiation into thc human racc and ol hcr
growing cmcrgcncc into adulthood. Mrs. Flowcrs is not only thc
antitypc ol Mr. Frccman, shc is his vcry potcnt antidotc as wcll.
Shc is, as Maya mcmorably and rctrospcctivcly puts it, thc lady
Maya Angclou
143
who thrcw mc my rst lilc linc (90) and thus prcvcntcd hcr lrom
drowning thc mctaphorical dcath ol scllimposcd mutcncss.
WORKS CITED OR CONSULTED
Angclou, Maya. I Know Why the Caged Bird Sings. Ncw York: Random Housc,
2002.
Arcnsbcrg, Lilianc K. cath as Mctaphor ol Scll. Maya Angelous ! Know
Vhy thc Cagcd 8ird Sings: A Casebook. d. Joannc M. 8raxton. Ncw
York: xlord U P, 1999. 11127.
8raxton, Joannc M. Black Women Writing Autobiography: A Tradition Within a
Tradition. Philadclphia: Tcmplc U P, 1989.
Froula, Christinc. Tc aughtcrs Scduction: Scxual \iolcncc and Litcrary
History. Signs 11:4 (1986): 62144.
Gilbcrt, Susan. Maya Angclous I Know Why the Caged Bird Sings: Paths to
scapc. Mount Olive Review 1.1 (1987): 3950.
Hord, Frcd Lcc. Reconstructing Memory: Black Literary Criticism. Chicago:
Tird Vorld Prcss, 1991.
Lionnct, Franoisc. Autobiographical Voices: Race, Gender, Self-Portraiture.
!thaca: Corncll U P, 1989.
\crmillion, Mary. Rccmbodying thc Scll: Rcprcscntations ol Rapc in
Incidents in the Life of a Slave Girl and I Know Why the Caged Bird Sings.
Biography: An Interdisciplinary Quarterly 15.1 (1992): 24360.
! Know Vhy thc Cagcd 8ird Sings
145
KING LEAR
(WILLIAMSHAKESPEARE)
,.
Rebirth and Renewal
in Shakespeares King Lear
by Gary ttari,
thc Univcrsity ol North Carolina at Ashcvillc
Tc subjcct ol rcbirth and rcncwal in King Lear is a complcx onc, in
part bccausc so much ol thc play locuscs on disordcr, conlusion, and
bctrayal. Tc play bcgins, in lact, with both pcrsonal and political
uphcaval. !n thc rst sccnc, wc arc introduccd to two lamilics,
Glouccstcrs, consisting ol Glouccstcr and his two sons, dmund and
dgar, and Lcars, consisting ol Lcar and his thrcc daughtcrs, Rcgan,
Goncril, and Cordclia. Signicantly, both lamilics lack a wilc/mothcr
gurc, mcaning thc play bcgins with a vaguc lccling ol incomplctc
ncss or abscncc. nc ol Glouccstcrs sons, dmund, is illcgitimatc. !n
lizabcthan drama, bastards arc gcncrally villains. Tis is in part duc
to thc cultural codcs ol thc day: A bastard, a pcrson who was born out
ol wcdlock, was automatically disinhcritcd bccausc nglish laws and
customs did not mandatc that childrcn born out ol wcdlock nccdcd
to bc lormally acknowlcdgcd cithcr in oncs will or, in thc casc ol
nobility, with a titlc. Tus, most bastards in thc drama ol thc day wcrc
drivcn to achicvc what thcy bclicvcd was rightlully thcirs cvcn though
thc customs ol thc day did not acknowlcdgc that to bc thc casc.
Most ol thc disordcr in thc play, in lact, rcsults lrom thc various
mcmbcrs ol cach lamily trying to obtain thcir dcsircs via othcr
mcmbcrs ol thc lamily. For dmund, achicving thc lcgitimacy and
146
lathcrly attcntion hc cravcs involvcs schcming against his lcgitimatc
brothcr, dgar, who is highly lavorcd by Glouccstcr. !n onc part ol a
wcllknown spccch lrom Act !, dmund says:
Vcll thcn,
Lcgitimatc dgar, ! must havc your land:
|. . .|
il this lcttcr spccd,
And my invcntion thrivc, dmund thc basc
Shall top thc lcgitimatc. ! grow, ! prospcr:
Now, gods, stand up lor bastards! (1.2. 1516, 1821)
8y lorging a lcttcr in his brothcr dgars hand, dmund hopcs to
disinhcrit dgar and gain lor himscll thc land hcld by his lathcr.
Tc closing lincs ol thc quotc dcmonstratc dmunds lrustration at
his lot in lilc. Hc calls upon thc gods to lavor bastards in part out ol
lrustration bccausc hc lccls up to this point as il thcy havc lavorcd his
lcgitimatc brothcr dgar.
dmunds schcming is rclativcly straightlorward whcn comparcd
with thc prcdicamcnt ol King Lcar and his daughtcrs. An old man,
Lcar wishcs to givc up his kingdom. Hc has dividcd it into thirds
with thc intcntion ol giving onc third ol thc kingdom to cach ol
his thrcc daughtcrs so that Lcar may, in his own words, crawl
unburthcnd towards dcath (1.1.32). Tc only thing Lcar rcquircs
ol his daughtcrs is a prolcssion ol lovc lrom cach. Hc csscntially
makcs thcsc prolcssions a contcst by asking, which ol you shall wc
say doth lovc us most: (1.1.42). Goncril and Rcgan, thc two oldcst
daughtcrs, givc claboratc, hypcrbolic, and insinccrc rcplics to thcir
lathcr. 8ccausc Lcar sccks attcry and cannot disccrn thc dicr
cncc bctwccn truth and lalschood, thcsc rcplics plcasc him. Vhcn
his youngcst daughtcr, Cordclia, answcrs in plain, honcst languagc
(! lovc your majcsty/According to my bond, no morc nor lcss),
Lcar bccomcs outragcd, disinhcrits Cordclia, and dividcs hcr third
bctwccn Rcgan and Goncril (1.1.834). Hc banishcs Cordclia lrom
his kingdom, and cvcn though Cordclia is now disinhcritcd, thc
king ol Francc, who was visiting Lcars court to scck hcr hand, still
agrccs to marry hcr. Vhcn Lcars laithlul scrvant, Kcnt, spcaks up
to dclcnd Cordclia, hc, too, is banishcd. Tc dccisions Lcar makcs
Villiam Shakcspcarc
147
in this sccnc havc many conscqucnccs, but it is important to notc
anothcr troubling aspcct ol Lcars charactcr. Tc main rcason hc
lcavcs his land to his daughtcrs is that hc docs not want to continuc
bcing king. 8ccausc so much ol thc plays disordcr rcsults lrom
Lcars dcsirc to rid himscll ol thc burdcns ol kingship, it is salc to
prcsumc that Shakcspcarc was trying to highlight thc importancc ol
taking oncs political and pcrsonal rcsponsibilitics scriously. !n largc
part, it is bccausc Lcar wants to bc unburthcnd that hc makcs thc
loolish dccisions hc docs.
Tc play thcrclorc bcgins with a scrics ol lamilial and political
disruptions, and thc last lour and a hall acts ol thc play arc a closc
study ol what pcoplc do whcn thcy conlront both domcstic and
cosmic disordcr. dgar, Glouccstcrs lcgitimatc son, lor cxamplc,
gocs into hiding bccausc dmund showcd his lathcr a lorgcd lcttcr,
purporting to bc lrom dgar, in which dgar supposcdly discusscs
murdcring Glouccstcr lor his propcrty. Cordclia, disinhcritcd and
without propcrty or a placc to livc, is shown pity by thc king ol
Francc, who proposcs marriagc to hcr. Cordclia thcn lcavcs ngland
to livc in Francc with hcr ncw husband. Lcar, too, bccomcs dispos
scsscd and homclcss. Having dividcd his kingdom in two, his plan is
to stay with cach ol his daughtcrs in turn. Howcvcr, oncc Rcgan and
Goncril gain thcir rcspcctivc halvcs ol thc kingdom, cach banishcs hcr
lathcr lrom hcr housc.
8y thc conclusion ol Act 2, most ol thc plays charactcrs arc bcrclt
ol both lamily and shcltcr. Signicantly, many arc wandcring in thc
wildcrncss. !t is a lamiliar pattcrn in Shakcspcarcan comcdy to placc
charactcrs lrom a morc civilizcd world into a lorcst or othcr grccn
spacc in ordcr that thcy might gain a ncw pcrspcctivc and rcturn to
civilizcd socicty changcd lor thc bcttcr. Tc grccn world, as critic
Northrop Fryc callcd it, has a powcrlul ccct upon thosc who vcnturc
into it. Vhilc King Lear is a tragcdy and not a comcdy, thc play uscs
thc grccn spacc to bcgin to hclp charactcrs hcal thcmsclvcs.
Tc rolc that naturc plays in Lear is a multilacctcd onc. !t is
important to rcmcmbcr that naturc in this play can rclcr to many
things: to human naturc, to thc natural world, or to thc largcr, almost
cosmic scnsc ol Naturc as thc ordcring principlc ol thc univcrsc. All
ol thcsc manilcstations ol naturc arc at play in King Lear. ncc Lcar
has bccn banishcd lrom thc houscs ol both his oldcr daughtcrs, lor
King Lcar
148
cxamplc, hc and his lool simply wandcr in thc wildcrncss, allowing
naturc an opportunity to bring about changc in thc plays charactcrs.
As Lcar and his lool scck shcltcr out on thc hcath, a storm comcs
up, rathcr than scck shcltcr, Lcar wclcomcs thc storm, addrcssing it
dircctly cvcn as it ragcs around him:
Rumblc thy bcllylul! Spit, rc! Spout, rain!
Nor rain, wind, thundcr, rc arc my daughtcrs.
! tax not you, you clcmcnts, with unkindncss,
! ncvcr gavc you kingdom, calld you childrcn,
You owc mc no subscription. Tcn lct lall
Your horriblc plcasurc. Hcrc ! stand your slavc,
A poor, inrm, wcak, and dcspisd old man (3.2. 1420).
!n this spccch, Lcar bcgins to rcalizc thc crror ol his ways. Although
hc is still bittcr about his daughtcrs banishing him, hc also rccognizcs
his own statc, hc is a poor, inrm, wcak and dcspisd old man and
not thc king hc oncc was. Hc rccognizcs that hc is at thc mcrcy ol thc
horriblc plcasurc ol thc clcmcnts, and hc thcrclorc bcgins to humblc
himscll whcn laccd with a powcr grcatcr than hc can command.
Many ol thc plays othcr translormations takc placc away lrom
civilization as wcll. dgar, thc banishcd brothcr ol dmund, disguiscs
himscll as a madman namcd Tom 8cdlam and inhabits thc samc
wildcrncss as Lcar and his lool. !ronically, dgar mccts his lathcr,
Glouccstcr, who has bccn blindcd by Cornwall, Rcgans husband, and
joins thc plays othcr charactcrs in thc wildcrncss. Failing to rccognizc
his voicc, Glouccstcr asks Tom 8cdlam to lcad him to thc top ol
onc ol thc ovcr clis so hc may jump and cnd his lilc. dgar agrccs
to lcad Glouccstcr up to thc cli but instcad kccps him on lcvcl ground
and tclls him hc is at thc cdgc ol thc cli. Glouccstcr thanks him,
knccls to say a nal praycr, and thcn jumps o what hc bclicvcs to bc
a cli. At this point, dgar takcs on anothcr disguisc and prctcnds to
bc somconc at thc bottom ol thc cli who saw Glouccstcr oat down.
Altcr bcing convinccd that hc lcll lrom a grcat hcight, Glouccstcr
ccascs to dcspair and rcsolvcs to livc as long as hc can: Hcncclorth !ll
bcar/Aiction till it do cry out itscll/nough, cnough, and dic (4.4.
7577). Glouccstcr, likc Lcar, has bccn humblcd by his circumstanccs
and now sccs his lilc in a dicrcnt light.
Villiam Shakcspcarc
149
Tcrc is, howcvcr, a kcy dicrcncc bctwccn Glouccstcr and Lcar.
!n 4.6, Lcar cncountcrs thc blind Glouccstcr and cxprcsscs skcpti
cism about a blind mans ability to pcrccivc things, ironically dcmon
strating his own lack ol vision:
Lcar: ho, arc you thcrc with mc: No cycs in your hcad, nor
no moncy in your pursc: Your cycs arc in a hcavy casc, your
pursc in a light, yct you scc how this world gocs.
Glouccstcr: ! scc it lcclingly.
Lcar: Vhat, art thou mad:
Lcars inability to undcrstand thc changc that Glouccstcr has undcr
gonc signals that hc has yct to takc thc nal stcps in thc translorma
tion lrom arrogancc to humility, lrom blindncss to sight. Glouccstcr,
howcvcr, dcspitc his blindncss, has bccomc morc awarc ol thc
world around him and, cvcn morc importantly, morc cmpathctic to
thc pcoplc in it. Tat hc now sccs lcclingly indicatcs that hc has
acquircd cmpathy and is thus ablc to lccl his way through thc world,
not only with his hands, but with his bcing.
Many ol thc translormations undcrgonc by thc main charactcrs
arc partly thc rcsult ol thosc charactcrs bcing rcmovcd lrom thcir
milicu at court and at homc and transportcd to thc rcalm ol naturc.
!n Shakcspcarcs timc, thc vicw ol naturc was hcavily inucnccd by
classical Grcck and Roman pastoral poctry, strctching as lar back
as thc work ol Tcocritus, a Hcllcnistic Grcck writcr who our
ishcd in thc third ccntury n.c.v. Most ol thc work produccd by
Tcocritus and othcr Grcck and Roman pocts, such as \irgil in his
Ecologues, ocrcd a highly idcalizcd vcrsion ol country lilc, locusing
mainly on thc livcs ol shcphcrds who tcndcd thcir ocks in clds
and mcadows. Most ol thcsc works dcscribcd thc shcphcrds lilc as
simplc, casy, and lull ol lcisurc. Many writcrs ol thc nglish Rcnais
sancc wcrc inucnccd by thcsc carlicr works and produccd thcir
own poctry, which oltcn cxprcsscd a dcsirc to rcturn to a simplcr
lilc. Christophcr Marlowc, in his wcllknown pocm, A Passionatc
Shcphcrd to His Lovc writcs:
Comc livc with mc and bc my Lovc,
And wc will all thc plcasurcs provc
King Lcar
150
Tat hills and vallcys, dalc and cld,
And all thc craggy mountains yicld.
Tcrc will wc sit upon thc rocks
And scc thc shcphcrds lccd thcir ocks,
8y shallow rivcrs, to whosc lalls
Mclodious birds sing madrigals. (18)
Tat nglish Rcnaissancc writcrs would adopt thc idcalizcd vcrsion
ol naturc lrom thc classical pastoral pocts is undcrstandablc. Most
carly modcrn playwrights, cspccially thc lizabcthans, would, il thcy
wantcd to bc succcsslul, cnd up in London, a largc and bustling city.
Also, many lizabcthan writcrs wcrc at court, a placc that ocrcd
opportunitics lor advanccmcnt but that also was lraught with political
intriguc and dangcr, making thc simplc, pastoral lilc sccm at timcs
morc appcaling (scc, lor cxamplc, Sir Tomas Vyatts pocm Minc
own John Poinz).
Tc natural world lor lizabcthans, thcn, ocrcd a rcspitc lrom
thc carcs ol city and court lilc. !n Shakcspcarcs plays, particularly thc
comcdics, this dcsirc lor simplicity rcsults in thc sctting ol thc play
changing lrom thc court to thc country. !n thc comcdics A Midsummer
Nights Dream and As You Like It, lor cxamplc, thc dicultics laccd by
thc charactcrs at court arc rcsolvcd altcr thc charactcrs spcnd a substan
tial amount ol cach plays timc in thc grccn world ol thc lorcst. !t
is casy to scc a similar pattcrn in King Lear, cspccially givcn thc rolc
ol thc storm and thc prcpondcrancc ol thc action that takcs placc out
on thc nglish hcath, but thcrc arc also subtlc dicrcnccs as wcll. For
cxamplc, naturc in Lear is not quitc as lricndly or inviting as it is in thc
comcdics. !t is harshcr and morc dangcrous, and it docs not ocr casy
solutions. Tis is pcrhaps bccausc in this play, Naturc has morc work
to do than to rcunitc lovcrs or smooth ovcr courtly quarrcls, it must
rcdccm a king, rcunily two brokcn lamilics, and stabilizc a kingdom.
Sincc Glouccstcr is blind and Lcar has bcgun to bc humblcd,
thc proccss ol sctting things right has bcgun. Howcvcr, bccausc ol
thc plays tragic undcrtonc, thcrc can bc ncithcr rcbirth nor rcncwal
without loss. Many critics havc argucd that this rccognition ol losss
ncccssity is onc ol thc chicl lcaturcs ol Shakcspcarcs latc plays, and
Lear is no cxccption. !n lact, onc ol thc ironics ol thc play is that
Villiam Shakcspcarc
151
while Gloucester and Lear are moving from arrogance and blindness
to a state of empathy and humility, other characters are descending
further into the chaos of the disrupted kingdom. Cordelia, now the
queen of France, is back on English soil with her husbands invading
army. Edmund, who has been having romantic dalliances with both
Regan and Goneril, is now the head of Regans army and is leading
that army to meet the invading French troops. Edgar, disguised now
as an ordinary peasant, leads his father, Gloucester, to a safe place and
joins the battle on the side of France and Lear. Just as the personal
and political spheres were both disrupted at the beginning of the play,
they are now brought together again.
Te armies clash and Lears side loses, with the result that Lear
and Cordelia are both captured; this provides father and daughter
a momentary sense of despair at the defeat of their army and their
imprisonment. However, Edgar reveals to Gonerils husband, Albany,
that Goneril plotted to kill him and there is a division in Regan and
Gonerils army; Albany then suspects Edmund of treason and orders
a trial by combat to determine Edmunds guilt or innocence. Edgar
ocially accuses Edmund of treason and ghts him in single combat.
Edgar fatally wounds Edmund, who repents; the dying Edmund tries
to redeem himself by sending a messenger to stop Cordelias execu-
tion, which he had ordered.
At this point in the nal scene, deaths come rapidly. Edgar nally
reveals himself to his father, Gloucester, who, caught between feel-
ings of joy and grief, dies. Regan, poisoned by Goneril, also dies, and
afterward Goneril kills herself with a dagger. In this whirlwind of
action and death, we see the dierence between the reordering process
in Shakespeares comedies and his late tragedies. Most of the pastoral
comedies end with joyful reunions, usually including marriage, and
the transition from the natural world back to the courtly one is for
the most part uncomplicated. In Lear, however, the movement from
the green world back to the courtly one is fraught with tragic conse-
quences. Despite Edmunds earnest attempt to save Cordelia, she is
nonetheless hanged, and in one of the most riveting scenes of the
play, Lear carries her onstage in his arms and laments her death:
No, no, no life!
Why should a dog, a horse, a rat, have life,
King Lear
152
And thou no brcath at all: Toult comc no morc,
Ncvcr, ncvcr, ncvcr, ncvcr, ncvcr.
Pray you undo this button. Tank you, sir.
o you scc this: Look on hcr! Look hcr lips,
Look thcrc, look thcrc! He dies. (5.3. 306312)
Tc scnsc ol loss in Lcars words is undcniablc, as is thc nality. Vith
thc rcpctition ol ncvcr, thc wcight ol Cordclias dcath and thc loss
ol his own sanity arc palpablc. Hcrc, at thc plays conclusion, wc scc
a distinction Shakcspcarc is making not only bctwccn tragcdy and
comcdy but also bctwccn loss and thc possibility ol rcdcmption. At
thc cnd ol thc play, thcrc sccm to bc almost too many losscs to ovcr
comc. All thrcc ol Lcars daughtcrs, not to mcntion Lcar himscll, arc
dcad, as is twothirds ol Glouccstcrs lamily. Tc kingdom as Lcar
kncw and rulcd it has ccascd to cxist. Vhcn onc thinks ol rcbirth and
rcncwal, usually such tragic conscqucnccs do not cntcr thc picturc.
Howcvcr, as Shakcspcarc so oltcn insists, cvcn in thc lacc ol such
dirc loss, thcrc is thc possibility ol rcdcmption and rcncwal. !n King
Lear, that possibility takcs thc shapc ol a ncw rulcr. Just altcr Lcar
dics, Albany tclls dgar and Kcnt that thcy must rulc thc rcalm and
thc gorcd statc sustain. Kcnt dcclincs, saying, ! havc a journcy, sir,
shortly to go, implying that hc is closc to thc cnd ol his lilc. nc
othcr lunction ol Kcnts rclusal to rulc with dgar is that dgar will
now bc thc solc rulcr, il hc is just, thc kingdom dividcd and lracturcd
by Lcars actions may again ourish as an organic wholc. Vhilc thc
possibility ol a rcunitcd kingdom with dgar at its hcad may sccm
likc small comlort, pcrhaps what this play tcachcs is that rash actions
havc conscqucnccs not just lor individuals but lor kingdoms as wcll.
Tis is pcrhaps why thc rcbirth and rcncwal in thc play sccm mutcd or
incomplctc whcn comparcd to thc nal sccncs ol most ol thc comc
dics. Naturc has, in thc casc ol Lear, still donc its work, but thc lack
ol narrativc rcsolution at thc cnd ol thc play suggcsts that naturc can
only do so much. Altcr it corrccts what aws it can, thc rcsponsibility
to crcatc a bcttcr world ultimatcly rcsts on human shouldcrs.
Villiam Shakcspcarc
153
LITTLE GIDDING FROMFOUR QUARTETS
(THOMAS STEARNS ELIOT)
,.
Te Iater Quartets
by Staan 8crgstcn,
in Time and Eternity:
A Study in the Structure and Symbolism
of T.S. Eliots Four Quartcts (1960)
IN+voouc+:oN
Staffan Bergsten, in his close reading of Little Gidding,
examines the argument, imagery, and allusions of the poem.
Claiming that this last of Eliots Quartets is an intentional
conclusion to his poetic work as a whole, Bergsten char-
acterizes Little Gidding, especially its concluding section,
as a reafrmation, one where a recognition of old age and
mortality gives way to a timeless, mystic vision. For Eliot,
the redemption of time lies, not in the negation or annihilation
of time, but in the transguration of time in a timeless pattern.
Thus Little Gidding, with its religious and spiritually charged
language, marks the end of Eliots search for redemption
through poetry. Eliot attempts to move from the Midwinter
spring of the opening stanza to the unimaginable Zero
8crgstcn, Staan. Tc Latcr Quartcts. Time and Eternity: A Study in the
Structure and Symbolism of T.S. Eliots Four Quartcts. Stockholm, Swcdcn:
Svcnska 8oklorlagct, 1960. pp. 20644.
154
summer, a season when life is apprehended not as movement
or decay but as a perpetual pattern of rebirth and renewal.
f
Tc last ol thc Quartets is rclatcd to a dcnitc placc, or rathcr to
two placcs. nc is, as in 8urnt Norton and ast Cokcr, liots
own surroundings in London, and thc othcr thc chapcl ol Littlc
Giddinga small villagc in Huntingdonshirc. Tc First Scction ol
Littlc Gidding is thc account ol a visit to that chapcl. Tough using
thc morc gcncral pronoun you, thc poct obviously draws on his
own cxpcricncc in visiting Littlc Gidding. Tat cxpcricncc, including
a host ol mcmorics and historical associations, may bc takcn as thc
litcral mcaning ol thc pocm.
Tc rst paragraph is symbolic throughout, and yct it is also a
picturc ol a wintcrs altcrnoon in thc nglish countrysidc as ccctivcly
imprcssionistic as anything liot has writtcn:
Midwintcr spring is its own scason
Scmpitcrnal though soddcn towards sundown,
Suspcndcd in timc, bctwccn polc and tropic.
Vhcn thc short day is brightcst, with lrost and rc,
Tc bricl sun amcs thc icc, on pond and ditchcs,
!n windlcss cold that is thc hcarts hcat,
Rcccting in a watcry mirror
A glarc that is blindncss in thc carly altcrnoon.
And glow morc intcnsc than blazc ol branch, or brazicr,
Stirs thc dumb spirit: no wind, but pcntccostal rc
!n thc dark timc ol thc ycar. 8ctwccn mclting and lrcczing
Tc souls sap quivcrs. Tcrc is no carth smcll
r smcll ol living thing. Tis is thc spring timc
8ut not in timcs covcnant. Now thc hcdgcrow
!s blanchcd lor an hour with transitory blossom
l snow, a bloom morc suddcn
Tan that ol summcr, ncithcr budding nor lading,
Not in thc schcmc ol gcncration.
Vhcrc is thc summcr, thc unimaginablc
Zcro summcr:
Tomas Stcarns liot
155
Te winters afternoon here described is the actual time of the poets
visit to the chapel of Little Gidding, but it also seems to stand for the
afternoon and winter of his own life. Eliot here reverts to a symbolism
of seasons close to that previously used in the Quartets. Te time of the
visit to the garden of Burnt Norton was late summer; in East Coker
it is late November; and here in the last of the Quartets it is winter.
In East Coker the poet found the hoped for serenity in the autumn
of his life replaced by an upsurge of emotions rightly belonging to
spring and summer, but here in Little Gidding there is sharp but
well-balanced contrast between winter and spring. Tis midwinter
spring, not in times covenant and not in the scheme of genera-
tion, is the forerunner of the unimaginable / Zero summer. Te
psychological and spiritual implications seem clear. At a time when
he might have expected sterility and drought, the aging poet feels the
souls sap quiverthe return of his creative powersand this creative-
ness becomes to him a type of the divine creativeness manifest in the
Nativity of Christ in the middle of winter. But the excitement implied
in the souls quivering is also related to the Zero summerit is the
fear, wonder and joy of the soul contemplating the unimaginable
summer of eternal life that comes after winter and death.
Te afternoon of the poets visit to Little Gidding is also symbolic
of the afternoon of his country. In the last of the Quartets the theme of
history achieves its nal development, and the name of Little Gidding
itself holds several historical associations. It is the place where Nicolas
Ferrar in 1626 founded an Anglican community organized on almost
monastic principles and intended to provide the opportunity for a
devout life of contemplation (You are here to kneel) in the midst
of the political and religious upheaval of the time. Te place is also
associated with King Charles I who visited it twice, the last time in
secrecy at night, shortly after his nal defeat (If you came at night
like a broken king). As already mentioned, Richard Crashaw was
also one of the visitors to Little Gidding, and George Herbert was
deeply inuenced by the religious ideas of Nicolas Ferrar.
1
Tus Little
Gidding aptly symbolizes the particular period of English history
referred to in the poem. Section III, for example, contains a number
of references to the time of the Civil War:
If I think, again, of this place,
And of people, not wholly commendable,
Little Gidding from Four Quartets
156
l no immcdiatc kin or kindncss,
8ut somc ol pcculiar gcnius,
All touchcd by a common gcnius,
Unitcd in thc strilc which dividcd thcm,
!l ! think ol a king at nightlall,
l thrcc mcn, and morc, on thc scaold
And a lcw who dicd lorgottcn
!n othcr placcs, hcrc and abroad,
And ol onc who dicd blind and quict,
Vhy should wc cclcbratc
Tcsc dcad mcn morc than thc dying:
!t is not to ring thc bcll backward
Nor is it an incantation
To summon thc spcctrc ol a Rosc.
Tcrc is thc king, again, and an allusion to his cxccution and to thc
royal cmblcm ol thc Roscthc Vhitc Rosc ol thc Stuarts.
2
Tcrc arc
thc mcmbcrs ol various political and rcligious partics and lactions,
Unitcd in thc strilc which dividcd thcm, togcthcr with Milton, who
dicd blind and quict.
!t is not dicult to scc thc conncction bctwccn that pcriod ol
distrcss and war and thc timc whcn Littlc Gidding was writtcn
194142. Littlc Gidding sccms to lorm an instancc ol thc signicant
soil ol which liot spcaks in thc last linc ol Tc ry Salvagcs,
signicant both as a historical symbol and as a symbol ol a tcndcncy
in liots own lilc and pcrsonality. liot has always shown a tcndcncy
to rcvcrt, in his thought and rcading, to thc scvcntccnth ccntury, its
pocts and playwrights, its rcligious and political thinkcrs. !t was that
ccntury which witncsscd thc lormation ol thc Anglican Church to
which liot was to turn and which nurturcd many ol thc pocts and
prcachcrs who havc most dccply inucnccd his thought and his work.
!t is signicant also that thc political thought ol that pcriod raiscd
thc vcry problcm that liot raiscs in his cssay, Te Idea of a Christian
Societythc problcm ol thc placc ol thc church in a sccular socicty.
Tus thc spcakcrs visit to Littlc Gidding in thc midst ol thc war,
bccomcs symbolic ol his scnsc ol continuity and tradition, his scnsc
ol history, but also ol somcthing clsc and much morc important: his
conviction that tradition and history, to havc a rcal mcaning, must
Tomas Stcarns liot
157
partake of a timeless pattern. Tis is the theme of the First Section of
Little Gidding.
Te second paragraph of the same Section resumes the theme of
motion and travelling. In the previous Quartets motion was pictured
either as circular or as progressing innitely without a goal or desti-
nation, but here motion and travelling forward achieve dynamic
purpose, not in the sense that an end or a goal is reached but because
a timeless dimension is realized in time.
And what you thought you came for
Is only a shell, a husk of meaning
From which the purpose breaks only when it is fullled
If at all. Either you had no purpose
Or the purpose is beyond the end you gured
And is altered in fullment. Tere are other places
Which also are the worlds end, some at the sea jaws,
Or over a dark lake, in a desert or a city
But this is the nearest, in place and time,
Now and in England.
In prayer, the speaker goes on to say, and particularly in praying in the
chapel at Little Gidding, he has experienced a moment of timeless
vision similar to that in the garden of Burnt Norton. But the moment
in the chapel is not only a repetition of the earlier one, it is also its
fullment, and the experience in the garden is altered in fullment
because it has become integrated with the historical and religious
order of which Little Gidding is a symbol. Tus, here at the end of
the First Section of Little Gidding, the previous Quartets seem to
realize their conclusion. Te initial experience described in Burnt
Norton has been explored and developed in its various aspects
throughout the rst three Quartets, and here it is repeated, but under
completely dierent circumstances. Instead of the timeless moment
with no before and after in the remote setting of the garden, the
poet here connects the timeless moment with a historical tradition,
and through that moment this tradition receives its meaning.
Here, the intersection of the timeless moment
Is England and nowhere. Never and always.
Little Gidding from Four Quartets
158
!l this momcnt is a lullmcnt ol thc momcnt in thc gardcn, it is also
altcrcd in its lullmcnt, that is to say that thc mcaning liot sct out
to cxplorc appcarcd to bc dicrcnt lrom what hc had cxpcctcd at thc
outsct. !t is a mcaning to bc lound within history, and yct it tran
sccnds history cxtcnding into thc world ol ctcrnal lilc. Tis mcaning,
which is bcyond thc cnd you gurcd, is indicatcd in thc last two
Scctions ol Littlc Gidding.
Tc Sccond Scction opcns with thrcc stanzas which, varying thc
Hcraclcitcan idca ol thc chain ol thc lour clcmcnts,
3
sum up thc
prcvious Quartets by rccapitulation ol signicant imagcs. Tcrc arc
thc roscs and thc ust in thc air suspcndcd lrom 8urnt Norton
!, thc wall, thc wainscot and thc mousc lrom ast Cokcr !, thc
imagcs ol watcr lrom Tc ry Salvagcs and thc sanctuary and
choir rcminisccnt ol thc chapcl at Littlc Gidding. Tis tcchniquc ol
rccapitulating signicant symbols is uscd alrcady in thc nal Scction
ol 8urnt Norton and thcn in cach ol thc subscqucnt Quartets. ach
timc thc span ol thc spcakcrs rccollcctions and thc rcadcrs associa
tions bccomcs widcr, and at thc samc timc thc wholc sct ol pocms is
intcgratcd into a unicd symbolic structurc.
Howcvcr, thcsc stanzas on thc dcath ol thc clcmcnts havc othcr
implications as wcll. Tcy immcdiatcly prcccdc a sccnc in which thc
spcakcr is walking thc strccts ol London just altcr an air raid, and
somc ol thc imagcs in thc stanzas suggcst thc dcstruction wrought by
thc bombs:
ust in thc air suspcndcd
Marks thc placc whcrc a story cndcd.
ust inbrcathcd was a housc

Tc parchcd cvisccratc soil
Gapcs at thc vanity ol toil,
Laughs without mirth.
Tis is thc dcath ol carth.
Tc sccnc that lollows is cnactcd !n thc unccrtain hour bclorc thc
morning whcn thc spcakcr cncountcrs somc dcad mastcr, and thc
Scction closcs with thc disappcarancc ol this mastcr on thc blowing
ol thc hornthc sounding ol thc All Clcar. Tc idcntity ol thc dcad
Tomas Stcarns liot
159
master seems deliberately obscured; it is not one but many, a familiar
compound ghost. Te metre and tone of the passage suggest Dante,
who probably forms the chief component in the compound ghost,
but there are also allusions to Virgil, Milton, Swift, Mallarm and
several others.
4
Te function of this episode seems to be partly to pay homage
to all the poets of past ages, who belong to the literary tradition on
which Eliot builds, and partly to bring to a conclusion all the previous
passages dealing with the art of poetry. Since Little Gidding is
concerned with connecting the private experience of the poet with
a historical tradition, it seems appropriate that the expression of this
experience should be connected with a literary tradition.
Te theme of aging also recurs in the speech of the dead master.
It is a gloomy picture he gives of old age, suggesting the fears of the
aging poet himself. But like most of the themes of Little Gidding,
this one not only sums up the earlier developments of the theme of
age but goes beyond them in pointing towards the nal conclusion of
the whole sequence of poems:
From wrong to wrong the exasperated spirit
Proceeds, unless restored by that rening re
Where you must move in measure, like a dancer.
Te symbol of the dancer is familiar, but the symbol of re is not fully
developed until the end of Little Gidding. Earlier in the present
Section it is foreshadowed in the ickering tongue of the dark
dovethe re of the bomberwhich also anticipates the tongues
and dove of Section IV.
Te Tird Section of Little Gidding contains perhaps the poets
clearest account of his purpose in writing the Four Quartets:
Tis is the use of memory:
For liberationnot less of love but expanding
Of love beyond desire, and so liberation
From the future as well as the past.
Tis is a development and explanation of the idea of personal time
of memory as rst introduced in Burnt Nortonand in speaking of
Little Gidding from Four Quartets
160
thc usc ol mcmory liot sccms to rclcr to thc motivc and purposc ol
writing thc Quartets. Tc usc ol mcmory is lor libcration / From thc
luturc as wcll as thc past. Tat is to say that thc rccollcctions lrom
thc pocts carlicr lilc rcalizcd in thc cxpcricncc in thc gardcn and in
thc subscqucnt mcditations ol thc Quartets, had thc ccct ol libcrating
him lrom thc cnchainmcnt ol past and luturc, and this ccct was
achicvcd by thc cxpanding / l lovc bcyond dcsirc. !n thc ccstatic
vision in thc rosc gardcn thc rccollcctions ol dcsirc, ol thc prolanc
ccstasy, rccctcd in liots carlicr pocms, rcccivcd a mcaning bcyond
thcir original tcmporal mcaning, wcrc rccognizcd as having a divinc
purposcas, in that scnsc, typcs ol divinc lovc.
Tc idca ol pcrsonal timc is also bound togcthcr with thc idca ol
history. 8y thc cxpanding / l lovc bcyond dcsirc thc individual
achicvcs libcration lrom timc, and Tus, thc poct gocs on to say,
lovc ol a country
8cgins as attachmcnt to our own cld ol action
And comcs to nd that action ol littlc importancc
Tough ncvcr indicrcnt. History may bc scrvitudc,
History may bc lrccdom. Scc, now thcy vanish,
Tc laccs and placcs, with thc scll which, as it could, lovcd
thcm,
To bccomc rcncwcd, transgurcd, in anothcr pattcrn.
Tc linc ol thought liot sccms to bc pursuing is that thc scnsc ol
history, conccivcd as an cxtcnsion ol pcrsonal mcmory to includc
thc past ol thc nation or cvcn thc racc, may bc a mcans ol libcra
tion. Tc attachmcnt to our own cld ol action is cxpandcd into
and thcn bcyond lovc ol a country. History may bc scrvitudcil
thc tcmporal dimcnsion ol history is not transccndcd by thc timclcss
dimcnsionbut History may bc lrccdom as wcll. Tc tcmporal
contcnt ol mcmory and history must vanish, thc laccs and placcs
rclcrring, it sccms, to thc objccts ol dcsirc and patriotic attachmcnt,
and also thc scll which, as it could, lovcd thcm. !n thc linc,
To bccomc rcncwcd, transgurcd, in anothcr pattcrn,
liot indicatcs thc cnd ol thc proccss ol libcration lrom past and
luturc. Tis is, in ccct, a statcmcnt ol thc antcan allcgorical
Tomas Stcarns liot
161
method used in the Quartets: the literal facts supplied by memory
and history are renewed and transgured in being interpreted on the
various spiritual levels of meaning; and the pattern in which they are
transgured is a timeless pattern, for, as Eliot says in the last Section,
history is a pattern / Of timeless moments.
Te transguration of human life and history in the timeless
pattern must also involve a resolution of the antithesis of good and
evilthis seems to be the meaning of the lines which follow, perhaps
somewhat abruptly, upon the passage just considered:
Sin is Behovely, but
All shall be well, and
All manner of thing shall be well.
Tis quotation from the Revelations of Julian of Norwich is the
answer she received to the question how the existence of sin was to
be reconciled with a good and righteous God.
5
Te problem of sin
and evil plays a subordinate part in the Quartets, and it is hardly to
be expected that Eliot should really attack this problem here. But in
quoting Dame Julian he indicates that in the divine order of things
there is place even for that which to us appears as evil.
In the Fourth, lyric Section all the spiritual levels of meaning
are set forth in symbols of great complexity. Te dark dove of
Section II is here transformed into the dove of the Holy Ghost
appearing at the Baptism of Christ, and the ickering tongue
of the aircrafts gun into the cloven tongues like as of re which
descended upon the Apostles on the day of Pentecost. Te uniting
element is re, and the dierent aspects of re relate to the dierent
levels of meaning in Little Gidding. Te experience of midwinter
spring at the visit to the chapel of Little Gidding was said to be
pentecostal re / In the dark time of the year, foreshadowing the
allegorical or typical meaning of the poem which is the re of the
Holy Ghost, which again is love. Te literal re of destruction is
also the re of Hell, but, on the anagogical level, it may appear as
the re of purgation:
unless restored by that rening re
Where you must move in measure, like a dancer.
Little Gidding from Four Quartets
162
Tc moral mcaning, Hclcn Gardncr has suggcstcd, may bc dcncd as
Charity
6
thc human rccction ol divinc Lovc.
Tcrc is a dccp tonc ol pain and dcspair in Littlc Giddinga
tonc most lully hcard in thc Fourth Scction. Tc pocm rclcrs to a timc
whcn London sccmcd to bc abandoncd to thc clcmcnt ol dcstructivc
rc, whcn Hcll sccmcd to bc rcalizcd on carth. And thc only hopc
ol libcration lrom dcspair, thc poct mcditatcs, lics in rcgarding thc
aiction as a visitation ol God, in thc transguration ol thc rc ol
dcstruction into thc rc ol purgation:
Tc only hopc, or clsc dcspair
Lics in thc choicc ol pyrc or pyrc
To bc rcdccmcd lrom rc by rc.
Hcrc, again, thc poct raiscs thc problcm ol cvil, and thc answcr is thc
samc as in thc prcccding Scction:
Vho thcn dcviscd thc tormcnt: Lovc.
Lovc is thc unlamiliar Namc
8chind thc hands that wovc
Tc intolcrablc shirt ol amc
Vhich human powcr cannot rcmovc.
Vc only livc, only suspirc
Consumcd by cithcr rc or rc.
Vhat thc lyric sccms to say, thcn, is that thc rc which madc
thc souls sap quivcr in thc aging poct and thc dcstructivc rc ol thc
war may both bc translormcd into thc rc ol purgation and asccnd to
union with thc amcs ol thc Spirit as a manilcstation ol divinc Lovc.
Tc nal Scction ol Littlc Gidding is not only a conclusion to
that pocm, but to thc Four Quartets as a wholc. !t hardly contains a
singlc linc without an allusion to onc ol thc carlicr Quartets.
Tc Scction opcns with a rcvcrsion to thc ccntral idca ol ast
Cokcr:
Vhat wc call thc bcginning is oltcn thc cnd
And to makc an cnd is to makc a bcginning.
Tomas Stcarns liot
163
Tis idea is then brought to bear on general problems of the art of
poetry raised in the preceding Quartets. It is further connected with
the theme of death and rebirth and nally it is led on to the concep-
tion of the timeless moment, the moment in the garden and that in
the chapel. Te symbolic and thematic development of the Quartets
has come full circle, the poet is back where he started but the return
is dierent from the outset because of the insight gained in the
meantime:
Te moment of the rose and the moment of the yew-tree
Are of equal duration. A people without history
Is not redeemed from time, for history is a pattern
Of timeless moments. So, while the light fails
On a winters afternoon, in a secluded chapel
History is now and England.
Te meaning of these lines may perhaps be expressed thus:
Te moment of mystic ecstasy occurring in temporal life and the
moment of death (implied in the symbol of the yew-tree) are of
equal duration, i.e. beyond duration in the temporal sense, in the
realm of timeless eternity. Since history, or rather the meaning of
history, consists in a pattern of timeless moments, the absence of
history, or of personal memories, does not redeem a people, or an
individual, from time. Te redemption of time lies, not in the nega-
tion or annihilation of time, but in the transguration of time in a
timeless pattern. Tis transguration, however, must be achieved,
for a people as well as for an individual, in time; the timeless must
be apprehended in time, for only through time time is conquered.
So, while the moment in the garden seemed to be without past and
future, the moment in the chapel of Little Gidding is related to
time and history and to signicant soil. Te timeless pattern of
that moment is experienced as projected in time, and therefore the
poet, in ending his long meditation on the idea of time and history
in the Quartets, may say,
History is now and England.
Little Gidding from Four Quartets
164
Tc concluding paragraph ol Littlc Gidding is prcccdcd by
a linc quotcd lrom thc anonymous mystical trcatisc, Te Cloud of
Unknowing,
Vith thc drawing ol this Lovc and thc voicc ol this Calling,
which togcthcr with thc quotations lrom Julian ol Norwich cxtcnd
thc spiritual tradition symbolizcd by thc namc ol Littlc Gidding
bcyond thc scvcntccnth ccntury back to thc carly Christian mysticism
in ngland.
7
Tc last paragraph ol thc last ol thc Four Quartets is clcarly dcviscd
as a musical nalc, in which arc gathcrcd thc symbols that havc
rccurrcd throughout thc wholc scqucncc ol pocms. Hcrc, on thcir nal
appcarancc, thcsc symbols arc no doubt intcndcd to convcy thc wholc
rangc ol mcanings accumulatcd in thcm, and this wcalth ol mcanings
is in ccct but anothcr rccction ol thc dccply musical structurc ol thc
Quartets. Tc purcly lormal structurc ol a piccc ol music can oltcn bc
analyscd lucidly cnough, but who can dcnc thc cmotional ccct it
has: Tc samc musical phrasc, movcmcnt or composition may mcan
thc vcry dcpth ol anguish and dcspair to onc hcarcr, and thc hcight
ol joy to anothcr, and still both may wcll bc right in thcir intcrprcta
tions. Tis is bccausc music ocrs a good dcal ol lrccdomwhat thc
sounds actually mcan dcpcnds not a littlc on thc hcarcr. 8ut thc poct
is much morc limitcd. Tc sounds hc uscs arc words, and arc hcncc
ticd, morc or lcss, to particular connotations. !n thc Four Quartets,
howcvcr, liot has attcmptcd to usc words as a musician uscs sounds,
so that thcy arc somctimcs capablc ol cvoking, as wc havc sccn, vcry
varicd intcrprctations. !t is pcrhaps in this rcspcct that thc musical
analogy implicd in thc usc ol thc word quartct is most apt and most
signicant.
!n thc nal paragraph ol Littlc Gidding thc tcchniquc ol
musical rccapitulation is pcrhaps somcwhat mcchanically applicd, it
somctimcs tcnds to bccomc mcrc addition:
Vc shall not ccasc lrom cxploration
And thc cnd ol all our cxploring
Vill bc to arrivc whcrc wc startcd
Tomas Stcarns liot
165
And know the place for the rst time.
Trough the unknown, remembered gate
When the last of earth left to discover
Is that which was the beginning;
At the source of the longest river
Te voice of the hidden waterfall
And the children in the apple-tree
Not known, because not looked for
But heard, half-heard, in the stillness
Between two waves of the sea.
Quick now, here, now, always
After a variation on the theme of beginning and end from East
Coker comes the gate leading into the rose garden, to the last of
earth left to discover which was the beginningour rst world
(BN: I). Te river and the waterfall both derive from Te Dry
Salvages (I and V), and the lines that follow echo Burnt Norton I
and V and Te Dry Salvages II.
In the very last lines of the poem, the images of the re and the
rose recur together with the only new image in the whole paragraph
the crowned knot of re. Tis image, though perhaps derived from
mystical literature,
8
seems to be prompted by the preceding images;
closely bound together as these images are, they may be said in eect
to crown the whole work. All the preceding images of the paragraph
are in some way symbolic of the timeless, mystic vision, and together
they point to the Divine Reality which is also Fire and Love and which
is the ground and guarantee of the nal promise and prediction:
And all shall be well and
All manner of thing shall be well
When the tongues of ame are in-folded
Into the crowned knot of re
And the re and the rose are one.
Tus the elaborate recapitulation of images and symbols is clearly
intended, not only to bring the sequence to an artistically satisfactory
close, but also to be, as it were, a benediction, a rearmation.
Little Gidding from Four Quartets
166
!t has alrcady bccn rcmarkcd that this conclusion owcs a grcat
dcal to thc conclusion ol antcs Paradiso. liot surcly had no intcn
tion to rival antc in writing thcsc lincs, but hc sccms to havc aimcd
at a similar ccct ol clcvation and at thc samc timc ol nality. Tc
conclusion is a conclusion not only to Littlc Gidding and thc wholc
scqucncc ol thc Quartets but, sincc somc ol thc imagcs rcvcrt to his
carlicst pocms, a conclusion to liots poctic work as a wholc. Morc
ovcr, though writtcn cightccn ycars ago, Littlc Gidding is thc most
rcccnt pocm publishcd by liot and pcrhaps also his last.
!l Littlc Gidding, and thc Four Quartets as a wholc, lail to
achicvc thc nal ccct thc poct sccms to havc intcndcd, thc lailurc
is ccrtainly not onc ol poctic tcchniquc, or cvcn ol inspiration, but
a lailurc ol poctry as a mcdium ol communication. vcn thc most
complcx poctic structurc sccms to lail lully to convcy thc mcaning
liot has tricd to convcy in thc Four Quartetsa mcaning not only
bcyond thc scopc ol poctry but pcrhaps bcyond communication in
any mcdium. Tat liot himscll is wcll awarc ol thc limitations ol
poctry as a vchiclc ol rcligious truth, is cvidcnt lrom thc mcdita
tions on thc art ol poctry containcd in thc Quartets. Ncvcrthclcss in
complcting thc scqucncc in spitc ol all doubts and dicultics, liot
rcvcals thc dcpth and powcr ol his inspiration and ol thc motivcs lor
pcrscvcring in thc strugglc to rcalizc this inspiration. Tc psycho
logical motivc liot has indicatcd in dcscribing thc unwrittcn pocm
as a burdcn which hc |thc poct| must bring to birth in ordcr to
obtain rclicl.
9
Tc moral motivc may pcrhaps bc cxprcsscd by a
phrasc borrowcd lrom ast Cokcr: For us thcrc is only thc trying.
Tc rcst is not our busincss.
NOTES
1. \idc supra, p. 60. Cl. Gardncr, H., Te Art of T.S. Eliot, London,
1949, pp. 176 ., and Prcston, p. 53, n.
2. Scc Stcphcnson, .M., T.S. Eliot and the Lay Reader, 2nd
cd. London, 1946, p. 91, 8radbury, J.M., Four Quartets: Tc
Structural Symbolism, Sewanee Review, \ol. 59, 1951, p. 268.
3. Scc Matthicsscn, p. 190.
4. As usual, Grovcr Smith has discovcrcd morc allusions than any
othcr critic: op. cit., pp. 285 .
Tomas Stcarns liot
167
5. See Gardner, H., Four Quartets: A Commentary, pp. 75 f.
6. Gardner, H., Te Art of T.S. Eliot, p. 184.
7. Gardner, H., Four Quartets: A Commentary, p. 76.
8. Drew, E., T.S. Eliot: Te Design of His Poetry, London, 1950,
p. 239, n.
9. On Poetry and Poets, p. 98.
Little Gidding from Four Quartets
169
THE METAMORPHOSIS
(FRANZ KAFKA)
,.
Realism and Unrealism:
Kafkas Metamorphosis
by Norman N. Holland,
in Modern Fiction Studies (1958)
IN+voouc+:oN
In his analysis of The Metamorphosis, Norman Holland
traces the inuence of biblical imagery and symbolism on
Kafkas portrayal of Gregor Samsas metamorphosis and
death. Drawing correspondences between Kafkas work and
passages from the Bible, Holland claims that The Metamor-
phosis is a kind of allegory in which Gregors death parallels
the Biblical accounts of Christs death. Thus, The Metamor-
phosis satirizes Christians, who are only distressed, angry,
and, ultimately, cruel when a second Christ appears. Holland
points out how Kafka critiques a modern world of spiritual
alienation, not unlike T.S. Eliots The Waste Land, in which
the poet, like Kafka, yearns for rebirth and renewal. In addi-
tion to being a satirical allegory for the Passion, Gregors
transformation, according to Holland, dramatizes the human
predicament . . . trapped between a set of dark instinctual
Holland, Norman N. Rcalism and Unrcalism: Kalkas Mctamorphosis.
Modern Fiction Studies 4.2 (Summcr 1958): 14350.
170
urges on one hand and an obscure drive to serve gods on
the other. In the end, the Samsa family does not understand
or recognize the signicance of Gregors transformation; they
are unwilling to accept or account for the cause of all [their]
unhappiness. According to Holland, Gregors transformation
and death force readers to a renewal of awareness, where we
must confront, using Freuds terms, the cage of the id and
superego. The Metamorphosis, by its very unreality, drives
readers to see the realities, Biblical and Freudian, hiding
behind the ordinary reality of the story.
f
!n allcgory, symbolism, and surrcalismthc thrcc gcnrcs arc in
this rcspcct, at lcast, indistinguishablcthc writcr mixcs unrcalistic
clcmcnts into a rcalistic situation. Tus, Kalka, in Metamorphosis,
puts into thc rcalistic, prosaic cnvironmcnt ol thc Samsa houschold
a situation that is, to put it mildly, unrcalistic: As Grcgor Samsa
awokc onc morning lrom a troublcd drcam, hc lound himscll
changcd in his bcd to somc monstrous kind ol vcrmin. Kalkas
stratcgy docs not in csscncc dicr lrom thc tcchniqucs ol Spcnscr
and 8unyan: though thcy uscd lor thc unrcal clcmcnts allcgorical
namcs, thcy, too, sct thcm in rcalistic or convcntional situations.
Kalkas mcthod, whilc rathcr morc ovcrpowcring, works thc samc
way: thc unrcal clcmcnts, bc thcy allcgorical namcs or human cock
roachcs, sct up a kind ol clcctric cld, thc most tritc and prosaic
dctail brought into that cld glows with cxtra mcaning. To rcad
allcgory is simply to probc this cld ol mcaning. Vc can probc it
only il wc momcntarily put asidc thc unrcality which crcatcs thc cld
and mcasurc thc cxtra valucs givcn thc rcalistic clcmcnts. 8y rcading
thcm imaginativcly, wc can undcrstand thc naturc ol thc cld, only
thcn can wc turn back to and undcrstand thc unrcal clcmcnt that
crcatcd thc cld.
!l wc look rst at thc unrcalistic clcmcnts, thcrc is a dangcr that
wc will bc dazzlcd and scc no morc, as in thc usual crudc rcading
ol Metamorphosis: Samsa is a cockroach, Samsa cquals Kalka, Kalka
thinks ol himscll as a cockroach, and so on. Rcading Kalka that way
is likc sccing Te Faerie Queene as a moralistic tract about Tcmpcrancc
Franz Kalka
171
or Justicc without rcalizing thc rich, plastic mcanings Spcnscrs
rcalism dcvclops lor his allcgorical namcs. Looking rst at thc rcal
istic clcmcnts and thcir cxtra valucs avoids a sccond dangcr in rcading
allcgory: substituting abstractions lor thc rcalism ol thc story. Kalkas
mcaning, as Mr. lisco \ivas points out, is somcthing not to bc
bcttcr statcd abstractly in tcrms ol idcas and conccpts, to bc lound
bcyond thc lablc, but within it, at thc dramatic lcvcl, in thc intcr
rclationships . . . among thc charactcrs and bctwccn thcm and thc
univcrsc.
!l, momcntarily, wc put asidc thc unrcality ol Grcgor Samsas
mctamorphosis, wc can scc that thc story builds on a commonplacc,
cvcn a tritc, situation: a man lccls sick and dccidcs to stay homc lrom
work. For lully thc rst sixth ol thc story Grcgor gocs through cxactly
thc kind ol intcrnal monologuc any ol us might il wc had caught a
discomlorting, but not disabling, cold. Nothing is morc dcgrading
than always to havc to risc so carly. How would it bc il ! go to slccp
again lor awhilc: !d likc to scc what my boss would say il ! tricd it,
! should bc sackcd immcdiatcly. Vhat a job !vc choscn . . . To hcll
with it all! Job, cmploycr, and cmploycc arc thc corc ol thc rcalism
ol Metamorphosis, not unnaturally, thcy lorm thc hcart ol thc allcgory
as wcll.
Metamorphosis has thrcc parts, cach markcd by Grcgors cmcrging
lrom his bcdroom into thc Samsa diningroom and thcn rctrcating.
Tc rst part ol thc story tclls ol Grcgors mctamorphosis and ol his
job. !n thc sccond part, Grcgors lathcr gocs back to work lor thc rst
timc sincc thc lailurc ol his own busincss vc ycars bclorc. !n thc
third part, Grcgors mothcr and sistcr go to work, although Grcgor
had hopcd to scnd his sistcr to thc conscrvatory, and thc lamily takcs
in thrcc lodgcrs, cmploycrs, as it wcrc, in thc homc. Altcr Grcgors
dcath, in thc third part, thc lodgcrs arc thrown out, and thc Samsas
writc thrcc lcttcrs ol cxcusc to thcir thrcc cmploycrs, and takc thc
day o. nly by rcading imaginativcly thc passagcs that dcal with
cmploycrs, cmployccs, and jobs, can wc scc thc cxtra mcaning
Grcgors mctamorphosis givcs to thcsc clcmcnts.
Grcgor, a travcling salcsman who sclls cloth, says ol his boss:
Tats a lunny thing, to sit on a dcsk so as to spcak to oncs
cmployccs lrom such a hcight, cspccially whcn onc is hard ol hcaring
and pcoplc must comc closc! Still, all hopc is not lost, oncc ! havc got
Tc Mctamorphosis
172
togcthcr thc moncy my parcnts owc himthat will bc in about vc or
six ycars! shall ccrtainly do it. Tcn !ll takc thc big stcp! Grcgor
muscs about thc rm:
Vhy was Grcgor, particularly, condcmncd to work lor a rm
whcrc thc worst was suspcctcd at thc slightcst inadvcrtcncc
ol thc cmployccs: Vcrc thc cmployccs, without cxccption, all
scoundrcls: Vas thcrc among thcir numbcr not onc dcvotcd
laithlul scrvant, who, il it did so happcn that by chancc hc
misscd a lcw hours work onc morning might havc lound
himscll so numbcd with rcmorsc that hc just could not lcavc
his bcd:
Altcr Grcgors mctamorphosis, his lathcr gocs to work lor a
bank. 8y somc capricious obstinacy, |hc| always rcluscd to takc o
his unilorm cvcn at homc . . . as il to kccp himscll always rcady to
carry out somc ordcr, cvcn in his own homc, hc sccmcd to await his
supcriors voicc. Grcgors mothcr was killing hcrscll mcnding thc
lincn ol strangcrs, thc sistcr ran hcrc and thcrc bchind hcr countcr at
thc customcrs bidding.
Tc thrcc lodgcrs whom thc lamily takcs in wcrc vcry carncst and
scrious mcn, all thrcc had thick bcards . . . and thcy wcrc lanatically
tidy, thcy insistcd on ordcr, not only in thcir own room, but also, now
that thcy wcrc living hcrc, throughout thc wholc houschold, and cspc
cially in thc kitchcn. Grcgors mothcr brings thcm a platc ol mcat in
thc dining room. Tc lodgcrs lcancd ovcr it to cxaminc it, and thc
onc who was scatcd in thc middlc and who appcarcd to havc somc
authority ovcr thc othcrs, cut a piccc ol mcat as it lay on thc dish to
asccrtain whcthcr it was tcndcr or whcthcr hc should scnd it back to
thc kitchcn. Hc sccmcd satiscd, howcvcr, and thc two womcn, who
had bccn anxiously watching, gavc cach othcr a smilc ol rclicl.
Tcsc dcscriptions arc ambiguous, cvcn crypticbut not in thcm
sclvcs unrcalistic, thc pallor ol unrcality is cast by thc impossiblc mcta
morphosis always prcscnt to our minds. Tc dcscription ol Grcgors
boss has brcadth cnough to apply not just to a pctty occ tyrant, but
cvcn to an ld Tcstamcnt God. !ndccd, thc rclcrcncc to thc high dcsk
cchocs thc ld Tcstamcnt mctaphor ol thc God most high who yct
can hcar us: Tough thc Lord bc high, yct hath hc rcspcct unto thc
Franz Kalka
173
lowly (Ps. 138:6), Tc Lords hand is not shortcncd, that it cannot
savc, ncithcr his car hcavy, that it cannot hcar: 8ut your iniquitics
havc scparatcd bctwccn you and your God, and your sins havc hid
his lacc lrom you, that hc will not hcar (!s. 59:12). Rcad this way,
thc dcbt that Grcgor assumcd lor his parcnts and must pay rcscmblcs
original sin. nly altcr hc has cxpiatcd thc sindcbt can hc takc thc
big stcp toward lrccdom.
Tc dcscription ol thc rm, with its atmosphcrc ol univcrsal
guilt and punishmcnt, also hints at original sin: A laithlul man who
can nd: (Prov. 20:6). Grcgor and his lcllowworkcrs arc trcatcd
likc thc cvil scrvant whosc lord shall comc in a day whcn hc lookcth
not lor him, and in an hour that hc is not awarc ol, and shall cut
him asundcr, and appoint him his portion with thc hypocritcs: thcrc
shall bc wccping and gnashing ol tccth (Matt. 24:5051). Grcgor
is indccd cut o lrom mcn, hc gcts his portion ol garbagc lrom
his hypocritical lamily, and onc cvcning whcn hc cavcsdrops on thc
thrcc lodgcrs cating: !t sccmcd curious to Grcgor that hc could
hcar thc gnashing ol thcir tccth abovc all thc clattcr ol cutlcry. Tc
lodgcrs thcmsclvcs, vcry carncst and scrious, lanatically tidy,
rcscmblc gods. Frau Samsas submitting a platc ol mcat to thcm
is almost likc making a burnt ocring to somc vcry choosy dcitics:
Your burnt ocrings arc not acccptablc, nor your sacriccs swcct
unto mc (Jcr. 6:20).
Tc lact that cmploycrs comc in thrccs altcr thc mctamorphosis
hints at a shilt lrom ld Tcstamcnt to Ncw likc that ol !n thc Pcnal
Colony, morc immcdiatcly, howcvcr, it suggcsts that cach mcmbcr
ol thc lamily has to takc up a sharc ol thc burdcn ol subscrvicncc that
Grcgor had bornc alonc bclorc. Tus, Grcgor had proudly brought
homc cash as a travcling salcsman lor a cloth conccrn. His job is now
brokcn into its scparatc componcnts. His lathcr gocs to work lor a
bank: hc now wcars thc spccial clothcs and acquircs Grcgors pridc
in supporting thc lamily. His mothcr dcals with thc cloth, thc lincn
ol strangcrs. His sistcr ran hcrc and thcrc. Tc lact that thcrc arc
thrcc lodgcrs suggcsts that thcrc is a god lor cach mcmbcr ol thc
lamily. Tc onc in thc middlc, thc most important onc, corrcsponds
to Grcgors lathcr.
Spacc docs not pcrmit a lull dcvclopmcnt ol all thc rcalistic
clcmcnts in Metamorphosis that Grcgors prcdicamcnt has chargcd
Tc Mctamorphosis
174
with cxtra, nonrcalistic mcaning. !n cvcry casc, howcvcr, thc samc
proccdurc would apply: an imaginativc rcading ol thc passagcs dcaling
with a particular rcalistic dctail. !n thc lcw passagcs ! havc alrcady
quotcd, somc ol thcsc clcmcnts cmcrgc. mploycrs arc likc gods.
Moncy suggcsts psychic rcsourccs, dcbts suggcst psychic dccits or
guilt. Travclingnot only Grcgors normal occupation, but cvcn
altcr his mctamorphosis, hc lcarns to distract himscll by walking
suggcsts thc nccd to scrvc an cmploycr, an cscapc lrom lrccdom
(sitting still) lor homo viator. Cloth and clothing arc thc badgcs ol
subscrvicncc, it is only in statcs ol nightdrcss or undrcss that thc inncr
scll can cmcrgc.
thcr passagcs would show many morc rcalistic clcmcnts with
signicancc bcyond mcrc physical rcality. Food, lor cxamplc, suggcsts
dcvotionrcvcrcnt ocrings dcmandcd by lodgcrs or communion
with oncs cquals. All thc lamily intcrcoursc ol thc Samsas sccms
to takc placc in thc dining room. 8rcaklast was thc most impor
tant mcal ol thc day, bccausc it was thc transition lrom bcd, oncs
privatc lilc, to cmploymcnt. Tc outdoors, thc placc whcrc onc gocs
to work, whcrc onc travcls and wcars lormal clothing, bclongs to thc
cmploycrs. Grcgor himscll sccs his problcm as that ol gctting out ol
bcd: Hc would drcss, and abovc all, hc would havc brcaklast, thcn
would comc thc timc to rccct, lor hc lclt that it was not in bcd that a
rcasonablc solution could bc lound. Hc rccallcd how oltcn an unusual
position adoptcd in bcd had rcsultcd in slight pains which provcd
imaginary as soon as hc arosc.
Tc trid division ol thc localc into bcdroom (privatc scll), dining
room (pcrsonal rclationships), and outdoors (obligations) hints at that
othcr division into id, cgo, and supcrcgo. Tc rooms corrcspond to
arcas ol cxpcricncc, thc wholc apartmcnt upstairs to lilc on carth and
thc outdoors downstairs to hcavcn, with somc uncarthly dclivcrancc
. . . at thc loot ol thc stairs. Locks and doors, thcn, symbolizc thc
barricrs bctwccn thcsc arcas ol cxpcricncc. Normally, wc brcak down
such barricrs by spccch, but Grcgor can no longcr spcak intclligibly:
hc can, howcvcr, twist opcn thc lock to his bcdroom with his mouth.
Locks also symbolizc Grcgors imprisonmcnt in thc body ol an inscct.
Tus, at rst, without dicrcntiating bctwccn thcm, hc hopcd lor
grcat and surprising things lrom thc locksmith and thc doctor.
Franz Kalka
175
ncc undcrstood, Kalkas mcthod is quitc straightlorward. !n
cvcry casc, hc has chargcd a spccic rcalistic clcmcnt ol thc story
with a spccic nonrcalistic or spiritual valuc. Having undcrstood thc
mcthod and somc ol thc valucs crcatcd in this cld ol mcaning, onc
can go on to undcrstand thc nonrcalistic clcmcnt that crcatcs thc
cld. !l, in cvcry casc, Kalka convcrts a spiritual conccpt down to a
physical lact, thcn thc translormation ol Grcgor to dungbcctlc, ol
man to animal, must stand lor thc translormation ol god to man, and,
indccd, Kalka has givcn Grcgor a numbcr ol Christlikc attributcs.
At thc opcning ol thc story, Grcgor had takcn on thc rcsponsibility
ol working lor thc wholc lamilyin particular, hc had takcn on his
parcnts dcbts (guilt or original sin). His mctamorphosis takcs placc
around Christmas, hc rcmains a bug lor thrcc months and dics at thc
cnd ol March. Vhat nally kills Grcgor is an applc thrown by his
lathcr, thc applc, prcsumably, ol dcn and mortality. nc lightly
thrown applc struck Grcgors back and lcll o without doing any
harm, but thc ncxt onc litcrally picrccd his csh |sic|. Hc tricd to drag
himscll a littlc lurthcr away, as il a changc ol position could rclicvc
thc shattcring agony hc suddcnly lclt, but hc sccmcd to bc nailcd last
to thc spot.
Grcgor bccomcs wcakcr and wcakcr until hc dics. Tc account ol
his dcath parallcls thc 8iblical accounts ol Christs dcath:
Tc Mctamorphosis
Hc lay in this statc ol pcacclul and cmpty
mcditation till thc clock struck thc third morning
hour. Hc saw thc landscapc grow lightcr through
thc window.
Hc rcalizcd that hc must go. . . . Against his will,
his hcad lcll lorward and his last lccblc brcath
strcamcd lrom his nostrils |sic|.
Tc charwoman arrivcd carly in thc morning
and though shc had oltcn bccn lorbiddcn to do
so, shc always slammcd thc door so loudly in hcr
vigor and hastc that oncc shc was in thc housc it
was impossiblc to gct any slccp.
Now lrom thc sixth hour thcrc was darkncss ovcr
all thc land unto thc ninth hour (Matt. 27:45).
Altcr this, Jcsus knowing that all things wcrc
accomplishcd that thc scripturc might bc lulllcd
. . . said, !t is nishcd: and Hc bowcd His hcad,
and gavc up thc ghost (John 19:2830).
8chold, thc vcil ol thc tcmplc was rcnt in twain
lrom thc top to thc bottom, and thc carth did
quakc, and rocks rcnt, and thc gravcs wcrc
opcncd, and many bodics ol thc saints which
slcpt arosc (Matt. 27:5152).
176
Tc Samsas arisc lrom thcir bcds and lcarn ol Grcgors dcath, thcy
cross thcmsclvcs. Vcll, says Hcrr Samsa, wc can thank God lor
that! Tc charwoman, gigantic . . . with bony lcaturcs and whitc
hair, which stood up all around hcr hcad, wcaring a littlc ostrich
lcathcr which stood upright on hcr hat, which now wavcd lightly
in all dircctions, dcscribcs Grcgor as absolutcly dcad as a doornail,
stonc dcad. Tc angcl ol thc Lord, says Matthcw, dcsccndcd lrom
hcavcn, and camc and rollcd back thc stonc lrom thc door, and sat
upon it. His countcnancc was likc lightning, and his raimcnt whitc
as snow. Hc is not hcrc: lor hc is riscn, bccomcs anothcr kind ol
divinc comcdy: Vcll, . . . shc rcplicd, and shc laughcd so much shc
could hardly spcak lor somc whilc. Vcll, you nccdnt worry about
gctting rid ol that thing in thcrc, ! havc xcd it alrcady.
nc qucstion, howcvcr, rcmains: why a cockroach: Scvcral
critics havc pointcd out Metamorphosiss dcsccnt lrom thc loathly
lady gcnrc ol mcdicval talcs, in which, as in 8cauty and thc 8cast,
somconc is translormcd into a loathsomc animal and can bc trans
lormcd back only by lovc. Lovc, in othcr words, is tcstcd by disgust,
and in Metamorphosis, lovc is lound lacking. !n at lcast onc such talc
which Kalka probably kncw, Flaubcrts Tc Lcgcnd ol St. Julian thc
Hospitallcr, thc loathsomc crcaturc turns out to bc Christ. Kalka,
howcvcr, could havc uscd any loathsomc animal, a toad, a snakc, a
spidcr: why a cockroach: Tc Gcrman word is Mistkaefer, applicd to
Grcgor only onccby thc charwoman. Tcchnically, thc word mcans
a dungbcctlc, not a cockroach, and thc distinction is important.
For onc thing, biologically, a cockroach undcrgocs only a partial
mctamorphosis, whilc thc bcctlcs go through a total mctamorphosis.
Morc important, dung bcctlcs arc scarabs. Tc gyptian scarab,
says thc rcdoubtablc Britannica, is an imagc ol thc sacrcd dung
bcctlc . . . which was vcncratcd as a typc ol thc sungod. Probably
thc ball ol dung, which is rollcd along by thc bcctlc in ordcr to placc
its cggs in it, was rcgardcd as an imagc ol thc sun in its coursc across
thc hcavcns, which may havc bccn conccivcd as a mighty ball rollcd
by a gigantic bcctlc. Grcgor, wc should rcmcmbcr was a travcling
salcsman, a collcction ol samplcs was cntrustcd to him. Samson
(Samsa) mcans in Hcbrcw thc suns man. !n Gcrman, thc titlc ol
thc story, Die Verwandlung, likc thc hicroglyphic bcctlcsign, mcans
cithcr an insccts mctamorphosis or translormation in a gcncral scnsc.
Franz Kalka
177
Die Verwandlung, morcovcr, is thc normal word lor transubstan
tiation. Tc dungbcctlc, thcn, was thc onc animal that gavc Kalka
cvcrything hc nccdcd: total mctamorphosis lrom a winglcss grub to a
hardworking, travclingsalcsmanlikc adult plus thc combination ol
loathsomcncss and divinity.
Samsons sacricc is a traditional analoguc to Christs, in Gcrman
hc is callcd a Judenchrist. Grcgors rst namc mcans vigilant, and
so hc was whcn hc supportcd his lamily. Vhcn hc is a dimsightcd
scarab, though, his rst namc makcs an ironic contrast to his last:
Samson was blindcd. Samsa, likc Samson, rid thc choscn pcoplc (his
lamily) ol thc dominccring Philistincs (thc lodgcrs who didnt likc
thc sistcrs music) by his own sclldcstruction, his wishcdlor dcath.
Grcgor, at onc point, longs to climb up on his sistcrs shouldcr and kiss
hcr ncck, in gcncral, Grcgor has a grcat many inccstuous impulscs. !n
this contcxt, his namc cchocs thc mcdicval lcgcnd ol Popc Grcgory,
who in cxpiating his inccstuous birth and marriagc bccamc thc holicst
man in Christcndom: chaincd to a barrcn rock lor scvcntccn ycars,
thc lcgcnd says hc bccamc an ugly littlc hcdgchoglikc crcaturc.
GrcgoryGrcgors situation strongly rcscmblcs that prophcsicd by
!saiah: His visagc was so marrcd morc than any man, and his lorm
morc than thc sons ol mcn . . . hc hath no lorm nor comclincss, and
whcn wc shall scc him, thcrc is no bcauty that wc should dcsirc him.
Hc is dcspiscd and rcjcctcd ol mcn, a man ol sorrows, and acquaintcd
with gricl: and wc hid as it wcrc our laccs lrom him, hc was dcspiscd,
and wc cstccmcd him not. Surcly hc hath bornc our gricls, and carricd
our sorrows: yct wc did cstccm him strickcn, smittcn ol God, and
aictcd. 8ut hc was woundcd lor our transgrcssions, hc was bruiscd
lor our iniquitics (!s. 52:1453:5). !n lact, a good dcal ol thc incidcntal
imagcry ol Metamorphosis was dcrivcd lrom !saiah. For cxamplc, thc
statcmcnt that Grcgors sistcr had worn on hcr ncck ncithcr collar
nor ribbon cvcr sincc shc had bccn working in thc shop, corrcsponds
to, Loosc thyscll lrom thc bands ol thy ncck, captivc daughtcr
ol Zion (52:2). Tc dctails ol Grcgors dcath arc takcn lrom thc
Passion, and thc wholc allcgorical schcmc ol cmploycrs as gods and
moncy as spiritual rcsourccs probably camc lrom thc various Ncw
Tcstamcnt parablcs ol lords, stcwards, and talcnts.
!n a crudc scnsc, thcn, Metamorphosis satirizcs Christians, who
arc only distrcsscd, angry, and, ultimatcly, crucl whcn a sccond Christ
Tc Mctamorphosis
178
appcars. Tcy takc gods in timcs ol troublc, cvcn into thcir own
homcs, thcn throw thcm out whcn thc troublc cnds. Altcr Grcgors
dcath, a butchcrs boy comcs up thc stairs, mccting and passing thc
cvictcd lodgcrgods going down thc stairs. Pricstlikc, hc brings thc
mcat that thc Samsas will cat thcmsclvcs, suggcsting communion, as
opposcd to thc burnt ocrings thcy had lormcrly madc to thc lodgcrs.
At onc lcvcl, Kalka is parodying Christs sacricc, but a mcrcly thco
logical account ol thc story is lar lrom complctc. !t ncglccts thc rich
scxual symbolism, thc doublc doors, lor cxamplc, through which
Grcgor must pass (a birth imagc) or thc phallic symbols associatcd
with his lathcr: indccd, at onc point Hcrr Samsa is dcscribcd in tcrms
rathcr morc appropriatc to a phallus. Kalka is rcaching lor morc than
thcological allcgory.
At thc risk ol bcing tritc, ! would likc to suggcst that Grcgors
translormation dramatizcs thc human prcdicamcnt. Tat is, wc arc
all blind, likc Samson, trappcd bctwccn a sct ol dark instinctual urgcs
on onc hand and an obscurc drivc to scrvc gods on thc othcr. Likc
dungbcctlcs, our livcs arc dcncd by thc urgc to matc and thc urgc
to labor that comcs lrom it. ur only lrccdom is not to know wc
arc imprisoncd. Metamorphosis rcprcscnts abstractions physically and
chargcs physical rcalitics with spiritual signicancc. Grcgors physical
translormation, thcn, stands lor a spiritual translormation. Grcgor is a
dungbcctlc mcans hc is spiritually like onc. His back, hard as armor
platc, dramatizcs and substitutes for his awarcncss ol this human
prcdicamcnt. Similarly, his mctamorphosis lorccs his lamily to a
rcluctant awarcncss ol this imprisonmcnt: again, thc physical cvcnts
ol thc story, taking jobs, lor cxamplc, dramatizc and substitute for thc
awarcncss itscll. Finally, Grcgors mctamorphosis lorccs thc rcadcr to
an awarcncss ol thc cagc ol id and supcrcgo. Tc rcadcr, so long as
hc bclicvcs in thc mctamorphosis, by its vcry unrcality is drivcn to scc
thc rcalitics, 8iblical and Frcudian, hiding bchind thc ordinary rcality
ol thc story.
Tc rst part ol Metamorphosis lorccs this undcrstanding on us,
but thc cnding whimsically urgcs on us thc virtucs ol ignorancc. As
Grcgors sistcr says, You must gct thc idca out ol your hcad that this
is Grcgor. Vc havc bclicvcd that lor too long, and that is thc causc ol
all our unhappincss. How could it bc Grcgor: Tat is, so long as wc
bclicvc in Grcgors mctamorphosis, thc rcalistic dctails ol thc story arc
Franz Kalka
179 Tc Mctamorphosis
lraught with signicancc. !l wc can lorgct Grcgors prcdicamcnt and
ours, wc can rclapsc into blisslul ignorancc. To rcad Metamorphosis,
onc must put asidc thc unrcal mctamorphosis momcntarily, thc
troublc with thc Samsas is that thcy put it asidc lorcvcr.
181
ORLANDO
(VIRGINIA WOOLF)
,.
Renewal, Rebirth, and Change
in Virginia Woolf s Orlando
by Lorena Russell,
the University of North Carolina at Asheville
On the one hand, Virginia Woolfs Orlando, A Biography (1928) is an
obvious candidate for considering the literary theme of renewal and
rebirth. Te main character of the story, after all, not only lives several
centuries with little eect but also changes from a man to a woman
in the middle of the tale. Yet rebirth and renewal are centrally about
character transformation, and as the novel concludes, readers are left
pondering not so much the forces of change and renewal as they are
the persistence of the character in the face of such dramatic biological
and historical ux. As Orlando moves through various epochs,
maneuvering lifes blows and fortunes demands a capacity for renewal.
Yet at the core, Orlandos personality essentially stays the same. Te
tension the novel establishes between powerful social forces and a
persistent yet adaptable personality arises from Woolfs imaginative
and satiric treatment of social renewal and individual rebirth.
Tis impulse to recast literary themes is not unique within Woolfs
oeuvre and points in large part to her status as a modernist writer and
literary critic. Woolfs life, from 1882 to 1941, places her in a time
of radical transition between the Victorian and modern eras. She was
frequently preoccupied with understanding the cultural, philosoph-
ical, and aesthetic transformations that characterized this historical
182
momcnt. ssays such as Modcrn Fiction and Tc Ncw 8iography
cxcmplily hcr attcmpts at lraming thc changcs undcr way in how onc
writcs a charactcr in ction or a subjcct in biography. Hcr autobio
graphical cssays, diarics, and lcttcrs lurthcr idcntily hcr attcmpts to
carvc out ncw litcrary and social spaccs apart lrom thc stiing atmo
sphcrc ol hcr \ictorian upbringing. Novcls likc Mrs. Dalloway (1925)
and Te Waves (1931) cxpcrimcnt with dicrcnt ways ol prcscnting
livcd cxpcricncc. Rathcr than locusing on thc cxtcrnal dctails that
might rcvcal charactcr, Voolls approach works lrom thc insidc out,
placing rcadcrs squarcly insidc hcr charactcrs minds as thcy sort
through a multitudc ol mcmorics and imprcssions.
Orlandos lormal and thcmatic trcatmcnts ol rcncwal and rcbirth
arc thus part ol a broadcr modcrnist impulsc to dcnc itscll in thc
contcxt ol broadranging cultural and political translormations, and as
such thcy rccct Voolls longstanding intcrcst in moving litcraturc
toward a ncw acsthctic. Voolls intcrcsts wcrc not conncd to thc
rcalm ol acsthctics alonc. Shc was cqually conccrncd with cultural
rcvolutions rcgarding scx and gcndcr, and thcsc political conccrns
arc ccntral to undcrstanding thc broad thcmcs ol rcncwal and rcbirth
in Orlando. As a lcminist, Vooll was pcrsistcntly cngagcd in undcr
standing womcns cvolving social status. Vhilc writing Orlando, shc
was simultancously writing lccturcs to latcr bc publishcd undcr thc
titlc ol A Room of Ones Own (1929), and thc lcminist polcmic ol thcsc
lccturcs most ccrtainly inucnccd hcr novcl.
n a morc pcrsonal lcvcl, Orlando rcccts Voolls intimacy
with hcr lricnd and lovcr, thc poct and writcr \ita SackvillcVcst.
\itas son, Nigcl Nicholson, lamously charactcrizcd thc novcl as thc
longcst and most charming lovc lcttcr in litcraturc (225). Voolls
own lcttcrs and diarics rcvcal that thc novcl was in largc part writtcn
as a playlul biography ol SackvillcVcst, whosc aristocratic lincagc
(likc that ol rlandos lilc) traccd back to thc lizabcthan cra. \itas
scxuality and masculinity nd cxprcssion as wcll through rlandos
androgynous and biscxual charactcr. Prcscnting a lcsbian thcmc,
cvcn in ction, was a risky thing lor thc timc, but thc lantastic
conccit ol a scx changc hclpcd to soltcn thc novcls lcsbian contcnt.
(Vooll was wcllawarc ol thc obsccnity chargcs launchcd (and pros
ccutcd) against Radclyc Halls lcsbian novcl, Te Well of Loneliness.
Hcrmionc Lcc notcs that Vooll cxciscd somc ol thc morc risqu
\irginia Vooll
183
rclcrcnccs lrom hcr manuscript ol Orlando in a likcly rcsponsc to
thc supprcssion ol Halls novcl (517).
Tc usc ol comcdy and satirc lcnd thc novcl a pcrvasivc tonc
ol ironic dcation, cnabling Vooll to lurthcr inhibit hcr rcadcrs
tcndcncy to takc thc book too scriously. !n hcr diary Vooll dcscribcs
how thc rclcasc ol writing thc book ocrs hcr rcspitc lrom hcr morc
lormal writing tasks: ! lclt happicr than lor months . . . & abandoncd
myscll to thc purc dclight ol this larcc: Vhich ! cnjoy as much as !vc
cvcr cnjoycd anything . . . ! am writing rlando hall in a mock stylc
vcry clcar in plain, so that pcoplc will undcrstand cvcry word. 8ut
thc balancc bctwccn truth and lantasy must bc carclul (162). Many
ol thc dctails ol thc novcl wcrc drawn dircctly lrom \itas rcccntly
publishcd lamily history as wcll as hcr privatc lcttcrs, and thc dcdi
cation and photographs in Orlando makc thc biographical link with
SackvillcVcst quitc cxplicit, albcit complcx. Tc satirical ccct ol
thc novcl is hcightcncd by thc novcls intrusivc 8iographcr, whosc
voicc makcs cxplicit thc challcngcs ol writing thc story ol a lilc.
Tc complcxity ol Orlandos rclationship to biography thus lunc
tions on scvcral lcvcls, ranging lrom thc acsthctic to thc political
to thc pcrsonal. ach ol thcsc lcvcls lurthcr nds cxprcssion in thc
storys lancilul and satirical trcatmcnt ol timc, rcbirth, and translor
mation. Tc novcls lull titlc, Orlando: A Biography, sccmingly cstab
lishcs thc tcxt as a work ol nonction, a conccpt soon undcrmincd by
thc lancilul naturc ol thc talc. Vooll scts thc conccpt ol biography
(and history) on its hccls, largcly by dclying our cxpcctations ol how
history and charactcr intcrrclatc in thc arcna ol rcbirth and rcncwal.
Charactcr in ction is oltcn vcry much about changc. !n lact,
changc marks thc dicrcncc bctwccn round and at charactcrs.
Rcadcrs arc invitcd on thc basis ol thcsc tcrms to judgc how wcll
dcvclopcd a charactcr is bascd on how much changc that charactcr
gocs through. Ccrtainly, rlando maturcs through thc coursc ol thc
novcl and lcarns lrom cxpcricncc, but Voolls trcatmcnt ol timc in
thc cnd mcans that Orlando is not so much about charactcr rcbirth as
it is about adaptation.
For Vooll, an individuals capacity must bc mcasurcd against
what a particular socicty or historical cra allows. Changc bccomcs
lcss about what an individual accomplishcs through his or hcr agcncy,
and morc about how mctaphorical rcbirth rcsults lrom cultural
rlando
184
lorccs. Shc lurthcr ocrs thc radical idca that thc matcrial rcality
ol thc world itscll changcs and that artists, bcing in touch with thc
cvcrsopowcrlul spirit ol thc agc, rccct thosc changcs in thcir
writings and in thcir outlooks. Tc novcl, lor cxamplc, rccounts how
rlando cxpcricnccs thc timc ol thc Rcnaissancc as onc ol mutability.
!n lizabcths timc, cvcrything was dicrcnt (20). !t was a timc ol
intcnsc translormation, whcn roscs ladc and pctals lall (21). As hc
cntcrs thc Jacobcan pcriod, a ccrtain moribund spirit sccms to scttlc
upon his charactcr, and hc takcs to wandcring thc catacombs among
thc boncs ol his anccstors.
Vhcn thc Agc ol Prosc arrivcs, thc 8iographcr notcs, pcrhaps
thc scnscs wcrc a littlc dullcr and honcy and crcam lcss scductivc to
thc palatc. Also that thc strccts wcrc bcttcr draincd and thc houscs
bcttcr lit had its ccct upon thc stylc, it cannot bc doubtcd (83). Tc
shilt lrom thc cightccnth to thc ninctccnth ccntury is markcd by a
pall in thc sky, a growing darkncss signaling not only thc matcrial soot
ol thc industrial rcvolution but also thc intcllcctual darkncss that is a
pcrvasivc lorcc in rlandos cxpcricncc: All was dark, all was doubt,
all was conlusion (165). rlandos narrativc ol translormation and
dcvclopmcnt is onc that spcaks lcss to univcrsalizing valucs and morc
toward thc scnsc ol what thc matcrial rcality ol thc various cras allows
and prohibits.
For Vooll, an individuals pcrsonality is not mcrcly inu
cnccd by thosc cvcnts hc or shc cxpcricnccs in a lilctimc. Rathcr,
thc pcrsonality is an accumulation ol historical cxpcricncc that is
carricd on lrom oncs anccstors. nc ol thc morc radical lcaturcs
ol Voolls ncw biography as rcprcscntcd by Orlando, thcn, is that
to tcll thc story ol a lilc includcs bcing ablc to tcll thc storics ol
oncs anccstors. rlandos longcvity thus bccomcs anothcr way that
Vooll challcngcs thc orthodox vicw ol biography: Tc truc lcngth
ol a pcrsons lilc, whatcvcr thc Dictionary of Literary Biography
says, is always a mattcr ol disputc (224). Tc cmphasis on anccstry
is lurthcr ticd to aristocracy, dcpcndcnt as it is lor its claim to
social supcriority through its ability to tracc lincagc through blood
rclations.
Tis notion ol an accumulatcd lilc holds ccrtain implications
lor trcating thc conccpt ol rcbirth. Voolls thcory ol an accumu
latcd pcrsonality lcnds hcr charactcrizations a ccrtain pcrsistcncc
\irginia Vooll
185
and prcdictability. 8y writing thc charactcr rlando as basically
immunc to timcs ravagcs, thc conccpt ol translormation is sct into
rclicl against thc notion ol a pcrsistcnt pcrsonality. Tc story bcgins
in thc Rcnaissancc during thc rcign ol Quccn lizabcth ! and cnds
in thc carly twcnticth ccntury. Yct, thc charactcr ol rlando pcrsists
throughout, aging only twcnty ycars in spitc ol a timc lramc that
spans thrcc ccnturics (hc is sixtccn whcn thc story opcns and shc is
thirtysix at storys cnd).
Vhilc rlandos cnduring pcrsonality, mcmorics, and acctions
crcatc a scnsc ol stability, thc charactcr ncvcrthclcss passcs through
scvcral momcnts in thc tcxt that clcarly mark a kind ol rcbirth. !n
thc novcls rst chaptcr, rlando (though publically cngagcd to an
nglish lady) lalls madly in lovc with a visiting Russian princcss,
Sasha. Tc cntirc cpisodc takcs placc during thc Grcat Frost ol
1606, a lantastic timc whcn thc Tamcs was said to havc lrozcn solid.
Tc momcnt is madc cvcn morc lantastic through Voolls clabora
tions, as shc dcscribcs how various lcvcls ol lizabcthan socicty took
to thc icc, pcrlorming thcir daytoday busincss and cclcbrations in
this ncw, crystallinc cnvironmcnt.
Lovc bccomcs thc impctus lor rlandos initial translormation.
As hc gazcs on Sasha:
thc thickncss ol his blood mcltcd, thc icc turncd to winc in his
vcins, hc hcard thc watcrs owing and thc birds singing, spring
brokc ovcr thc hard wintry landscapc, his manhood wokc, hc
graspcd a sword in his hand, hc chargcd a morc daring loc than
Polc or Moor, hc divcd in dccp watcr. . . . (30)
Vhilc all around him is lrozcn in whitc, rlando sccms to bc
undcrgoing a kind ol intcrnal spring awakcning, and wc arc told
that thc changc in rlando was cxtraordinary (31). Tc powcrs ol
this romantic lovc lall short, howcvcr, as rlando bccomcs smittcn
with jcalousy and thcn is abandoncd by Sasha at thc momcnt whcn a
suddcn spring thaw violcntly intcrrupts thc lrozcn world on thc rivcr,
crcating a sccnc ol riot and conlusion as icc blocks carry countlcss
victims downstrcam (46). As hc watchcs thc Russian ship disappcar
ovcr thc horizon, rlando cnds thc rst chaptcr in a statc ol dcspair
and hcartbrcak.
rlando
186
As thc ncxt chaptcr opcns, wc nd that rlando has lallcn into
social disrcputc and is living a lilc ol solitary dcprcssion at his lamily
cstatc. Vc arc told how hc wcnt to bcd on thc night ol Friday, Junc
17, and, much to thc constcrnation ol his sta and physicians, staycd
aslccp lor a wcck. Vhcn hc awakcns, hc drcsscs as usual, sccmingly
unawarc ol his unnatural slumbcr. Tc 8iographcr notcs a muddling
ol his mcmory, an impcrlcct rccollcction ol his past lilc (50), yct
thc mcmory ol Sasha is somcthing that rlando will rctain until thc
twcnticth ccntury.
Tc 8iographcr, in his typically mockcvasivc stylc, bricy cntcr
tains thc notion ol rcbirth to cxplain this prctcrnatural momcnt. Hc
asks: |h|ad rlando, worn out by thc cxtrcmity ol his sucring, dicd
lor a wcck, and thcn comc to lilc again: And il so, ol what naturc is
dcath and ol what naturc lilc: Having waitcd wcll ovcr hall an hour
lor an answcr to thcsc qucstions, and nonc coming, lct us gct on with
thc story (51). Vooll tcascs thc rcadcr with thc possibility ol miracu
lous rcsurrcction but thcn dcnics thc thcmc and thc philosophical
discoursc that would ncccssarily lollow such a rcading. ur impaticnt
narrator is not hcrc to rcvcal thc sccrct ol lilc but rathcr to tcll thc
story ol a lilc. And, as it turns out, tclling thc story ol a lilc (thc story
ol \ita, whosc namc mcans lilc) turns out to bc quitc complicatcd
cnough.
Asidc lrom challcnging thc rcadcrs (and thc 8iographcrs)
convcntional undcrstanding ol capturing pcrsonality through timc,
Orlando lurthcr challcngcs our scnsc ol what cannot bc known by
human bcings, using gcndcr and scxuality to add anothcr complica
tion to thc puzzlc ol rcbirth and rcncwal. rlandos cmcrgcncc as a
woman comcs midway in thc story and lollows a dccp slccp similar
to what thc charactcr cxpcricnccd lollowing thc loss ol Sasha. Vhilc
scrving as thc 8ritish ambassador in !stanbul, rlando (having slcpt
through a rcvolution) awakcns onc morning to nd himscll trans
lormcd into a woman.
Tis momcnt ol rcbirth marks thc most mcmorablc sccnc in thc
novcl, mcmorablc not only lor its lantastic prcscntation but lor thc
sccncs carclul trcatmcnt ol changc and stasis. Tc momcnt is markcd
by tcnsion convcycd as pagcant. Trumpcts chccr thc 8iographcr to tcll
thc Truth and nothing but thc Truth against thc inhibiting lorccs ol
Purity, Chastity, and Modcsty (99, 100102). At last, Truth wins out.
\irginia Vooll
187
Purity, Chastity, and Modcsty rctrcat to thcir champions, virgins and
city mcn, lawycrs and doctors, thosc who prohibit, thosc who dcny
(101), lcaving thc 8iographcr lrcc to dcscribc thc translormation in
a tonc ol ironic ination: whilc thc trumpcts pcalcd Truth! Truth!
Truth! Vc havc no choicc lclt but conlcsshc was a woman (102).
8ut rathcr than strcss thc changc implicit in this rcbirth, thc
8iographcr ocrs a statcmcnt assuring rcadcrs that thc charactcr thcy
had comc to know was, lor all intcnts and purposcs, thc samc:
rlando had bccomc a womanthcrc is no dcnying it. 8ut
in cvcry othcr rcspcct, rlando rcmaincd prcciscly as hc had
bccn. Tc changc ol scx, though it altcrcd thcir luturc, did
nothing whatcvcr to altcr thcir idcntity. Tcir laccs rcmaincd
. . . practically thc samc. His mcmorybut in luturc wc
must, lor convcntions sakc, say hcr lor his and shc lor
hchcr mcmory thcn, wcnt back through all thc cvcnts
ol hcr past lilc without cncountcring any obstaclc. . . . !t is
cnough lor us to statc thc simplc lact, rlando was a man
till thc agc ol thirty, whcn hc bccamc a woman and has
rcmaincd so cvcr sincc. (103)
8y allowing thc charactcr this consistcnt mcmory, thc novcl aords
rlando thc ability to commcnt on how lilc as a woman dicrs lrom
that as a man. Gcndcr dicrcncc, wc comc to lcarn, has as much to
do with clothing as anything clsc. rlando livcs lor an intcrim pcriod
with gypsics, wcaring thosc Turkish coats and trouscrs which can
bc worn indicrcntly by cithcr scx (103). !t is only whcn shc dons
a drcss and boards a ship lor ngland that shc rcalizcd, with a start
thc pcnaltics and thc privilcgcs ol hcr position (113). Vhilc thc drcss
shows o hcr (cvcr handsomc) lcgs to advantagc, shc rcalizcs shc is
at thc samc timc vulncrablc, dcpcndcnt on thc mcn around hcr lor
rcscuc should shc cnd up in thc watcr.
Latcr, in thc cightccnth ccntury, rlando lcarns ol thc lrccdom
shc acquircs by wcaring mcns clothing at night, lcading a doublc lilc
as lord and lady: Shc had, it sccms, no diculty in sustaining thc
dicrcnt parts, lor hcr scx changcd lar morc lrcqucntly than thosc
who havc worn only onc sct ol clothing can conccivc (161). Just
as rlando dcspairs thc masculinc bias ol thc Augustan Agc, thc
rlando
188
option ol crossdrcssing bccomcs a lorcc ol rcncwal, onc that cnablcs
hcr to cnjoy somc ol thc lrccdom and rcspcct shc had cnjoycd as a
man. Tis gcndcr uidity lurthcr cnablcd rlando (much likc \ita
SackvillcVcst) to bcnct lrom what wc could charactcrizc as biscxu
ality: From thc probity ol brccchcs shc turncd to thc scductivcncss
ol pctticoats and cnjoycd thc lovc ol both scxcs cqually (161). 8y
writing a charactcr that ccctivcly contains both scxcs, Vooll dcluscs
thc potcntially cxplosivc conccpt ol samcscx dcsirc.
rlandos mcmory ol hcr lilc as a man givcs hcr spccial insight
into gcndcr bias:
Shc rcmcmbcrcd how, as a young man, shc had insistcd that
womcn must bc obcdicnt, chastc, sccntcd, and cxquisitcly
apparclcd. Now ! shall havc to pay in my own pcrson lor
thosc dcsircs, shc rccctcd, lor womcn arc not (judging lrom
my own short cxpcricncc ol thc scx) obcdicnt, chastc, sccntcd,
and cxquisitcly apparclcd by naturc. Tcy can only attain thcsc
graccs, without which thcy may cnjoy nonc ol thc dclights ol
lilc, by thc most tcdious disciplinc. (116)
Historical changc lurthcr highlights gcndcr disparity in thc
novcl. rlando nds hcrscll quitc rcstraincd and bclittlcd by thc
gcndcr cxpcctations ol thc Augustan and Romantic cras. Shc
is cxcludcd lrom thc salons ol thc nlightcnmcnt, whcrc wit
bccomcs dcncd as a masculinc pastimc. Hcr grcatcst challcngc
comcs with thc \ictorian cra, whcrc thc spirit ol thc ninctccnth
ccntury was antipathctic to hcr in thc cxtrcmc, and thus it took hcr
and brokc hcr, and shc was awarc ol hcr dclcat at its hands as shc
had ncvcr bccn bclorc (178). Litcrally a child ol thc Rcnaissancc,
rlandos lrcc spirit is scvcrcly challcngcd by thc scxual prudcry ol
thc ninctccnth ccntury.
Yct, oncc again, through a symbolic rcbirth, rlando adapts and
survivcs. Hcr writing stylc dcgradcs into thc most insipid vcrsc shc
had cvcr rcad in hcr lilc (174) and shc is bcsct with an cxtraordi
nary tingling and vibration all ovcr hcr that camc to bc conccntratcd
onto thc sccond ngcr ol hcr lclt hand (175). For as a woman in
thc \ictorian cra, rlando nccdcd to bc marricd, and thc tingling
that bcscts hcr body signals thc ncccssity ol hcr marriagc. !n a sccnc
\irginia Vooll
189
strongly rccalling Jane Eyre, shc brcaks hcr anklc and cmbraccs thc
spongy turl ol thc moors, dcclaring, ! am naturcs bridc (182).
Vhcn a dark man on horscback ncarly runs hcr ovcr, thc lollowing
intcrchangc occurs: Hc startcd. Tc horsc stoppcd. Madam, thc
man cricd, lcaping to thc ground, yourc hurt! !m dcad, Sir! shc
rcplicd. A lcw minutcs latcr, thcy bccamc cngagcd (183). ncc
again, wc arc prcscntcd with a sccnc that sccmingly signals rcbirth,
only to havc thc potcntial solcmnity ol thc momcnt ironically
undcrcut.
!n thc cnd, Orlando commcnts morc on social prcjudicc than
thc dramatic potcntial ol human rcncwal and rcbirth. Still, thc
story rcquircs at lcast thc thcmatic possibility ol rcbirth, as though
rlandos adaptation to thc variablc cpochs and culturcs can only
bc cxprcsscd through symbolic dcath and rcncwal. !n thc cnd,
Voolls ironic dcation ol thc thcmc lcavcs us with a vcry broad and
cxpansivc conccpt ol charactcr and pcrsonality, onc that contains
gcncrations ol history and, as such, multiplc possibilitics ol scx and
gcndcr. 8y challcnging commonscnsc notions ol timc, Vooll has
also lound a way to challcngc thc convcntions and cxpcctations
ol traditional biography. Hcr lancilul portrait ol hcr lricnd \ita
SackvillcVcst thus invitcs us to imaginativcly rcconsidcr subjcc
tivity, gcndcr, scxuality, and timc by considcring thc cvcryday possi
bilitics ol rcbirth and rcncwal.
WORKS CITED
8riggs, Julia. Virginia Woolf: An Inner Life. Ncw York: Harcourt, 2005.
cSalvo, Louisc A. Lighting thc Cavc: Tc Rclationship bctwccn \ita
SackvillcVcst and \irginia Vooll. Signs 8.2 (1982): 195214. JSTR.
Ramscy Library, UNC Ashcvillc 16 January 2008 http://links.jstor.
org/~
Lcc, Hcrmionc. Virginia Woolf. Ncw York: Knopl, 1996.
Nicholson, Nigcl. Portrait of a Marriage. Ncw York: Anthcncum, 1973.
Sprolcs, Karyn Z. Desiring Women: Te Partnership of Virginia Woolf and Vita
Sackville-West. Toronto: U ol Toronto P, 2006.
Swinton, Tilda. !ntcrvicw: Actrcss Swinton Movcs lrom Art Housc to
Hollywood. All Tings Considered, National Public Radio. 17 January
2008.
rlando
190
Vooll, \irginia. Te Diary of Virginia Woolf: Vol. 3, 19251930. ds. Annc
livicr 8cll with Andrcw McNcillic. Ncw York: Harcourt 8racc, 1980.
. Orlando: A Biography. d. Mark Husscy. Annotatcd d. rlando, Fla.:
Harcourt, 2006.
\irginia Vooll
191
THE SCARLET LETTER
(NATHANIEL HAWTHORNE)
,.
Hesters Bewitched Triangle:
Within the Spell of the A
by 8lakc Hobby,
thc Univcrsity ol North Carolina at Ashcvillc
|. . . Tc| SCARLT LTTR, so lantastically cmbroidcrcd
and illuminatcd upon hcr bosom . . . had thc ccct ol a spcll,
taking hcr out ol ordinary rclations with humanity, and
cnclosing hcr in a sphcrc by hcrscll. (58)
As thc cycs ol puritanical 8oston gazc at Hcstcr Prynnc, babc in
arms, cmbroidcrcd A on hcr brcast, Hcstcr bcars thc scrutiny ol
a guiltriddcn socicty in scarch ol thc ncarcst scapcgoat. Tc scarlct
lcttcr A, rich in symbolism and kcy to thc allcgory ol rcdcmption
Hawthornc wcavcs, casts a scductivc spcll ovcr thc novcl that cnvclops
its charactcrs, govcrns its actions, and lorms an archctypal pattcrn ol
rcncwal and rcbirth. For Hawthornc, thc A is both an objcct ol and
catalyst lor dcsirc: an outward, visiblc sign that inspircs Hcstcr, kccps
hcr moving, and ultimatcly lcads hcr to undcrstand hcr latc. 8ut to
arrivc whcrc shc docs, shc must pcrlorm a pcnitcnt rolc in a triangular
rclationship that rivals thc bcst ol passion plays, onc llcd with tragic
dccisions, raging jcalousics, and woclul sucring.
!n his work Deceit, Desire, and the Novel, Rcn Girard dcscribcs
how litcrary charactcrs oltcn act out ol jcalousy and cnvy and how
novclists lrom Ccrvantcs to Stcndhal to Flaubcrt to ostocvsky
192
to Proust havc cnshrincd charactcrs whosc dcsircs dictatc not only
thc action ol thc novcl but also thcir latc. Vith Girards thcory in
mind, thc A is an objcct that govcrns what Hcstcr Prynnc, Arthur
immcsdalc, Rogcr Chillingworth, and thc 8oston townslolk dcsirc.
ncc choscn, thc A dctcrmincs thc actions ol thosc captivatcd by it,
only rclinquishing its hold whcn thc novcls charactcrs scck humility,
scllundcrstanding, and rcncwal.
Atop thc inlamous scaold to cnact a ritc ol communal pcnancc,
Hcstcr has a panoramic vision in which, as hcr mcmorys picturc
gallcry rolls, shc contcmplatcs hcr rclationship to thc world:
. . . thc scaold ol thc pillory was a point ol vicw that rcvcalcd
to Hcstcr Prynnc thc cntirc track along which shc had bccn
trcading, sincc hcr happy inlancy. Standing on that miscrablc
cmincncc, shc saw again hcr nativc villagc, in ld ngland, and
hcr patcrnal homc, a dccaycd housc ol gray stonc, oblitcratcd
shicld ol arms ovcr thc portal, in tokcn ol antiquc gcntility. Shc
saw hcr lathcrs lacc with its bald brow, and rcvcrcnd whitc
bcard, that owcd ovcr thc oldlashioncd lizabcthan ru, hcr
mothcrs too, with thc look ol hccdlul and anxious lovc which
it always worc in hcr rcmcmbrancc, and which, cvcn sincc hcr
rcmonstrancc in hcr dcath, had so oltcn laid thc impcdimcnt
ol a gcntlc rcmonstrancc in hcr daughtcrs pathway. Shc saw
hcr own lacc, glowing with girlish bcauty, and illuminating all
thc intcrior ol thc musky mirror in which shc had bccn wont
to gazc at it. (63)
Hcstcr rcmcmbcrs thc ways ol hcr nativc villagc and hcr own cxpcri
cncc ol povcrty. Shc ruminatcs on thc mcmory ol hcr parcnts who,
although long dcad, still govcrn hcr thoughts, actions, and scnsibili
tics. Shc locuscs on hcr bcauty as a young girl, which sccms to havc
disappcarcd lrom thc mirror into which shc uscd to gazc.
Fillcd with rcmorsc lor thc way shc has livcd, lamcnting thc losscs
shc has cxpcricnccd, thc innoccncc shc no longcr can claim, and thc
lovc shc has ncvcr known, shc conlronts Rogcr Chillingworth lor thc
rst timc. His sight jars anothcr scrics ol imagcs:
Ncxt rosc bclorc hcr, in mcmorys picturcgallcry, thc intricatc
and narrow thoroughlarcs, thc tall, gray houscs, thc hugc cathcdrals,
Nathanicl Hawthornc
193
and thc public cdiccs, ancicnt in datc and quaint in architccturc,
ol a Contincntal city, whcrc a ncw lilc had awaitcd hcr, still in
conncction with thc misshapcn scholar, a ncw lilc, but lccding itscll
on timcworn matcrials, likc a tult ol grccn moss on a crumbling
wall. (63)
Hcstcr rcmcmbcrs how hcr marriagc with Chillingworth was to
bc a ncw lilc, a lrcsh start, and yct shc lccls it was bascd on timc
worn matcrials, somcthing discascd that grows on a dcad structurc,
dcvoid ol thc possibility ol ncw lilc. As shc comcs back lrom thc
mcmory portrait, shc again vicws hcrscll and all ol thc townspcoplc
who lcvcl thcir stcrn rcgards at hcr (64). vcrwhclmcd by thc
prcscnt momcnt ol shamc, and clutching baby Pcarl, shc is ovcrcomc,
and hcr vision ladcs:
Could it bc truc: Shc clutchcd thc child so crccly to hcr
brcast, that it scnt lorth a cry, shc turncd hcr cycs downward at
thc scarlct lcttcr, and cvcn touchcd it with hcr ngcr, to assurc
hcrscll that thc inlant and thc shamc wcrc rcal. Ycs!thcsc
wcrc hcr rcalitics,and all clsc had vanishcd! (64)
Hcstcrs rst visit to thc scaold ocrs a momcnt ol illumination, a
drcamlikc vision in which shc sccs thc distancc bctwccn hcr rcality
and hcr idcal. Hcstcr is unablc to hold onto thc mcmory portrait.
Hcr vision ladcs, shc no longcr undcrstands thc distancc bctwccn
thc prcscnt sucring shc knows and thc idcal that hcr imagination
supplics.
Poiscd lor catharsis in thc rst scaold sccnc, Hcstcr bccomcs
posscsscd. Shc ncgatcs thc cxpcricncc and bccomcs thc victim ol
what Girard calls mimctic dcsirc. Shc lollows an othcr: thc A
itscll. As Harold 8loom notcs, cvcn as Hcstcr dcvotcs hcrscll to thc
sucrings ol othcr womcn, shc has yicldcd to Puritan socictys initial
judgmcnt upon hcr. !n doing so, shc ccrtainly has abandoncd much
ol valuc in hcr own pcrsonal stancc. Hcstcr rmly rcsolvcs during
this rst visit to thc scaold to sucr and to bc a martyr. Shc rcsigns
hcrscll to sucr lor immcsdalc, lor Pcarl, lor Chillingworth, and
lor thc community. !n so doing, shc dooms hcrscll to a hcllish lilc ol
illusions, in which shc vainly imagincs that shc might bc thc dcstincd
prophctcss who would cstablish thc wholc rclation bctwccn man
Tc Scarlct Lcttcr
194
and woman on a surcr ground ol mutual happincss (287). !n this
opcning sccnc Hcstcr undcrgocs what Girard calls a mimctic crisis:
csirc is thc mimctic crisis in itscll, it is thc acutc mimctic
rivalry with thc othcr that occurs in all thc circumstanccs
wc call privatc, ranging lrom croticism to prolcssional or
intcllcctual ambition. Tc crisis can bc stabilizcd at dicrcnt
lcvcls according to thc individuals conccrncd, but it always
lacks thc rcsourccs ol catharsis and cxpulsion. (Girard, Tings
Hidden 288)
Likc othcr novcl protagonists, Hcstcr sucrs paralyzcd judgmcnt thc
momcnt thc mcdiator (thc lcttcr A) is lclt (Girard 4). Shc loscs thc
ability to judgc and disccrn and comcs undcr thc spcll ol thc A. Shc
bccomcs, as docs on Quixotc, a victim ol triangular dcsirc. on
Quixotc dcsircs to bc likc Amadis dc Gaul and thcrclorc lcads a lilc
ol illusions and advcnturcs whilc imitating thc grcat knightcrrant. So
Hcstcr also, undcr thc spcll ol thc A, dcsircs to bc thc grcat martyr,
bcaring thc mark ol sin lor all to scc, and in so doing, shc bccomcs
a victim ol triangular dcsirc: Tc A dictatcs cvcry movcmcnt shc
makcs.
Tc opcning sccnc ol Te Scarlet Letter dramatically dcscribcs
thc powcr ol thc A, but it also rcvcals thc complicatcd trianglc
consisting ol Hcstcr, immcsdalc, and Chillingworth that lorms
thc tcnsion and conict ol thc novcl. Similarly, dith Vhartons
Te Age of Innocence opcns with a vicw ol thc opcra in which thc
triangular rclationship among May, Ncwland, and thc Countcss
lcnska is cstablishcd. Vhartons novcl also locuscs on an cxtcrnal
mcdiator: social convcntion. Likc thc lcttcr A, social convcntions
motivatc thc novcls charactcrs and lcad thcm to lollow mcdiatcd
dcsircs.
8oth scapcgoat and martyr, Hcstcr bclicvcs shc knows how to
crcatc an idcal world. Shc holds last to an idcalizcd vision ol a martyr,
ol immcsdalc, and ol thc pcrlcct mothcr. Shc bclicvcs shc can hold
on to any idcal by boldly conlronting thc world on hcr own. Hcstcr
ncvcr sccs thc distancc, howcvcr, bctwccn thc idcal and rcality. Shc
sccs hcrscll as capablc ol translorming thc world. Hcstcr cuts hcrscll
o lrom socicty. n thc cdgc ol thc community and by thc sca, shc
Nathanicl Hawthornc
195
crcatcs a scllcontaincd world. !solatcd lrom thc community, shc
sucrs at hcr own hand and bccomcs sick and blind. Hcr conviction
and hcr scllimposcd isolation causc hcr to miss opportunitics lor
happincss. Hcr dcsirc to bc thc grcat martyr placcs hcr in a kind ol
drcam univcrsc whcrcin shc is bcwitchcd. Following thc mcdiatcd
dcsirc ol thc A, shc sccs illusions as rcal. Shc lollows a blinding
dcsirc that rcmovcs hcr lrom thc normal sphcrc ol human rclations.
Shc, likc othcr Romantic novcl protagonists, sccs hcrscll as thc sourcc
ol thc idcal rcality. Lukcs spcaks ol thc cxaltcd scll ol thc Romantic
protagonist:
. . . thc scll, cut o lrom transccndcncc, rccognizcs itscll as thc
sourcc ol thc idcal rcality, and, as ncccssary conscqucncc, as thc
only matcrial worthy ol scllrcalization. . . . |M|an bccomcs thc
author ol his own lilc and at thc samc timc thc obscrvcr ol that
lilc as a crcatcd work ol art. (118)
Hcstcr, cut o lrom rcality, has thc illusion that shc is a kind ol savior.
Shc longs to lcavc thc lilc shc has known and to crcatc a ncw world
on hcr own. Tus, Hcstcr crcatcs somcthing ncw and bcautilul out
ol thc scarlct lcttcr A. Shc bclicvcs that hcr own artistic skills can
translorm thc A into somcthing othcr than it is. Shc proudly dons
hcr dull, gray clothcs but labors ovcr thc Athc symbol ol hcr
dcsirc to bccomc somcthing shc is not.
Tc grcat irony ol imitating an abstract idcal or dcsiring anothcr
is that thcy both arc lorms ol scllccntcrcdncss. As Girard says, a
scllccntcrcd pcrson thinks hc is choosing lor himscll but in lact
hc shuts himscll out as much as othcrs (298). csirc according to
anothcr may bc tcrmcd blindncss, a sickncss, thc tcndcncy to scc
only oursclvcs and not othcrs. Tis lorm ol dcsirc may bc sccn as a
vain projcction or abstract idcal to bc imitatcd. !t is thc vaniteux, thc
imitator, according to Girard, that cannot draw lrom his own dcsircs
but must borrow lrom othcrs (6). Tc Romantic vaniteux wants to
bc an original. !ronically, thc Romantic vaniteux blindly lollows a
dcsirc according to anothcr, bclicving all thc whilc that hc or shc
is autonomous, original, and indcpcndcnt. Tis dcsirc according to
anothcr robs Hcstcr ol all originality and accts cvcrything about
hcr. Hcstcr is blindcd by an unrcalistic vision ol immcsdalc, just as
Tc Scarlct Lcttcr
196
mma 8ovary (Flaubcrts Madame Bovary) and Mathildc dc la Molc
(Stcndhals Te Red and the Black) arc blindcd by thc idca ol romancc
thcy rcad in novcls. mma and Mathildc blindly lollow idcals that
arc unrcalistic, idcals not bascd on thc way things arc but on mcdi
atcd dcsircs. Tcss, in Hardys Tess of the DUrbervilles, lollows a dcsirc
to havc a namc and so sucrs grcatly. Tus, Hcstcr lollows, as do
othcr Romantic protagonists, an abstract idcal that takcs hold ol hcr
imagination.
Hcstcr sccs hcr rclationship with immcsdalc as an impossiblc
idcal. Hcstcr tclls immcsdalc, what wc did had a consccration ol
its own, raising hcr rclationship with immcsdalc to a mcdiatcd
dcsirc (213). Hcstcr has a mind ol nativc couragc. Shc lollows a
blind idcal, scparatcd lrom thc world. Shc wandcrs without rulc or
guidancc, in a moral wildcrncss whcrc shamc, dcspair, and solitudc
arc hcr tcachcrs (218). rawn to thc A, shc continucs to lollow
its coursc cvcn altcr immcsdalcs dcath. Tc darkncss ol thc A
bccomcs a kind ol addiction lor Hcstcr, who is lcd by thc powcr ol
mimctic dcsirc to rcturn to thc community:
8ut thcrc is a latality, a lccling so irrcsistiblc and incvitablc that it
has thc lorcc ol doom, which almost invariably compcls human bcings
to lingcr around and haunt, ghostlikc, thc spot whcrc somc grcat and
markcd cvcnt has givcn thc color to thcir lilctimc, and still thc morc
irrcsistibly, thc darkcr thc tingc that saddcns it. (8586)
Hcstcrs darkcncd dcsirc to bc a martyr takcs hcr out ol normal
human rclations. Shc lollows a powcrlul dcsirc. Lovc, howcvcr, is a
powcrlul lorcc and nccds a guidc. Shc rcmains bcautilul likc naturc
but cqually untamcd: Naturcthat wild hcathcn Naturc ol thc
lorcst, ncvcr subjugatcd by human law, nor illumincd by highcr truth
(222). Hcstcr rcmains dctcrmincd but ncvcr illumincd by truth or
truc lovc. Shc longs to takc thc path ol lovc but lacks moral guidc
posts along thc way.
Following thc dcsirc to bc a martyr lor all, shc takcs thc brunt
ol thc guilt on hcr own shouldcrs: Hcstcr Prynnc yct strugglcd to
bclicvc that no lcllowmortal was guilty likc hcrscll (94). Tus thc
A bccomcs a powcrlul mcdiator lor Hcstcr that continually burns
in hcr rcdhot with inlcrnal rc (94). Hcstcr bccomcs bound likc
Promcthcus by hcr pridc and must sucr in isolation. nly now and
Nathanicl Hawthornc
197
thcn docs shc cxpcricncc a vision ol lrccdom, a mcans ol cscapc lrom
thc imprisonmcnt ol mimctic dcsirc:
8ut somctimcs, oncc in many days, or pcrchancc in many
months, shc lclt an cyca human cycupon thc ignominious
brand, that sccmcd to givc a momcntary rclicl, as il hall ol hcr
agony wcrc sharcd. Tc ncxt instant, back it rushcd again, with
a still dccpcr thorn ol pain, lor, in that bricl intcrval, shc had
sinncd ancw. (93)
Although thc A is not a rcal, physical lorcc, it bccomcs thc mcans
ol hcr imprisonmcnt. Hcstcr paccs in a conluscd world ol mimctic
dcsirc that masks hcr own idcntity, lcaving hcr a lallcn woman, alonc
and cagcd.
Hcstcr is caught in a dcsircllcd trianglc with immcsdalc and
Chillingworth. Tcrc, shc lalls undcr thc spcll ol thc A. Hardys
protagonist Tcss is also torn bctwccn mcn: Alcc, a kind ol ionysian
lorcc, and Angcl, an Apollonian gurc. Hcstcr is pullcd bctwccn
Chillingworths monomaniacal qucst lor rcvcngc and thc guilt hc
inicts upon hcr and immcsdalcs buricd gricl and scllinictcd
torturc, which also movc hcr to lccl guilt and pity. As shc trics to
ncgotiatc both, hcr idcntity is luscd with thc A. Shc allows both
mcn and socicty to lorcc thc imagc ol thc A upon hcr. Similarly,
Vhartons Countcss llcn lcnska is caught bctwccn thc count and
Ncwland, Tcss is torn bctwccn Alcc and Angcl, Flaubcrts mma
8ovary runs back and lorth bctwccn Charlcs and Rudolphc, and
Stcndhals Mmc. dc Rcnal vacillatcs bctwccn thc passion ol Julicn
and dclity to hcr husband, M. dc Rcnal.
Tc lallcn woman, cxcmplicd by Hcstcr Prynnc, mma 8ovary,
and Tcss urbcycld, is not pcrmittcd pcrsonhood. Although shc
bccomcs a victim ol mimctic dcsirc by hcr own choosing, thc world
prcscnts an unrcalistic vision ol bccoming, an unrcalistic vision ol
happincss, dcsirc, and passion that bordcrs on thc unattainablc. Tc
A pulls hcr into a rcalm whcrc shc bclicvcs shc is an angcl and
thinks shc has a vision bcyond cvcryonc clscs, shc has a vain illusion
that shc is thc dcstincd prophctcss, thc angcl and apostlc ol thc
coming ol a ncw rcvclation (287).
Tc Scarlct Lcttcr
198
As thc inlcrnal mimctic trianglc is playcd out bctwccn Hcstcr,
immcsdalc, and Chillingworth, a stcrn Ncw ngland commu
nity, llcd with stccplccrowncd hats and clothcd in sadcolorcd
garmcnts, projccts its own Utopia ol human virtuc and happincss
(51) and thus lorms a brccding ground lor mimctic dcsirc. Hcstcr
bccomcs an objcct ol mimctic dcsirc lor thc community, a scapc
goat lor its own sinlulncss. Tc puritanical community bclicvcs it is
possiblc to labcl sin cxtcrnally. Tis samc social structurc is a cagc
that, likc thc ornamcntcd opcra box ol thc Vcllands in Vhartons
Te Age of Innocence, holds all togcthcr undcr thc namc ol social
convcntion but is actually a prison. Vhilc thc community appcars
to bc intcrcstcd in thc common good, it is rcally only intcrcstcd
in scllgain and in kccping thc cvil onc at a distancc. Tis Ncw
ngland socicty lails to scc that sin is also a rcdcmptivc lorcc and
that rcdcmption can only occur whcn sin is rccognizcd as a univcrsal
sickncss. Tc community thus pulls up thc whcat with thc wccds,
rcjccting sinncrs such as Hcstcr publicly and dcnying its own
discascd, sinlul statc.
Lurking along thc dcsolatc scashorc whilc gathcring hcrbs and
tormcnting immcsdalc with storics ol wccds growing lrom a
sinlul hcart, Rogcr Chillingworth plays to immcsdalcs wcakncsscs
(immcsdalcs mcdiatcd dcsircs) and thcn rclishcs thc pain and agony
that immcsdalc cndurcs. immcsdalc allows Chillingworth to
bccomc a dcstructivc lorcc. Tc narrativc voicc statcs:
Had a man sccn old Rogcr Chillingworth, at thc momcnt ol his
ccstasy, hc would havc had no nccd to ask how Satan comports
himscll, whcn a prccious human soul is lost to hcavcn, and won
into his kingdom. (151)
Chillingworth sccks rcvcngc through thc A. Hc bccomcs obscsscd
with thc punishmcnt ol thc A and docs a dcvilish dancc whcn hc
rcalizcs thc powcrlul ccct it has had on immcsdalc. Tc scarlct
lcttcr A is an intricatcly wovcn labric ol dcsircs.
immcsdalc also bccomcs a victim ol thc As mcdiatcd dcsirc:
|A|bovc all things clsc, hc loathcd his miscrablc scll (158). Hc
Nathanicl Hawthornc
199
bccomcs a victim ol his own dcsirc to bc miscrablc. Hc statcs to
Hcstcr in thc lorcst:
Hcstcr, hast thou lound pcacc: Vhatcvcr ol good capacity thcrc
originally was in mc, all ol Gods gilts that wcrc thc choiccst
havc bccomc thc ministcrs ol spiritual tormcnt. Hcstcr, ! am
most miscrablc! (208209)
immcsdalc is a miscrablc man who tormcnts himscll. Hc is what
Girard would tcrm a hcro ol intcrnal mcdiation who, lar lrom
boasting ol his corts to imitatc, carclully hidcs thcm (10). immcs
dalc continually dcsircs to bc lrcc ol thc unspcakablc sin, yct thc A
constantly rckindlcs his dcsirc. Hc livcs a lilc bascd on an idcalistic
vision ol holincss that hc imitatcs outwardly whilc sccrctly disclosing
his intcrnal dcsircs. Hc sccks lovc and passion in Hcstcr and thcn
spcnds most ol thc novcl dcsiring to bc wrctchcdto bc thc sinncr.
Ultimatcly, immcsdalc shuns thc powcr ol thc mcdiator. Hc, likc
othcr litcrary charactcrs lcd by mimctic dcsirc such as on Quixotc,
Julicn Sorcl, and Raskolnikov, rcjccts his lormcr ways and cxpcricnccs a
clarity ol vision (Girard 291). on Quixotc rcjccts his vision ol knight
crrantry, Julicn Sorcl rcjccts his idcas ol rcvolt, Raskolnikov rcjccts his
supcrhumanity, and immcsdalc rcjccts his masochistic dcsircs. ach
ol thc protagonists ultimatcly rclcascs or dcnics his lantasy inspircd by
pridc (Girard 293). As immcsdalc rcturns to town altcr his intcrvicw
with Hcstcr, hc changcshc cxpcricnccs an intcrnal rcvolution, a total
changc ol dynasty and moral codc (236), in which hc now is cnticcd
at cvcry stcp to do somcthing strangcsomc wild, wickcd thing or
othcr (237). Hc cmcrgcs lrom thc lorcst as a ncw man, much likc
thc blind man in Chaptcr !X ol thc Gospcl ol John and in thc ninth
chaptcr ol Acts, whcn Paul is struck by a lightning bolt and thrown
lrom his horsc, blindcd. Tcsc dramatic blind cpiphanics rcprcscnt,
as with thc blindncss cdipus imposcs upon himscll, sccing lor thc
rst timc. Although immcsdalc passcs into thc abyss, Chillingworth
withcrs lrom rcvcngc, and Hcstcr wandcrs through a spiritual wildcr
ncss, hopc cvcntually appcars: on a cld, sablc, thc lcttcr A, gulcs, a
sign ol rcbirth and rcncwal (278).
Tc Scarlct Lcttcr
200
WORKS CITED
Girard, Rcn. Deceit, Desire, and the Novel: Self and Other in Literary Structure.
Stanlord: Stanlord UP, 1987.
. Tings Hidden Since the Foundation of the World. Trans. by Stcphan
8ann. 8altimorc: Johns Hopkins UP, 1965.
Hawthornc, Nathanicl. Te Scarlet Letter. Ncw York: Modcrn Library
McGrawHill, 1984.
Lukcs, Gcorg. Te Teory of the Novel. Trans. by Anna 8ostock. Cambridgc:
M!T, 1971.
Nathanicl Hawthornc
201
A TALE OF TWO CITIES
(CHARLES DICKENS)
,.
Recalled to Iife: Sacrice and Renewal
in A Tale of Two Cities
by Arthur Rankin,
Louisiana Statc Univcrsity, Alcxandria
!n his study ol narrativc structurc and rcading practiccs, Pctcr Rabi
nowitz points out that rcadcrs pay attcntion to opcnings and clos
ings as arcas that allow lor rich intcrprctivc momcnts: Placcmcnt
in such a position docs morc than cnsurc that ccrtain dctails will
rcmain morc rmly in our mcmorics. . . . ||ur attcntion during thc
act ol rcading will, in part, bc conccntratcd on what wc havc lound
in thcsc positions (59). Rabinowitzs commcnts on rcading practiccs
arc cspccially pcrtincnt whcn thinking ol ickcnss novcls. Considcr
thc wcllknown opcnings ol such novcls as David Coppereld, Bleak
House, Great Expectations, or cvcn A Christmas Carol. !n all ol thcsc
novcls, ickcns givcs his rcadcrs prolound imagcs that color how
thcy will intcrprct thc unlolding ol thc novcl. Vc scc Pip turncd
upsidc down by Magwitch, who magically translorms Pips lilc. Tc
novcl thcn lollows Pips painlul translormation lrom a sympathctic
urchin to a drcadlul snob to a truc gcntlcman. Likc Great Expecta-
tions, thc lamous opcnings ol thc othcr novclsthc ovcrwhclming
mud ol Bleak House, avid Coppcrclds wondcring who shall bc thc
hcro ol his talc, or Jacob Marlcys conncction to a doornailall sct
in placc thc mcans that rcadcrs nccd to dircct thcir undcrstanding ol
thc novcls mcssagc.
202
A Tale of Two Cities also ts this modcl. Along with thc lamous
opcning comparison bctwccn ngland and Francc on thc brink ol
thc rcvolution, most rcadcrs can rccall Sydncy Cartons wcllknown
last words at thc novcls closc. Tc sacricc that Carton makcs at thc
novcls cnd dcmonstratcs that rcncwal is possiblc cvcn amid thc hopc
lcssncss rcprcscntcd by thc rclationship bctwccn ngland and Francc
at thc novcls opcning. Sacricc and rcncwal color thc novcl and givc
it, as Hilary Schor argucs, prophctic vision (76). For instancc, cvcn
though Carton laccs thc guillotinc, hc sccs thc possibility ol his namc
sakc lcading a bcttcr lilc: ! scc that child who lay upon hcr bosom
and who borc my namc, a man winning his way up in that path ol lilc
which oncc was minc (361). Cartons sacricc is signicant, without
it, thc novcl lails. As Robcrt Altcr has pointcd out, ickcns conccrns
himscll with mankinds potcntial lor moral rcgcncration (96). Tc
scnsc ol humankinds moral potcntial bascd in our capacity to act lor
thc bcnct ol othcrs undcrscorcs thc idca ol rcncwal in thc novcl. Tis
scnsc ol rcncwal, though, is ticd to sacricc.
Considcr two rcccnt studics ol thc novcl. First, Jcnnilcr Ruths
Tc ScllSacricing Prolcssional: Charlcs ickcnss Huntcd own
and A Tale of Two Cities locuscs on thc urban prolcssional intcrvcning
in thc domcstic sphcrc. Shc argucs that thcsc prolcssionals cmbody
thc rationality ol thc lathcr and thc disintcrcstcd sympathy ol thc
mothcr (287). !n what manncr docs Sydncy Carton cxhibit thcsc
charactcristics: Vc scc, lor instancc, that hc has a kccn and obscrving
cyc (rationality) and can takc in his cnvironmcnt whcn othcrs arc at a
loss to do so (disintcrcstcd sympathy). !ndccd, hc is thc onc to obscrvc
Lucic as shc laints in thc courtroom during arnays trial:
Yct, this Mr. Carton took in morc ol thc dctails ol thc sccnc
than hc appcarcd to takc in, lor now, whcn Miss Mancttcs
hcad droppcd upon hcr lathcrs brcast, hc was thc rst to scc it,
and to say audibly: ccr! look to that young lady. Hclp thc
gcntlcman to takc hcr out. ont you scc shc will lall! (73)
Tis sccnc rcvcals Cartons conccrn lor othcrsspccically Lucica
conccrn that will ultimatcly arisc in his latcr actions. Furthcrmorc,
Ruth rcvcals thc sympathctic csscncc ol Cartons charactcr and
its rclationship to thc scnsc ol hopc and rcncwal that thc novcl
Charlcs ickcns
203
cxprcsscs. Shc statcs that Carton purposcly sacriccs himscll lor
othcrs (296). Hcrc, thc word that should strikc us is purposcly,
bccausc Cartons dclibcratc sacricc allows arnay to bc rccallcd
to lilc at thc cnd ol thc novcl as his lathcrinlaw, r. Mancttc, is
at thc bcginning ol thc novcl. Additionally, Cartons sacricc also
rcdccms his blightcd lilc.
Sccond, considcr Simon Pctchs argumcnt that Cartons sacricc
lulls absolutcly thc prolcssional idcology ol scrvicc (para. 16). !l
Pctch is right, thcn Cartons sacricc cxists as a ciphcr similar to thc
Frcnch aristocracy that can only scrvc its own dcsircs, without conccrn
lor thc livcs ol othcrs. Tat is to say, il Carton is mcrcly lullling a
prolcssional obligation, thcn his sacricc is not lrccly givcn, and
rcncwal cannot occur. Yct ickcns takcs grcat pain in dirccting his
rcadcrs attcntion to Cartons nal words: !t is a lar, lar bcttcr thing
that ! do, than ! havc cvcr donc, it is a lar, lar bcttcr rcst that ! go to
than ! havc cvcr known (361). Carton rcalizcs that his sacricc has
sancticd his lilc cvcn to thc point that pcoplc witncssing his cxccu
tion scc him as sublimc and prophctic (360).
Tc problcmatic naturc ol Sydncy Carton has occupicd critics
lor somc timc. !n his study ol thc novcl John Kucich points out that
Carton appcals to rcadcrs bccausc hc is not bound by thc samc codc
that cxists lor his prolcssional collcagucs such as Lorry and Strykcr:
Carton appcals to us through his lrccdom lrom convcntion and lrom
constraint (61). Vhilc Carton appcars to bc libcratcd lrom thc social
obligations that dircct thc livcs ol thc othcr charactcrs, wc scc in his
convcrsation with Lucic that hc sccs his lilc as blightcd by its outward
lorms, imprisoncd by thc constraints that givc valuc to Lucics lilc:
8c comlortcd! hc said, ! am not worth such lccling, Miss
Mancttc. An hour or two hcncc, and thc low companions and
low habits that ! scorn but yicld to, will rcndcr mc lcss worth
such tcars as thosc, than any wrctch who crccps along thc
strccts. (146)
Garrctt Stcwart sccs Cartons rolc as a sucring standin lor thc
rcadcrs as wcll as lor his privatc doublc and thc arnay circlc (118).
Stcwart lurthcr argucs that Cartons sacricc lunctions as an apoca
lyptic rcprcscntation about thc ay ol Judgmcnt (109). Vhat thc
A Talc ol Two Citics
204
work ol thcsc critics rcvcals is an ongoing nccd to uncovcr Cartons
importancc to thc novcl.
Vhcn wc scc Carton as a standin lor thc rcadcrs, as Stcwart
docs, thcn wc can undcrstand ickcnss purposcdidactic though it
may bc. Carton is likc us: impcrlcct, bcatcn down by lilc, cynical, but
ultimatcly hopclul that lilc docs havc a transccndcnt mcaning. Hcrcin
lics his powcr as a sacricial gurc. Carton can risc abovc his cynicism,
and with him, so can thc rcadcrs. At thc cnd ol Chaptcr 13 wc can
disccrn somcthing ol thc rcncwcd man that Carton will bccomc by
thc cnd ol thc novcl. Hc tclls Lucic:
Miss Mancttc, whcn thc littlc picturc ol a happy lathcrs
lacc looks up in yours, whcn you scc your own bright bcauty
springing up ancw at your lcct, think now and thcn that thcrc
is a man who would givc his lilc, to kccp a lilc you lovc bcsidc
you! (147)
ickcns takcs grcat carc hcrc to rcinlorcc thc rcncwal that Cartons
sacricc will bring. Vhilc Carton is willing to tradc his lilc to kccp
Lucics homc salc, hc also cxists hcrc as a guardian spirit ovcr thc child
shc had with arnay. His sacricc makcs possiblc thc rcncwal that
is shown in thc gcncrations rcprcscntcd by Lucics childrcn. Vc scc,
thcn, as Jcnnilcr Sims argucs, that Sydncy Carton cmbodics stability
(219).
Cartons rolc as a stabilizing lorcc takcs on signicancc whcn
wc cxaminc scvcral carlicr sccncs in thc novcl. !magcs ol darkncss
pcrvadc thcsc carly sccncs. Considcr Jarvis Lorrys coach ridc. Jarvis
Lorry and his thrcc lcllowinscrutablcs (17) arc shroudcd against
thc cold night and trudging through a vast cxpansc ol mud striving
to rcach thc summit ol Shootcrs Hill. Tcrc is littlc trust bctwccn
thc passcngcrs bccausc anyonc could bc in thc Captains pay (11),
as ickcns inlorms thc rcadcrs. Tc thrcat ol bcing robbcd and an
aura ol mistrust tingc thc sccnc with a scnsc ol impcnding doom.
Part ol this scnsc ol doom occurs bccausc, as thc opcning ol thc
novcl rcvcals, thcrc was scarccly an amount ol ordcr and protcc
tion to justily much national boasting (8). arkncss, disordcr, and
dangcr prcvail in thc world ol thc novclsoon to bc outdonc by
thc rampaging violcncc ol thc rcvolution in Francc. Tc sacricc
Charlcs ickcns
205
ol a good pcrson likc Sydncy Carton is ncccssary to illuminatc
such a dark world. !ndccd, Philip Allingham argucs: thc pcrsonal
sucring and sacricc ol a good pcrson contributcs to thc improvc
mcnt ol condition (as wcll as an incrcasc in moral pcrccption) lor
thc survivors (4).
Tis moral pcrccption Allingham points out is clcarly conncctcd
to Lucic. Vhcn wc rst mcct hcr, howcvcr, shc, too, is surroundcd
by an allcncompassing gloom. Sincc thc namc Lucic rclatcs to light,
rcadcrs can obscrvc that hcr prcscncc, likc Cartons sacricc, may
bring light to ovcrcomc thc ovcrwhclming drcarincss ol thc novcls
carly chaptcrs. Howcvcr, luncral black surrounds hcr whcn shc rst
cntcrs thc novcl:
!t was a largc, dark room, lurnishcd in a luncral manncr with
black horschair, and loadcd with hcavy dark tablcs. Tcsc had
bccn oilcd and oilcd, until thc two tall candlcs on thc tablc in
thc middlc ol thc room wcrc gloomily rccctcd on cvcry lcal, as
il they wcrc buricd, in dccp gravcs ol black mahogany. (23)
Tc two candlcs strugglc to cmit any light, cmphasizing thc dcad statc
ol thc world that undcrscorcs thc opcning chaptcrs. Likc hcr lathcr,
who has bccn buricd in a dark prison, Lucic inhabits a gravclikc
cnvironmcnt. Tc dicrcncc, though, is that Lucics light (rcprc
scntcd by hcr goldcn hair) will inspirc Carton to surrcndcr his lilc lor
a grcatcr good.
Tc imagc ol darkncss is intcnsicd by r. Mancttcs prcscncc.
Hc has bccn buricd so long in prison that thc light rushing in whcn
Lucic and Jarvis cntcr blinds him momcntarily. !n lact, hc ncvcr lully
rccovcrs his sanity. Lucics rst sight ol hcr corpsclikc, parchmcnt
ycllow (42) lathcr and hcr rcaction to him highlight hcr goodncss
and corrclatc to hcr ccct on Sydncy Carton, who is cmotionally
corpsclikc: Hc rccoilcd, but shc laid hcr hand upon his arm. A
strangc thrill struck him whcn shc did so, and visibly passcd ovcr his
lramc (45). Still, Lucic comlorts hcr lathcr as shc docs hcr child latcr
in thc novcl whcn shc awaits ncws ol Charlcss Frcnch trial: Shc hcld
him closcr around thc ncck, and rockcd him on hcr brcast likc a child
(47). Tcsc cpisodcs rcvcal Lucics powcr to rccall thc dcad to lilc and
takc on a mythic quality as similar actions inspirc Carton.
A Talc ol Two Citics
206
!n thc darkncss that dominatcs thc opcning ol thc novcl, thcn,
Lucic lunctions as thc lilcgiving ray ol goldcn light that, !sis
likc, givcs rcbirth. ickcns intcnsics thc mythological tonc ol thc
novcl and its conncction to both Lucic and Carton in thc Gorgons
Hcad chaptcr. Hcrc wc cncountcr lully thc vilcncss ol Monsicur thc
Marquis, whosc dcath brings such tumult into Lucics lilc and lcads
nally to Carton sacricing himscll lor hcr and hcr lamily. Tc irony
ol thc marquiss dcath is that hc is thc most corpsclikc pcrson wc
mcct, and his lacc rcturns to its truc gorgonlikc quality in dcath.
Morcovcr, thc darkncss in thc chaptcr that initially scrvcs to covcr thc
murdcr ol Monsicur thc Marquis is truly a rccction ol thc dcspair
that thc Frcnch aristocracy has causcd by its cxccssivc living. Tc ragc
and vcngcancc kindlcd in Madamc clargc is an cxtcnsion ol thc
opprcssion gcncratcd by thc aristocracy. As wc nd out altcr arnays
sccond trial in Francc, Monsicurs monstrous actions havc brought
about dcath and anguish lor Madamc clargcs lamily.
!n hcr qucst to cradicatc thc vrmondc lamily, Madamc clargc,
likc Mcdusa, sccks to victimizc Charlcs and Lucics daughtcr. Tc
thrcatcning violcncc in hcr soul is a manilcstation ol thc intcnsc gloom
and darkncss that undcrscorc thc novcl. !ndccd, Madamc clargc
sccms most likc thc Fatcs in hcr inccssant knitting that appcars to
spin out and cnd thc livcs ol hcr intcndcd victims. !n hcr study ol thc
novcl, Linda Lcwis points out, Tc unlorgcttablc Madamc clargc,
witch ol Saintc Antoinc, angcl ol Rcvolution, goddcss ol rctribution,
and historian who prcscrvcs a tcxt ol thc rcvolution, is thc principal
allcgorical gurc in thc novcl (31). Tc tcrms Lcwis cmploys to
dcscribc Trsc clargc rcvcal hcr status as a mythological tropc
in thc novcl and placc hcr in opposition to Sydncy Carton. Vhilc
Madamc clargc cxists as a lorcc ol dark dcstruction in thc novcl,
Carton, cspccially altcr rccognizing hcr spy, bccomcs thc chicl agcnt
ol light and rcdcmptivc rcbirth in thc story.
Tis conncction bctwccn thc two charactcrs signics thc hcart
ol thc novcl bccausc Carton has sucrcd as has Madamc clargc,
yct his sucring ultimatcly lcads him to givc himscll as thc chicl
sacricc ol a noblc causc. Unlikc Madamc clargc, who cxpcricnccs
hcr own lorm ol dccapitation, Carton transccnds his origins. Lucic,
thc main charactcr in thc novcl with whom thcy sharc a rclationship,
cnlightcns Carton whilc only cnraging Trsc clargc. Vc obscrvc
Charlcs ickcns
207
thc adamantinc soul ol Madamc clargc crcatc as prolound a chaos
as thc Frcnch aristocracy has. !n lact, shc is most likc Monsicur thc
Marquis bccausc shc has hcr scrvants obcying hcr cvcry command
and lullling hcr cvcry wish, just as hc docs. l coursc, his wishcs
rclatc to dccadcnt, crucl, and sclsh dcsircs, but thc two charactcrs
havc somcthing in common: 8oth inhabit and incrcasc thc domain
ol darkncss that haunts thc novcl.
As thc novcl progrcsscs, wc pcrccivc that onc lorm ol brutal
govcrnmcnt simply supcrscdcs anothcr, making it dicult to tcll
thcm apart. Howcvcr, in thc contcxt ol thc violcnt and shadowy
sccond hall ol thc story, light docs shinc through. Vhilc thc novcl
opcns in a world shroudcd in gloom, it closcs in a world whcrc hopc
and truc nobility strugglc against thc rcigning Tcrror. Sydncy Carton
pcrsonics thc strugglc against thc lorccs ol nihilism that thrcatcn
Lucic, Charlcs, and thcir lamily. Considcr thc titlcs ol thc chaptcrs
whcrc wc scc Carton in asccndancc: Tc Substancc ol Shadow,
usk, and arkncss. Hcrc ickcns dcvclops thc carlicr thcmc ol
a small light in thc darkncss that wc witncss whcn Lucic rst appcars
in thc tcxt. Tc changc, convcrscly, is that now Carton is thc ray ol
light. Tc dissipation ol his youth now comcs as hc wins thc pokcr
hand ol lilc against thc mob. His winnings rclcasc thc arnay lamily
and signal thc triumphant rcbirth ol hopc that undcrscorcs thc novcls
closc.
!n Cartons ramblings through thc Paris night, wc glimpsc a
rcworking ol his carlicr nocturnal movcmcnts. Just as wc nd that hc
was oltcn at work rathcr than sccking gratication, in thcsc closing
chaptcrs wc obscrvc his attcmpt to libcratc arnay and hclp Lucics
lamily cscapc thc Tcrror. As thc thrcc Jacqucs wcrc, Carton bccomcs
thc pcrlcct spy capablc ol blcnding into thc nocturnal world ol Saintc
Antoinc. Vhilc on thcsc ramblcs, hc discovcrs Madamc clargcs
plot to dcstroy Lucic and hcr daughtcr:
Tcy arc in grcat dangcr. Tcy arc in dangcr ol dcnunciation by
Madamc clargc. ! know it lrom hcr own lips. ! havc ovcrhcard
words ol that womans, tonight, which havc prcscntcd thcir
dangcr to mc in strong colours. ! havc lost no timc, and sincc
thcn, ! havc sccn thc spy. Hc conrms mc. Hc knows that a
woodsawycr, living by thc prisonwall, is undcr thc control ol
A Talc ol Two Citics
208
thc clargcs, and has bccn rchcarscd by Madamc clargc as
to his having sccn Hcrhc ncvcr mcntioncd Lucics namc
making signs and signals to prisoncrs. !t is casy to lorcscc that
thc prctcnsc will bc thc common onc, a prison plot, and that it
will involvc hcr lilcand pcrhaps hcr childsand pcrhaps hcr
lathcrslor both havc bccn sccn with hcr at that placc. ont
look so horricd. You will savc thcm all (329330)
Tc abovc passagc is lcngthy, it is ncccssary to show it in its cntircty,
bccausc it rcprcscnts thc momcnt in thc tcxt whcn Sydncy Carton
cxpcricnccs his transccndcnt rcbirth lrom dissipatcd wastrcl to
hcroic human bcing. His impassioncd words rccct this changc. His
lilc training in law comcs to thc lorc as hc givcs witncss in his own
pcrsonal trial. Although hc asscrts that Jarvis Lorry will savc thc
arnay clan, it will bc Cartons substitution ol his lilc lor arnays
that allows thc othcr charactcrs to cscapc Paris and rcturn to lilc in
London.
Rcadcrs cxpcricncc in thc charactcr ol Sydncy Carton a prolound
scnsc ol rcncwal, a scnsc that hopc can bc rckindlcd with a hcroic
sacricc, that thc world can bc madc bcttcr. Tc small band ol trav
clcrs cscaping thc wrath ol thc Tcrror mimics thc opcning ol thc
novcl whcn Jarvis Lorry travcls by coach to takc Lucic to Paris. Vhilc
darkncss shrouds thc rst journcy, optimism inluscs thc sccond. !n his
wcllknown biography ol Charlcs ickcns, dgar Johnson writcs, A
Tale of Two Cities has bccn hailcd as thc bcst ol ickcnss books and
damncd as thc worst (979). Johnson gocs on to statc that thc novcl is
ncithcr (979). Puns on thc opcning asidc, thc novcl conrms lor its
rcadcrs that whilc sacricc is somctimcs ncccssary, rcncwal is always
possiblc, as wc scc in Cartons last prophctic vision: ! scc a bcautilul
city and a brilliant pcoplc rising lrom this abyss, and, in thcir strugglcs
to bc truly lrcc, in thcir triumphs and dclcats, through long ycars to
comc, ! scc thc cvil ol this timc and ol thc prcvious timc ol which this
is thc natural birth, gradually making cxpiation lor itscll and wcaring
out (360).
Ultimatcly, thcn, Cartons vision and his dccp scnsc ol pcacclul
ncss that so imprcsscs thc crowd watching thc cxccutions bccomc thc
dominant imagcs imprcsscd upon thc rcadcr. Tc conclusion ol thc
novcl guidcs thc rcadcr toward an undcrstanding ol thc importancc
Charlcs ickcns
209
ol sacricc. Additionally, thc movcmcnt ol thc novcls action lrom
darkncss and miscry to Cartons triumphant nobility calls rcadcrs
attcntion to his sacricc lor his lricnds, which shincs likc a goldcn
light, rcccting hopclulncss amid dcspair and optimism ovcrcoming
cynicism.
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Altcr, Robcrt. Tc cmons ol History in ickcnss Tale. Modern Critical
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Johnson, dgar. Charles Dickens: His Tragedy and Triumph. Ncw York: Simon
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Lcwis, Linda M. Madamc clargc as Political !con in ickcnss A Tale of
Two Cities. Dickens Study Annual 36 (2006): 3149.
Pctch, Simon. Tc 8usincss ol thc 8arristcr in A Tale of Two Cities. Criticism
44.1 (2002): 2742.
Rabinowitz, Pctcr J. Before Reading: Narrative Conventions and the Politics of
Interpretation. !thaca: Corncll UP, 1987.
Ruth, Jcnnilcr. Tc ScllSacricing Prolcssional: Charlcs ickcnss Huntcd
own and A Tale of Two Cities. Dickens Studies Annual 34 (2004):
283299.
Schor, Hilary. Novcls ol thc 1850s: Hard Times, Little Dorrit, and A Tale Of
Two Cities. d. John . Jordan. Te Cambridge Companion to Charles
Dickens. Cambridgc: Cambridgc UP, 2001. 6477.
Sims, Jcnnilcr. ickcnss A Tale of Two Cities. Te Explicator 63.4 (2005):
219222.
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Ncw York: Chclsca Housc, 1987. 107120.
A Talc ol Two Citics
211
THE TEMPEST
(WILLIAMSHAKESPEARE)
,.
Irom Shakespeares Mystery Play:
A Study of Te Tempest
by Colin Still (1921)
IN+voouc+:oN
Colin Still, in this series of excerpts from his book-length study
of The Tempest, contends[s] that the Play deals primarily
with certain permanent realities of spiritual experience; . . . and
that it may be regarded as an account of Initiation . . . [:] the
renouncing of the world, the esh, and the devil in the upward
struggle out of darkness into light. Thus, for Still, the play is
an allegory for spiritual rebirth, a reversal of the Fall of Man.
Throughout his analysis, Still expounds upon the allegorical
meaning and signicance of Shakespeares plot, characters,
and images, arguing that they contain allusions to both Chris-
tian and pagan initiation rites and rituals of renewal and rebirth.
f
|!| contcnd that thcrc arc abundant grounds lor thc opinion that Te
Tempest is not a purc lantasy, but a dclibcratc allcgorynot a work
in which thc Poct givcs lrcc rcin to thc capricc ol imagination, but a
Still, Colin. Shakespeares Mystery Play: A Study of Tc Tcmpcst. London: Cccil
Palmcr, 1921.
212
work in which a clcar and dominant idca transccnds thc nominal story
and dctcrmincs thc action, thc dialoguc, and thc charactcrisation.
|. . .|
! contcnd that thc Play dcals primarily with ccrtain pcrma
ncnt rcalitics ol spiritual cxpcricncc, that it cxprcsscs thc univcrsal
psychology ol upward cndcavour in thc samc allcgorical tcrms as arc
cmploycd in all authcntic myth and ritual, and that it may bc rcgardcd
as an account ol !nitiation in so lar as !nitiation (whcthcr ccrcmonial
or cmpirical) is undcrstood to signily thc rcnouncing ol thc world,
thc csh, and thc dcvil in thc upward strugglc out ol darkncss into
light. Furthcrmorc, ! maintain that actually thc Poct has rcproduccd
with cxtraordinary dclity both thc substancc and thc lorm ol thc
Christian and ol thc nonChristian traditions, that il this lact bc not
duc to dclibcratc dcsign, it must bc duc to somc ncccssity inhcrcnt
in thc csscntial thcmc ol thc Play, and that this samc lact not only
supports my intcrprctation ol thc Play, but also rcndcrs any othcr
intcrprctation inadcquatc or inadmissiblc.
|. . .|
!n thc Ncw Tcstamcnt account ol thc 8aptism ol Christ wc rcad
how, coming up out ol thc watcr, Hc wcnt straightway up into thc
Vildcrncss, whcrc Hc rcmaincd lasting lor lorty days, and, bcing
hungry and thirsty, Hc was tcmptcd by thc cvil, whom Hc rcsistcd,
whcrcupon angcls camc and ministcrcd unto Him.
Tis myth, lor such wc may call it with no irrcvcrcncc, is by no
mcans pcculiar to thc lilcstory ol Christ. !t is rclatcd in somc lorm ol
all thc grcat rcligious tcachcrs. !t is to bc undcrstood, ! think, not in
thc litcral scnsc, but as an allcgory in objcctivc or cnvironmcntal tcrms
ol a purcly subjcctivc cxpcricncc. !t is, in lact, an account ol thc Lcsscr
!nitiation, and, indccd, it has manilcstly all thc csscntial lcaturcs ol an
Asccnt through w~:vv and :is: to ~iv.
|. . .|
Vhat docs thc Lcsscr !nitiation, in its psychological aspcct,
comprisc: !t compriscs thc rcnunciation ol worldly and passional
things and thc achicvcmcnt ol that statc ol divinc inspiration which
is thc prototypc ol thc mythical Lost statc ol Man. Rising lrom
thc planc ol v~v:n, through and bcyond thc planc ol w~:vv, thc
consciousncss rcachcs thc planc ol :is:. Tat is to say, thc aspirant
rcnounccs matcrial and passional things and conccrns himscll with
Villiam Shakcspcarc
213
intcllcctual spcculation. 8ut :is: is thc planc ol crror and illusion.
8cing partly cmotional and partly rational, it is thc planc ol impcr
lcct thinking, lor hcrc thc inucnccs which risc lrom thc passional
planc (as Mist riscs lrom Vatcr) darkcn and obscurc thc rcason,
causing thc aspirant to lollow many lalsc paths in his scarch lor
Truth. Altcr a long pcriod (lorty days) ol thcsc lruitlcss wandcr
ings, thc scckcr grows wcary. Tc passional inhibition and thc scnsc
ol isolation lrom thc ordinary lilc ol mcn arc now rcaliscd in all
thcir bittcrncss, whilc thc compcnsating rcwards arc yct withhcld.
Tc scckcr is dcsolatc and disappointcd: his long abstincncc lrom
normal worldly satislactions sccms to havc bccn cndurcd in vain.
Hc hungcrs lor thc brcad ol lcllowship and hc thirsts lor passional
indulgcncc.
1
Hc is assailcd by csirc, tcmpting him to abandon his
qucst. Tis is thc tcsting timc lor thc scckcr altcr Truth. Hc must
hold last to his purposc. csirc, il it bc rcsolutcly rcsistcd, will
dcpart lrom him, lcaving him to pursuc his way in pcacc.
2
Vhcn
at last this triumph ovcr csirc has bccn accomplishcd and all thc
darkcning clouds ol prcjudicc, scntimcnt, custom, and thc likc
havc bccn surmountcd, thc consciousncss rcachcs thc ncxt planc. !t
passcs out ol :is: into thc purc dry ~ivout ol crror and doubt
and tcmptation into scrcnc and dispassionatc rcason. Tc aspi
rant now lcarns in somc mcasurc thc Truth hc sccks. Tis partial
apprchcnsion in thc ~iv ol rcason ol thc Truth whosc complctc
apprchcnsion is possiblc only in thc ~v:nvv ol intuition is |. . .|
rcprcscntcd in tradition as a hcaring by thc car ol a distinctly
spcaking \oicc that bcars witncss ol thc mystcry which is not yct
sccn by thc cyc.
All this is undoubtcdly implicd in thc myth ol Christs Sojourn
and Tcmptation in thc Vildcrncss.
|. . .|
!n likc manncr, Acncas crosscd thc Rivcr Styx, passcd through
thc purgatorial rcgion, and nally camc to a plcasant placc (lysium)
whcrc hc rcccivcd a spokcn discoursc lrom his lathcr Anchiscs
prcciscly as thc Childrcn ol !sracl crosscd thc Rcd Sca, wandcrcd in
thc Vildcrncss, and camc at last to thc Promiscd Land. l thc samc
kind is thc pilgrimagc ol antc up thc Mount ol Purgatory to dcn,
and that ol Christian through thc \allcy ol Humiliation to thc Land
ol 8culah.
Tc Tcmpcst
214
All thcsc storics cmploy thc samc allcgorical mcdium to cxprcss
thc samc subjcctivc cxpcricnccnamcly, thc rising ol thc conscious
ncss abovc scnsuous or passional things, thc long wandcrings in thc
loncly wildcrncss ol spcculation in qucst ol Truth, and thc coming at
last to that scrcnity ol purc rcason in which thc voicc ol inspiration
is hcard. And, sincc thc psychological statc thus nally attaincd is
thc prototypc ol thc mythical Lowcr Paradisc, or dcn, thc Gospcl
mythlikc thcsc othcr storics it rcscmblcsis an account ol scll
rcdcmption conccivcd as thc rccovcry ol thc Lost statc ol Man. !t
dcals with a rcvcrsal ol thc proccss implicd in thc myth ol thc Fall.
|. . .|
To this traditional allcgory, which wc nd in both mythology
and ritual, thc story ol thc Court Party thus lar conlorms unlail
ingly. For, altcr a symbolical immcrsion in thc sca (w~:vv), thc
King and his company pass into a dcsolatc placc that is also a placc
ol cxpiationin short, a purgatorial wildcrncss (:is:). Hcrc thcy
wandcr in scarch ol thc lost son, and, altcr prolongcd and lruitlcss
sccking, thcy rcalisc that thcy arc wandcring in a mazc ol straight
and crookcd paths:
Gox. ! can go no lurthcr, Sir,
My old boncs achc: hcrcs a mazc trod, indccd,
Trough lorthrights and mcandcrs!
(Act !!!., Sccnc 3.)
vcry gcnuinc philosophcr knows lrom his own cxpcricncc what
lollows upon this rcalisation. Conluscd in thc mazc ol spcculation,
discouragcd by lailurc, his spirit dullcd and dcprcsscd by wcarincss,
thc scckcr passcs through doubt to a scnsc ol thc hopclcssncss ol his
qucst lor thc lost Vord ol Truth. So in thc Play:
Gox. Hcrcs a mazc trod, indccd,
Trough lorthrights and mcandcrs! 8y your paticncc,
! nccds must rcst mc.
Aiox. ld lord, ! cannot blamc thcc,
Vho am myscll attachcd with wcarincss
To thc dulling ol my spirits. Sit down and rcst.
vcn hcrc ! will put o my hopc, and kccp it
Villiam Shakcspcarc
215
No longcr lor my attcrcr: hc is drowncd
Vhom thus wc stray to nd. . . . (Ibid.)
Tc constancy ol thc scckcr altcr Truth is now scvcrcly tcstcd.
His unavailing scarch is mockcd by his own passional naturc, by thc
w~:vv whcncc hc has riscn. As Alonso says ol thc Court Party:
Tc sca mocks
ur lrustratc scarch on land. . . . (Ibid.)
Rclaxing his corts in wcarincss and lailurc, thc scckcr bccomcs
a prcy to dcsirc. Hc is hauntcd by doubts and lcars and unclcan
thoughts, which crowd upon him likc cvil crcaturcs in thc darkncss.
Hc is troublcd by mcmorics ol scnsuous dclights, mcmorics that
makc a swcct appcal and bcckon him back to lorbiddcn things. Hc
is tcmptcd to abandon his purposc and rcturn to thc commoncr and
casicr conccrns ol mankind. And upon thc issuc ol this tcmptation
dcpcnds thc issuc ol his high cndcavour.
As this cxpcricncc is part ol thc disciplinc imposcd upon thc
philosophcr in thc coursc ol cmpirical initiation, so likcwisc it was
rcprcscntcd as bclalling him who sought lor Truth by thc way ol
lormal or ritual initiation into thc pagan Mystcrics. ! contcnd that
it was ccrcmonially dcpictcd by thc candidatcs cncountcr with
monstrous apparitions, and that in thc Play it is gurcd by thc
Court Partys cncountcr with thc strangc shapcs.
|. . .|
First lct it bc obscrvcd that thc tcmptation ol thc aspirant may
bc dcscribcd in at lcast thrcc dicrcnt ways. Vc may say(i) that
hc is assailcd by dcsirc, or (ii) that hc bccomcs obscsscd by unclcan
thoughts, or (iii) that hc hcars thc swcct compclling summons to
scnsuous indulgcncc. Tcrc is, ol coursc, littlc csscntial dicrcncc
bctwccn thcsc thrcc conccptions, lor thcy all rclcr to thc samc phasc
ol psychological cxpcricncc. Ncvcrthclcss, in thc proccss ol allcgorical
claboration thc thrcc producc somcwhat divcrgcnt rcsults. Tcmp
tation myths lall, in lact, into thrcc main classcs, typical ol which
arc(i) thc strugglc with thc ragon, (ii) thc cncountcr with horrid
Monstcrs, and (iii) thc hcaring ol thc Sircns Song.
|. . .|
Tc Tcmpcst
216
|!n| Te Tempest, wc nd thcrcin a rcmarkablc synthcsis ol thc
scvcral conccptions with which ! havc bccn dcaling. For thc Court
Party, bcing dcspondcnt altcr prolongcd and lruitlcss scarch lor thc
lost son, is bcsct by ccrtain strangc crcaturcs which rcscmblc thosc
ol ancicnt myth and ritual in that thcy arc ol monstrous shapc, and,
morcovcr, thcsc crcaturcs act thc part ol thc Tcmptcr. Making thcir
appcarancc whcn thc King and his company arc wcaricd by thcir
wandcrings in thc dcsolatc islc, thc strangc shapcs prcscnt a banquct
and invitc thc King, ctc., to cat. So, in thc symbolical myth ol thc
Gospcls, Christ wandcrcd in thc Vildcrncss, and, bcing hungry, Hc
was accostcd by thc Tcmptcr, who sought to turn Him lrom His
purposc by inviting him to eat:
!l thou bc thc Son ol God, command thcsc stoncs that thcy bc
madc brcad.
To which Christ madc thc obvious rcply ol a stcadlast scckcr altcr that
divinc inspiration which is thc word ol God:
Man shall not livc by brcad alonc, but by cvcry word that
procccdcth out ol thc mouth ol God.
!n thc Pocts vcrsion ol this tcmptation, Aricl intcrvcncs. Hc
causcs thc banquct to disappcar whcn thc Court Party approachcs it.
Tcrc is, ol coursc, a sccming inconsistcncy in thc suggcstion that thc
King and his company, who would havc catcn ol thc banquct had thcy
not bccn dcprivcd ol it by Aricl, havc now succcsslully withstood (as
cvcry initiatc must) thc symbolical tcmptation to cat. Tis diculty is
dispcllcd by a corrcct apprcciation ol thc part ol Aricl, |. . . who| may
bc said to play at this point thc rcstraining part ol Conscicncc, which
upholds thc initiatc against tcmptation.
|. . .|
!n thc Vildcrncss thc aspirant not only hungcrs, hc also thirsts.
Altcr long abstincncc, hc cravcs lor thosc scnsuous satislactions ol
which thc pursuit ol his purposc has dcprivcd him. !n symbolical
tcrms, hc thirsts lor thc scnsuous w~:vv. !t is this cxpcricncc that
is rcprcscntcd in thc pagan mythology by thc hcaring ol thc music ol
thc Sircns, and in thc Gospcl myth it is implicd in thc statcmcnt that
thc Tcmptcr ocrcd Christ all thc glorics ol kingship.
3
Tc story ol
Villiam Shakcspcarc
217
thc Court Party corrcsponds to thc lormcr ol thcsc two vcrsions ol thc
samc csscntial idca, although thc lattcr is also suggcstcd by thc plot
ting ol Scbastian and Antonio. Likc thc mythical Sircns, thc Strangc
Shapcs in thc Play makc gcntlc acts ol salutation to thc accompani
mcnt ol marvcllous swcct music. Tcy arc monstrous and unnatural
in lorm, yct thcy sccm at thc rst cncountcr to bc plcasing and attrac
tivc in thcir manncrs, a curious combination ol qualitics pcculiar to
thc mythical Sircns:
Tough thcy arc ol monstrous shapc, yct notc
Tcir manncrs arc morc gcntlckind than ol
ur human gcncration you shall nd
Many, nay, almost any. (Ibid.)
Tcir scductivc appcal bcing lrustratcd by thc intcrvcntion ol
Conscicncc (Aricl), thcsc Strangc Shapcs do not bccomc crcc and
violcnt, as thc mythical ragon (csirc) is oltcn and quitc propcrly
said to do: thcy only dancc with mocks and mows, whcrcin thcy
aptly rcscmblc sircn mcmorics which onc strivcs to ignorc.
|. . .|
Alonsos rcsumption ol thc scarch lor thc lost Son, lollowing
thc bittcr accusing spccch ol Aricl, is thc closing lcaturc ol thc third
Sccnc ol thc third Act, and thc Court Party docs not rcappcar lor
somc timc, although wc arc givcn to undcrstand that in thc intcrval
thcsc mcn, stung by thc lash ol Conscicncc, sucr rcmorsc and sorrow
in lull mcasurc. !n thc nal Sccnc (\. i) wc witncss thc complction
ol thcir Lcsscr !nitiation, lor wc scc thcm pass lrom this purgatorial
subjcctivc statc to thc happy statc ol purity and scllmastcry which is
thc Lowcr Paradisc or lysium.
Tc Sccnc opcns with Aricl rcporting to Prospcro on thc statc
ol mind ol thc King and his lricnds. 8cing scnt to lctch thcm, Aricl
prcscntly rcturns with thc Court Party.
|. . .|
|. . . Tc| Court Party is now passing lrom thc subjcctivc Purga
tory to thc subjcctivc lysiumthat thc consciousncss is now rising
lrom thc :is: ol crror and illusion to thc ~iv ol clcar rcason:
And as thc morning stcals upon thc night,
Mclting thc darkncss, so thcir rising scnscs
Tc Tcmpcst
218
8cgin to chasc thc ignorant lumcs that mantlc
Tcir clcarcr rcason.
(Act \., Sccnc 1.)
Tc psychological changc hcrc rclcrrcd to is cxplicitly an upward
movcmcnt ol thc consciousncss out ol thc lumcs ol crror into thc
clcar and uncloudcd rcason.
4
!n tcrms ol thc symbolism, it is an asccnt
out ol :is: into ~iv, in tcrms ol thc allcgorical tradition, it is an
asccnt out ol Purgatory into lysium. !t is dircctly likcncd by thc Poct
to a changc lrom a statc ol darkncss to a statc ol light. . . .
|. . .|
Tc rst main objcct ol thc Lcsscr !nitiation has now bccn achicvcd.
Tc Court Party has undcrgonc that subjcctivc changc which is allc
goriscd in ancicnt myth and ritual as a passagc through thc Vildcr
ncss or Purgatory to dcn or lysium. !n thcir own psychological
cxpcricncc thcsc mcn havc brought back thc Goldcn Agc ol happy
innoccnccto which, indccd, wc nd Gonzalo cxprcssly aspiring at
an carlicr stagc in thc Play:
Had ! plantation ol this islc, my lord, . . .
! would with such pcrlcction govcrn, sir,
To cxccl thc goldcn agc.
(Act !!., Sccnc 1.)
Likc antc, at thc closc ol thc Purgatorio, thcy havc rccovcrcd lrom
thc conscqucnccs ol thc Fall, and havc rcgaincd thc Lost statc ol
Man.
|. . .|
Now, whcn thc initiatc has comc at last to lysium, hc nds that
lor which hc sccks during his wandcrings. And indccd, it is only
whcn thc King and his company havc riscn out ol thc darkncss ol
crror (Purgatory) into clcar and uncloudcd rcason (lysium) that thc
ostcnsiblc purposc ol thcir wandcrings is lulllcd by thc nding ol
thc lost son Fcrdinand, who is discovcrcd whcn Prospcro throws
opcn thc cntrancc ol thc ccll.
8ut my wholc argumcnt throughout this scction has bccn to thc
ccct that what is rcally implicd in thc wandcrings ol thc Court Party,
as in thc ritual wandcrings ol thc pagan aspirant, is thc qucst lor
Truth. How, thcn, is Truth lound in lysium:
|. . .|
Villiam Shakcspcarc
219
Mythologically, as in antcs Divina Commedia, thc Grcatcr !niti
ation consists in an asccnt lrom lysium (~iv) to thc Cclcstial Paradisc
(~v:nvv), whcrc a glimpsc ol divinc things is obtaincdprcciscly as in
psychological cxpcricncc Truth is lully rcvcalcd only whcn thc scckcr,
closing his cycs to thc cxtcrnal world, has mountcd lrom thc planc ol
rcason (~iv) to thc planc ol intuitional pcrccption (~v:nvv).
! contcnd that thc story ol Fcrdinand in thc Play is an account
ol this Grcatcr or cular !nitiation, and that, although it is told
concurrcntly, it continucs and complctcs thc allcgory prcscntcd in thc
story ol thc Court Party.
Vhcn wc rst scc Fcrdinand, his passion and thc wild watcrs havc
alrcady bccn simultancously allaycd by thc swcct music ol Aricl:
Sitting on a bank,
Vccping again thc king my lathcrs wrcck,
Tis music crcpt by mc upon thc watcrs,
Allaying both thcir lury, and my passion,
Vith its swcct air.
(Act !., Sccnc 2.)
!n othcr words, Fcrdinand has alrcady passcd through cmotional
tumult to that tranquillity which is thc subjcctivc lysium. Tat hc
has passcd through Hcll is implicd in thc spccial and sccmingly
gratuitous rclcrcncc containcd in Aricls initial rcport to Prospcro:
Tc kings son, Fcrdinand,
Vith hair upstaring (thcn likc rccds, not hair),
Vas thc rst man that lcapt, cricd, Hcll is cmpty,
And all thc dcvils arc hcrc. (Ibid.)
8ut this Hclllikc sccnc has bccn wholly translormcd whcn Fcrdi
nand rst appcars. Hc is now lollowing altcr Aricl, who is singing
a song that wc may lairly takc as dcscribing thc plcasant placc to
which Fcrdinand is lcd whcn thc wild wavcs ol his passion havc bccn
stillcd:
Comc unto thcsc ycllow sands,
And thcn takc hands,
Tc Tcmpcst
220
Courtsicd whcn you havc, and kisscd
Tc wild wavcs whist:
Foot it lcatly hcrc and thcrc,
And, swcct spritcs, thc burdcn bcar. (Ibid.)
Tc translormation ol his cnvironmcnt is thus as complctc as that ol
his mood. Morcovcr, it closcly rcscmblcs thc changc Acncas cxpc
ricnccd whcn hc passcd up lrom Purgatory to lysium, lor \irgil
cxprcssly says that thc mythical lysium is a plcasant placc whcrc
happy spirits dancc and sing upon thc ycllow sands.
5
!n thc mythological as wcll as in thc subjcctivc scnsc, thcn,
Fcrdinand is in lysium. Hcrc hc mccts Miranda, as antc mccts
8catricc in dcn. 8oth Miranda and 8catricc rcprcscnt (as ! havc
shown) that !mmaculatc Voman who, as thc bclovcd ol thc aspirant,
is a pcrsonication ol Visdom. Likc thc Voman Visdom, Miranda
is wondrous and uniquc, pccrlcss and pcrlcct, prccious bcyond
comparc. Likc Visdom, shc comcs to toil with hcr lovcr in his trials,
and ultimatcly bccomcs his bridc.
|. . .|
Likc thc pagan candidatc lor thc Grcatcr !nitiation (who had
alrcady madc a ritual asccnt to lysium in thc prcccding ccrcmony),
Fcrdinand has to acccpt thc disciplinc ol ascctic dict and arduous
labours. His labours, it is intcrcsting to notc, consist in carrying a
hcavy burdcn ol woodas Christ, bclorc His crucixion and dcath,
was madc to carry thc Cross.
6
Tcsc prcliminarics having bccn
complctcd, Fcrdinand thcn undcrgocs thc cxpcricncc which consti
tutcs thc suprcmc initiation.
|. . .|
|. . . !n| thc suprcmc psychological cxpcricncc, thc ccstatic closing
ol thc cycs (or mystical swoon) in a tcmporary dcath to this world
prcccdcs thc arrival ol thc consciousncss upon thc planc ol complctc
and instantancous knowlcdgc, which is thc planc ol rcvclation, so, in
mythology, thc passagc through thc cry circlc prcccdcs thc aspirants
arrival in thc Cclcstial Paradisc, whcrc a glimpsc ol divinc things is
obtaincd. |. . .|
Such is thc casc with Fcrdinand |. . . who| is now in that mythical
Cclcstial Paradisc whcrcin thc pcrlcctcd Soul, cmancipatcd lrom thc
Villiam Shakcspcarc
221
cyclc ol incarnations, livcs lor cvcr, and indccd, at this vcry momcnt
hc cxclaims:
Lct mc livc hcrc cvcr:
So rarc a wondcrd lathcr and a wisc
Makcs this placc Paradisc.
(Act !\., Sccnc 1.)
Furthcrmorc, wc arc cxprcssly givcn to undcrstand that this bcholding
ol thc gods is dircctly rclatcd to and conrms his contract ol truc
lovc with Miranda. !n othcr words, it is an apocalypsc, lor it marks
his union with thc Visdom or Truth that is lully acquircd only
through rcvclation.
|. . .|
Vith thc philosophical spccch ol Prospcro, which cnsucs
upon thc vision and ol which thc purposc is to awakcn Fcrdinand
lrom thc drcam ol thc carthlilc and its transicnt matcrial splcn
dours, thc rcvcls ol thc Grcatcr or cular !nitiation according
to thc pagan modcl arc cndcd. ! havc lclt a ccrtain amount ol thc
tcxtual cvidcncc containcd in thc story ol Fcrdinand lor considcr
ation latcr in a scparatc scction dcaling with Miranda, and hcncc
thc brcvity ol thc prcscnt scction, as comparcd with that rclating
to thc Court Party. 8ut cnough has, ! think, bccn said to show
that, il this part ol thc Play bc trcatcd as continuing thc allcgory
cmbodicd in thc story ol thc Court Party, wc nd in thc two narra
tivcs a lull account ol that Pilgrimagc ol Pcrlcction which is callcd
!nitiation.
|. . .|
Tc scllrcdcmption ol man consists in his rccovcry ol thc Lost
statc ol inspircd rcason. To achicvc this, thc aspirant must cxpiatc
thc original sin by a triumph ovcr prcciscly thc tcmptations by which
thc Fall was compasscd. Hc must ovcrcomc that insidious Tcmptcr
who is csirc. ! havc alrcady dcalt cxtcnsivcly with this ordcal, but
thc conscqucnccs ol lailurc havc yct to bc considcrcd. Failurc to rcsist
thc Tcmptcr involvcs not only lailurc to achicvc !nitiation, but also
anothcr lapsc to v~v:n. And this lurthcr lapsc ncccssarily corrc
sponds cxactly to thc original Fall.
Tc Tcmpcst
222
!t is now my intcntion to show that thc story ol Stcphano and
Trinculo cxprcsscs this conccption with singular and suggcstivc prcci
sion, and that thc Play is thus complctcd as a mythological cyclc by
thc inclusion ol a vcrsion ol thc Fall, but, as a prcliminary to this
dcmonstration, thc casc ol Caliban must rst bc considcrcd.
Much has bccn writtcn on thc subjcct ol Caliban. Hc may bc said,
in lact, to prcscnt onc ol thc most dicult problcms ol thc Play. Tc
proposition which ! now submit is that in Caliban we have a personi-
cation on mythological lines of the Tempter who is Desire.
! havc alrcady dcalt at somc lcngth with thc aspcct ol thc Tcmptcr
as csirc, and also with thc various lorms in which hc is rcprcscntcd.
!n thc Genesis story thc Tcmptcr is dcscribcd simply as a Scrpcnt.
8ut thc typical lorm which hc assumcs in myth and lcgcnd is that
ol a monstrous Scrpcnt or ragon, as in thc myths ol Cadmus, ol
Pcrscus, and ol St. Gcorgc. Tis crcaturc is nativc to watcr, whcncc hc
cmcrgcs to assail his victim. And sincc thc conccption ol thc Tcmptcr,
as csirc, is cntircly subjcctivc in signicancc, thc watcr whcncc thc
monstcr cmcrgcs must bc undcrstood to bc thc cmotional w~:vv in
thc human composition.
7
|. . .|
Caliban has, thcrclorc, lour important points ol rcscmblancc to
thc Monstcrs ol mythological tradition and initiation ritual, lor(a)
hc is nativc to watcr, (b) hc rcsidcs, or is cncountcrcd, out ol watcr,
(c) hc is ol mixcd spccics, and (d ) hc gurcs thc Tcmptcr. Truc to thc
tradition, hc is mct with by Stcphano and Trinculo whcn, cmcrging
lrom thc watcr, thcy havc wandcrcd on thc shorcthat is to say, hc is
mct with whcn in thc coursc ol thc Rcasccnt thcy havc passcd through
w~:vv into :is:. Tis :is: is thc Purgatorial Vildcrncss, thc placc
ol tcmptation and cxpiation. !t is also, as wc havc sccn, a placc or statc
ol darkncss, so that Caliban is quitc truly dcscribcd by Prospcro as
Tis thing ol darkncss . . .
(Act \., Sccnc 1, linc 275.)
Tis may bc no morc than a vcrbal coincidcncc. !t is, pcrhaps, a rcmark
that is convcntionally moral rathcr than dclibcratcly symbolical. !n
any casc, thc Tcmptcr is prccmincntly a thing ol darkncss. !ndccd,
hc is thc Princc ol arkncss.
|. . .|
Villiam Shakcspcarc
223
!n so lar as thc Play corrcsponds to thc pagan ritcs, Prospcro may
bc rcgardcd as thc countcrpart ol thc hicrophant, or initiating pricst.
8ut in thc widcr schcmc ! havc lattcrly bccn trcating hc gurcs thc
prototypical Suprcmc 8cing, whom, indccd, thc pagan hicrophant
was dccmcd to rcprcscnt.
Vc havc sccn that thc cxpulsion ol thc dragon Caliban lrom thc
Ccll ol Prospcro is a vcrsion ol thc Fall ol Satan lrom Hcavcn, which
must imply that Prospcro is cquivalcnt to God. Vc havc sccn, too,
that hc stands in rclation to Stcphano and Trinculo prcciscly as thc
Lord God stood to Adam and vc. Considcr now thc sccmingly
limitlcss rangc ol Prospcros powcr
! havc bcdimmcd
Tc noontidc sun, callcd lorth thc mutinous winds,
And twixt thc grccn sca and thc azurcd vault
Sct roaring war. . . . Tc strongbascd promontory
Havc ! madc shakc, and by thc spurs pluckcd up
Tc pinc and ccdar. Gravcs at my command,
Havc wakcd thcir slccpcrs, opcd and lct thcm lorth
8y my so potcnt art. (Act \., Sccnc 1.)
Tcsc arc supcrhuman works. !n lact, Prospcro claims quitc dc
nitcly that hc posscsscs thc powcr ol mighty Zcus himscll, lor not
only docs hc say that hc can makc lightning, but hc dcclarcs that hc
has actually cmploycd thc gods own thundcrbolt:
To thc drcad rattling thundcr
Havc ! givcn rc, and riltcd Jovcs stout oak
Vith his own bolt. (Ibid.)
For what purposc, savc that ol allcgory, docs thc Poct thus cxalt him
to thc vcry topmost pinnaclc ol supcrhuman powcr: Furthcrmorc,
although thc storm which bcsct thc mcn ol sin is rcpcatcdly statcd
in quitc uncquivocal tcrms to havc bccn dccrccd and crcatcd by Pros
pcro,
8
his ministcr Aricl cxprcssly attributcs it to cstiny and thc
powcrs ol rctribution:
You arc thrcc mcn ol sin, whom cstiny
(Tat hath to instrumcnt this lowcr world
Tc Tcmpcst
224
And what is in t) thc ncvcrsurlcitcd sca
Hath causcd to bclch you up. . . . ! and my lcllows
Arc ministcrs ol Fatc. . . .
Tc powcrs, dclaying, not lorgctting, havc
!nccnscd thc scas and shorcs, yca, all thc crcaturcs,
Against your pcacc . . . and do pronouncc by mc
Lingcring pcrdition, worsc than any dcath
Can bc at oncc, shall stcp by stcp attcnd
You and your ways, whosc wraths to guard you lrom,
Vhich hcrc, in this most dcsolatc islc, clsc lalls
Upon your hcads, is nothing, but hcarts sorrow,
And a clcar lilc cnsuing. (Act !!!., Sccnc 3.)
Hcrc it sccms to bc plainly intimatcd that Prospcro himscll is
that mnipotcnt Judgc whom sinncrs cannot cvadc, who can pass
scntcncc ol lingcring pcrdition, but whosc mcrcy can always bc won
by rcpcntancc.
|. . .|
Hc rcprcscnts thc Suprcmc 8cing whosc bcnign inucncc govcrns
thc livcs ol mcn. Sorrow and mislortuncs hc docs, indccd, ordain, yct
his solc purposc is thcrcby to bring sinncrs to rcpcntancc:
Tcy bcing pcnitcnt,
Tc solc drilt ol my purposc doth cxtcnd
Not a lrown lurthcr. (Act \., Sccnc 1.)
His vcry namc is suggcstivc ol that 8cncccnt Powcr which works lor
thc truc happincss ol mankind (prospero - ! makc happy). Against
him thc dragon Caliban conspircs with Stcphano and Trinculo, as thc
lallcn Satan conspircs among mcn against thc God hc hatcs. Cast out
by thosc whosc thoughts arc sct on thcir own tcmporal cnds, Prospcro
docs not at oncc rcstorc himscll and maintain (as hc could do) his
sovcrcignty by a pitilcss usc ol his supcrhuman powcr, but (dclaying,
not lorgctting) hc paticntly achicvcs his own rcinstatcmcnt by lcading
thcm through tribulation to pcnitcncc and amcndmcnt. Tis donc, hc
is alllorgiving, and gcntly bids thcm Plcasc you, draw ncar.
! havc argucd that Te Tempest is an account ol !nitiation, conccivcd
as a rcvcrsal ol thc Fall ol Man. And what, in csscncc, is thc Fall but
Villiam Shakcspcarc
225
thc dcthroning ol thc Most High lrom thc human hcart: !n thc
Play wc havc a Rulcr ol supcrnatural powcr who has bccn cxilcd and
lorgottcn by mcn ol sin, and, with Prospcro as with God Himscll,
thc mcans whcrcby hc rcgains his rightlul kingdom arc prcciscly thc
mcans whcrcby thosc who had dcthroncd him achicvc !nitiation.
|. . .|
From no standpoint is thc piloguc, which is spokcn by Prospcro
in thc rst pcrson, consistcnt with his part in thc drama. !t can bc
rcconcilcd ncithcr with his nominal charactcr as thc magicworking
ukc ol Milan nor with his allcgorical charactcr as thc Suprcmc
8cing, and thosc commcntators arc undoubtcdly right who insist that
Prospcro hcrc rcprcscnts Shakcspcarc himscll. 8ut, whilc ! agrcc so
lar, ! disscnt lrom thc ordinary vicw that this closing spccch contains
simply thc Pocts intimation that his labours as a dramatist arc cndcd.
! suggcst rathcr that Shakcspcarc, having writtcn a prolound allcgory,
dcsigncd thc piloguc lor thc cxprcss purposc ol plcading lor release
in thc spccial scnsc ol interpretation.
|. . .|
|Tc| Poct not only nccds, but is at this momcnt invoking, thc
spiritual aid ol his rcadcrs to cnlorcc thc rcal and sccrct purposc ol
Te Tempest, and, looking back upon his allcgory and rccognising
its many outward impcrlcctions, hc may wcll say that his cnding
is dcspair unlcss thc appcal hc now makcs to us picrcc so that wc
lorgivc thc laults in a lull apprcciation ol all that hc attcmptcd.
As you lrom crimcs would pardoncd bc,
Lct your indulgcncc sct mc lrcc.
Yct again, in closing, hc asks us to rclcasc him. His words arc at oncc
a plca and a challcngc. All thc cvidcncc points to thc conclusion that
what hc asks lor is intcrprctation, and, il thc casc ! havc lormulatcd
through thcsc many pagcs bc rcjcctcd, ! know not in what manncr his
appcal may bc answcrcd.
NOTES
1. Tat thc thirst which thc aspirant sucrs is a thirst lor thc
passional w~:vv, is obvious cnough. As lor thc hungcr, ! nccd
Tc Tcmpcst
226
only rclcr to thc univcrsal practicc ol brcaking brcad togcthcr
as thc outward symbol ol worldly lcllowship. Tis lcllowship is
onc ol thc worldly plcasurcs which must bc rcnounccd by thc
aspirant to initiation.
2. Cl. Jas. iv. 7: Rcsist thc cvil, and hc will cc lrom you.
Similarly, Apollyon lclt Christian whcn thc lattcr rcsistcd him
in thc \alc ol Humiliation. 8oth thc cvil and Apollyon arc
gurcs lor csircthat samc insidious Scrpcnt which causcd
(and causcs) thc Fall lrom thc lysian ~iv ol rcason, and which
must bc ovcrcomc as a condition prcccdcnt to a rcturn thithcr in
thc Sccond cgrcc ol !nitiation.
3. Tcmporal powcr and glory gratily mans lovc ol display. csirc
lor thcm (ambition) is dcsirc lor scnsuous satislactions, and may
bc symbolically dcscribcd as a thirst lor thc scnsuous w~:vv.
Tus Prospcro, spcaking ol his brothcr, rcmarks:
So dry was hc lor sway. . . .
(Act !., Sccnc 2, linc 112.)
Ambition lurcs mcn to spiritual dcath or bondagc, likc thc
music ol thc Sircns. vcry truc initiatc must rcsist it. 8y rigid
sclldisciplinc hc must bccomc uttcrly indicrcnt to thc swcct
satislactions ol tcmporal powcr and glory. No othcrwisc can hc
bc succcsslul in his qucst lor Truth.
4. Fumcs arc, ol coursc, mist or cloud. 8acon, ol whosc
lamiliarity with thc symbolism ! havc alrcady givcn prcsumptivc
cvidcncc, dcscribcs an crror as a lumc. Hc writcs: . . . For that
is thc fume ol thosc that conccivc thc Cclcstial 8odics havc
morc accuratc inucnccs upon thcsc things bclow than indccd
thcy havc . . . (ssay on Viciss. of Tings).
5. Cl. Aen. vi. 6434:
Contcndunt ludo, ct lulva luctantur arcna,
Pars pcdibus plaudunt chorcas, ct carmina dicunt
6. St. John xix. 17. Ncvcrthclcss, thc othcr Gospcls arm that thc
Cross was carricd by onc Simon, a Cyrcnian. ! do not prcss thc
comparison bctwccn thc casc ol Fcrdinand and that ol Christ
according to St. John. 8ut ! may hcrc point out that as Christs
8aptism and Sojourn in thc Vildcrncss rcprcscnt rcspcctivcly
thc First and Sccond cgrccs ol !nitiation, so His cath and
Rcsurrcction rcprcscnt thc Tird cgrcc.
Villiam Shakcspcarc
227
7. Notc that thcrc arc two mythical ragons, thc highcr and
thc lowcr. Tc highcr ragon is nativc to thc w~:vv ~novv
(vivv), which is thc clcmcnt ol intuitional wisdom, hcncc thc
highcr ragon is hcld to bc sacrcd, as by thc Chincsc. !t is thc
Scrpcnt ol Visdom. 8ut thc lowcr ragon, bcing nativc to
thc passional w~:vv nviow, is cvil. !t is thc Tcmptcr who is
csircthc grcat dragon, that old scrpcnt, which is thc cvil,
and Satan.
8. Cl. !. 2. 12, !. 2. 269, !. 2. 1945, \. 1. 6.
Tc Tcmpcst
229
THEIR EYES WERE WATCHING GOD
(ZORA NEALE HURSTON)
,.
Resistance, Rebirth, and Renewal
in Zora Neale Hurstons
Teir Eyes Were Watching God
by cborah Jamcs,
thc Univcrsity ol North Carolina at Ashcvillc
Tcsc sittcrs had bccn tonguclcss, carlcss, cyclcss convcnicnccs
all day long. Mulcs and othcr brutcs had occupicd thcir skins.
8ut now thc sun and thc bossman wcrc gonc so thc skins lclt
powcrlul and human. (1)
Zora Ncalc Hurstons writinganthropological and litcraryaimcd
at giving voicc to a community which socicty oltcn rcndcrcd as
tonguclcss, carlcss, cyclcss convcnicnccs. Vithin hcr tcxts, Alrican
Amcricans, particularly ordinary working pcoplc, livc and brcathc.
Tat gilt ol lilc in hcr tcxts is pcrhaps hcr most important contri
bution to Amcrican lcttcrs. And nowhcrc is that talcnt displaycd
morc ably, morc poctically, than in hcr most cclcbratcd work, Teir
Eyes Were Watching God. Vhilc its major locus is thc lilc ol its main
charactcr, Janic, it also brings to lilc again a community that is vital
dcspitc thc cnlorccd cnclosurc ol racc. Vithin thc communitics shc
constructs, Alrican Amcricans havc agcncy, thcy havc livcs lull ol
laughtcr, work, cnvy, lovc, rcscntmcnt, somctimcs violcncc, pridc,
curiositya wholc rangc ol human activity and conccrns. Tcy also
havc a livcly, cxprcssivc languagc augmcntcd by Hurstons own gilts
230
ol poctic cxprcssion. Tis novcl dcmonstratcs how pcoplc, collcctivcly
and individually, crcatc thcir livcsrcsisting cxtcrnal catcgorics and
achicving rcncwal. Janic, thc protagonist ol thc novcl, is Hurstons
most signicant portrait ol an individual who achicvcs rcncwal
through hcr ability to rcsist thc dcnitions ol othcrs and hcr opcnncss
to thc somctimcspainlul proccss ol rcbirth.
Sincc its rcappcarancc on thc Amcrican litcrary landscapc in thc
1970s, critics and rcadcrs ol Teir Eyes Were Watching God agrcc that
thc novcl chroniclcs Janics sclldiscovcry. Shc has scvcral kcy rcla
tionships within thc storyrst with hcr grandmothcr, thc othcr
thrcc with cach ol thc mcn shc marrics. iscussions ol thc tcxt
idcntily Janics marriagcs as crucial juncturcs lor hcrthc momcnts
whcn hcr discovcrics about hcrscll arc most apparcnt and intcnsc.
From this vantagc point, hcr most important lcssons would sccm to
bc lcssons about lovcundcrstanding what lovc is not through hcr
rst two marriagcs, initially to Logan Kcllicks, thcn to Joc Starks (or
Jody as Janic callcd him). Janic nally lcarns what lovc is during hcr
last rclationship with Tca Cakc (\crgiblc Voods). !l, howcvcr, this
is thc only conccrn ol thc novcl, all that it ocrs its rcadcrs, it would
havc ccascd to bc ol critical intcrcst somc timc ago. !n lact, somc carly
rcvicwcrs, Richard Vright and Stcrling 8rown lor cxamplc, dismisscd
hcr talc as worthlcss bccausc it sccmcd to ignorc thc political and
social rcalitics ol thc timcs and to bc limitcd to only thcsc domcstic
conccrns. Vhat thcsc rcadcrs misscd was Hurstons implicit challcngc
to thc stcrcotypc ol thc day that said black pcoplc wcrc incapablc ol
truc romancc bccausc, as a racc, thcy wcrc limitcd in human lcclings
and undcrstanding. Fortunatcly, this issuc has virtually vanishcd lor
contcmporary rcadcrs.
8ut thcrc is morc to thc novcl than this cxploration ol romantic
lovc. As cmincnt Alrican Amcrican litcrary critic and scholar Hcnry
Louis Gatcs obscrvcs, a widc rangc ol critics continuc to discovcr ncw
aspccts ol thc novcl that thcy contcmplatc and discuss with dclight il
not always in agrccmcnt (Gatcs, Teir Eyes 164). For cxamplc, whilc
most contcmporary rcadcrs agrcc that Janic docs gain valuablc knowl
cdgc about thc naturc ol lovc through hcr cxpcricnccs with thc mcn in
hcr lilc, somc critics, such as Mary Hclcn Vashington (Vashington,
! Lovc . . .) arguc that Janics sclldiscovcrics arc limitcd by hcr rcla
tionships with mcn. Vhilc Janics rclationships providc cxpcricnccs
Zora Ncalc Hurston
231
through which shc lcarns and grows, thcy arc not thc lull mcasurc ol
that growth. Janics discovcrics rcsult in rcncwal bccausc ol cvcrything
shc lcarns about lilc and thc couragc with which shc sccks to livc it on
hcr own tcrms. n hcr rcturn to atonvillc, shc sharcs hcr talc and
hcr hardwon undcrstanding with hcr bcst lricnd, Phcoby.
!ts a known lact Phcoby, you got tuh go thcrc tuh know
thcrc.
Yo papa and yo mama and nobody clsc cant tcll yuh and
show yuh. Two things cvcrybodys got tuh do luh thcmsclvcs.
Tcy got tuh go tuh God, and thcy got tuh nd out about livin
luh thcysclvcs. (192)
Trough hcr cxpcricnccs, Janic discovcrs that in ordcr to achicvc
rcal knowlcdgc shc must rcsist cxtcrnal limitations and cxpcctations,
bccoming a lull participant in shaping hcr own lilc. Tus shc is rcborn
as a wholc pcrson.
arly on, Janic dcmonstratcs hcr rcsistancc to cxtcrnal dcnition
in thc cpisodc whcrc shc lails to rccognizc hcrscll in a photograph
as thc onc black child among thc othcr childrcn who livc on thc
cstatc. Although that lailurc has somc troubling connotations (i.c.,
is Hurston suggcsting somc ncgativc rcsponsc to bcing idcnticd as
black:), it actually signals hcr rcsistancc to thc stigma associatcd with
thc racial stcrcotypcs ol thc day. As shc rclays this incidcnt to Phcoby,
shc cxplains hcr rcsponsc in tcrms ol thc lrccdom and cquality shc
cxpcricnccd as a child and how it dicrcd lrom thc typical cxpcri
cncc ol blacks in thc prccivil rights cra. Hcr surprisc about hcr racial
idcntity docs not sccm linkcd to any pcrsonal ncgativc lcclings about
it. Rathcr, as thc rcst ol thc novcl attcsts, it indicatcs thc dicrcncc
bctwccn how Janic thinks ol hcrscll (not limitcd in tcrms ol racc and
class) and how othcr pcoplc scc hcr and cxpcct hcr to rcspond. Janics
rcsistancc to thc lacts ol hcr povcrty and racc, to what thosc should
mcan in tcrms ol hcr lcclings about hcr placc, lorccast hcr rcac
tion to hcr grandmothcrs corts to providc sccurity lor hcr by way
ol marriagc. From thc bcginning, Janics judgmcnts and dcsircs arc
shapcd by hcr own lcclings about thc circumstanccs ol hcr lilc rathcr
than by othcrs cxpcctations. Tis lcads to a dccp rilt bctwccn Janic
and hcr grandmothcr.
Tcir ycs Vcrc Vatching God
232
Vhcn Nanny obscrvcs Janics scxual awakcning (kissing Johnny
Taylor across thc lcncc), shc is catapultcd into action lor Janics salcty.
Janic, howcvcr, undcrstands ncithcr how shc is cndangcrcd nor what
thc naturc ol thc dangcr is. vcrything sccms to bc happcning too
abruptly. Likc a drcamcr awakcning, Janic is tcmporarily blindcd by
thc glorics ol a ncw world, in which scnsuality, scxuality, and lovc
sccm to cqual marriagc. 8ut Nanny, born into slavcry, victim ol hcr
mastcrs lust and hcr mistrcsss ragc, knows how vulncrablc Janic is
lrom this momcnt on. Shc argucs that Janic must havc thc protcction
ol marriagc and thc sccurity ol posscssions to prcvcnt what Nanny
bclicvcs will othcrwisc bc hcr incvitablc latc.
Ah dont want yo lcathcrs always crumplcd by lolks throwin
things in yo lacc. And Ah cant dic casy thinkin maybc dc
mcnlolks whitc or black is makin a spit cup outa you . . . (20).
Tcsc tcrrors havc no rcality lor Janic though. !n hcr mind, Nanny
has translormcd almost unaccountably into somconc lorcing Janic to
submit to hcr will against Janics own instincts. And whilc shc trics
to acccpt Nannys vision as hcr own, it docs not t. 8ut Nanny docs
not comprchcnd Janics vicw, dismissing it as insubstantial and navc.
Janic longs lor things swcct wid mah marriagc . . . (24). Nanny
instcad insists that marriagc to Logan Kcllicks is thc pcrlcct protcc
tion. Hc is an oldcr manscttlcd, a widow, and, most importantly, a
landowncr (sixty acrcs). Vhilc Nannys lcars lor Janic arc rcal and hcr
corts to providc lor hcr arc loving, hcr rclusal to takc into account
Janics lcclings conluscs and angcrs Janic. !n Janics vicw, hcr marriagc
to Kcllicks divcrts hcr lrom hcr own cdgling attcmpt to cxplorc
hcr world and hcrscll. !n marrying Logan, Janic allows hcr lilc to bc
dictatcd by Nannys vicw, with ncgativc conscqucnccs. Latcr in lilc
Janic cvcn dccidcs that,
Shc hatcd hcr grandmothcr and had hiddcn it lrom hcrscll all
thcsc ycars undcr a cloak ol pity. Shc had bccn gctting rcady
lor hcr grcat journcy to thc horizons in scarch ol people. . . . 8ut
shc had bccn whippcd likc a cur dog, and run o down a back
road altcr things (89).
Zora Ncalc Hurston
233
To Janic, Nannys wcllintcntioncd protcction, in lact, aborts hcr rst
attcmpts to achicvc womanhood.
Vhilc Janics rcsistancc to Nannys plan lor hcr lilc has bccn
almost cntircly intuitivc (shc has littlc cxpcricncc on which to basc hcr
lcars), in hcr union with Logan, shc bcgins to acquirc livcd cxpcricncc
on which to basc hcr growing undcrstanding. First, howcvcr, shc must
rcsist Logan Kcllicks himscll, thc ncxt thrcat to hcr dcvclopmcnt.
Likc Nanny, Logan trics to imposc his vicw ol what shc should
bc on Janic. Tough hc initially sccms smittcn with hcr (i.c., chop
ping wood lor hcr, ctc.), whcn shc lails to immcdiatcly rcciprocatc, hc
bccomcs angry. Hc thinks shc should bc gratclul that hc has rcscucd
hcr lrom what hc sccs as thc humiliation ol hcr povcrty. Vhcn shc
rcluscs to bchavc with gratitudc, hc bcgins to dcmand scrvitudc, rst
dcmanding that shc chop hcr own wood, thcn purchasing a mulc
spccically lor hcr to hclp him plow thc cld. !ronically, this is thc
latc that Nanny thinks shc has protcctcd Janic lrom.
So Janic waitcd a bloom timc, and a grccn timc and an orangc
timc. 8ut whcn thc pollcn again gildcd thc sun and siltcd
down on thc world shc bcgan to stand around thc gatc and
cxpcct things. Vhat things: Shc didnt know cxactly. . . . Shc
kncw things nobody had cvcr told hcr. . . . Tc lamiliar pcoplc
and things had lailcd hcr so shc hung ovcr thc gatc and lookcd
down thc road towards way o. Shc kncw now that marriagc
did not makc lovc. Jamics rst drcam was dcad, so shc bccamc
a woman. (25)
Janic bcgins to undcrstand through hcr own cxpcricncc with
Logan what shc docs not want. Morcovcr, shc has prool that shc
should lollow hcr own instincts, so whcn Joc Starks arrivcs, rcprc
scnting thc horizons shc wants to cxplorc, it takcs vcry littlc timc lor
hcr to dccidc to lcavc Logan. Tus shc cmbarks on hcr rst rcinvcn
tion ol hcrscll. 8ut shc docs not simply lcavc Logan to attach hcrscll
to Joc. !n lact, thc morning shc walks o, shc is poiscd on thc brink
ol sclldiscovcry: A lccling ol suddcn ncwncss and changc camc ovcr
hcr. . . . vcn il Joc was not thcrc waiting lor hcr, thc changc was
bound to do hcr good. (32)
Tcir ycs Vcrc Vatching God
234
Jocs arrival has rcawakcncd Janics prcvious ycarnings, cspccially
hcr dcsirc lor a rclationship in which shc can know and bc known
morc lully. ncc again shc is disappointcd. Likc Nanny and Logan,
Joc is intcnt on Janic cnacting thc rolc hc has assigncd hcr. Hc is
unwilling to considcr hcr conccrns or lcclings in any rcal way. Hc is
convinccd that hc knows bcst. Janic must again rcsist somconc clscs
idca ol who shc should bc in ordcr to dcrivc a clcarcr undcrstanding
ol who shc is.
!n lact, Janics most sustaincd rcsistancc occurs within thc bound
arics ol hcr marriagc to Joc. !n thc bcginning, shc thinks shc has lound
a partncr with whom to sharc hcr cxploration ol thc world. Joc Starks
is a man with a vision, hc is hcading to a black town in its inlancy to
bc part ol its growth and dcvclopmcnt lrom thc ground up, and hc
is taking Janic with him. 8ut Joc bclicvcs hc must tcll hcr what shc
should think, what shc should lccl dcspitc Janics asscrtions that womcn
think too. !n a hcatcd cxchangc, hc tclls hcr that womcn just thinks
thcys thinking. (71) Janic rctrcats into silcnccbut silcnt rcsistancc
rathcr than submission.
Shc lound that shc had a host ol thoughts shc had ncvcr
cxprcsscd to him, and numcrous cmotions shc had ncvcr lct
Jody | Joc| know about. Tings packcd up and put away in parts
ol hcr hcart whcrc hc could ncvcr nd thcm. . . . Shc had an
insidc and an outsidc now and suddcnly shc kncw how not to
mix thcm. (72)
So Janics rst rcsponsc to Jocs domination is to prcscrvc hcr truc scll
lrom him in silcncc. Hcr outsidc scll docs what Joc dcmands, whilc
hcr insidc scll rcmains hiddcn lrom him. !t is during this sustaincd
silcncc that shc bcgins to obscrvc morc carclully thc contrast bctwccn
this outsidc, which conlorms in somc mcasurc to cxpcctation, and thc
insidc, which harbors hcr rcal lcclings. !n this silcncc, thc gap bctwccn
thc two statcs ol bcing grows.
8ut such a split cannot bc maintaincd lorcvcr. nc day, whcn Joc
dcridcs hcr in lront ol thc usual crowd in thc storc, somcthing snaps.
Shc rctaliatcs by scorning him publicly, dcscribing his impotcncc:
Vhcn you pull down yo britchcs, you look lak dc changc uh lilc
(79). Janic movcs lrom passivc rcsistancc to opcn rcbcllion, using thc
Zora Ncalc Hurston
235
voicc shc has discovcrcd to dcvastating ccct. 8ut cvcn whcn Joc laccs
dcath, hc will not hear Janic.
Listcn, Jody, you aint dc Jody ah run o down dc road
wid. Yousc whuts lclt altcr hc dicd. Ah run o tuh kccp housc
wid you in uh wondcrlul way. 8ut you wasnt satiscd wid mc
dc way Ah was. Naw! Mah own mind had tuh bc squcczcd and
crowdcd out tuh makc room lor yours in mc.
Shut up. Ah wish thundcr and lightnin would kill you
(86).
Tough hcr attcmpts at rcconciliation lail, shc has hcr say. Morc than
that, though, in thc altcrmath ol Jocs dcath, shc oncc again takcs
stock. Janic achicvcs onc lcvcl ol scllknowlcdgc whcn shc lclt Logan.
At Jocs dcath, shc gains anothcr. Tc young girl is now complctcly
gonc, rcplaccd by a handsomc, condcnt woman, ablc to prcscnt hcr
starchcd and ironcd lacc, lorming it into just what pcoplc wantcd
to scc (87). Tis mask bccomcs a protcctivc covcr whilc a ncw Janic
dcvclops within this cocoon.
Tc community sccs lrom hcr what it cxpccts to scc, whilc Janic
cnjoys hcr rst rcal lrccdom. Shc bcgins this proccss ol rcncwal by
rst divcsting hcrscll ol thc hcad rags that symbolizcd Jocs domina
tion. 8ut shc continucs by qucstioning hcrscll dccply. Shc asks hcrscll
what shc rcally wants, thcn listcns in stillncss lor thc answcr. !t is in
this proccss that shc discovcrs hcr antipathy toward Nanny. !n this
stillncss, shc discovcrs . . . a jcwcl down insidc hcrscll sccking its
matc in somc undiscovcrcd othcr (90). !n this statc ol contcmplation,
Janic also discovcrs how much shc cnjoys hcr own lrccdom. Although
thc rst two rclationships in hcr lilc had lookcd likc lrccdom, cach
bccamc a dicrcnt kind ol bondagc. So Janic is vcry cautious about
avoiding that mistakc again. Shc is also coming to thc cnd ol hcr
willingncss to cvcn providc thc outsidc dcmandcd by othcrs. Vhcn
Phcoby prcsscs hcr to considcr rcmarrying, Janic rcsponds:
Taint dat Ah worrics ovcr Jocs dcath, Phcoby. Ah jus
lovcs dis lrccdom.
Shshsh! ont lct nobody hcar you say dat Janic. Folks will
say you aint sorry hcs gonc.
Tcir ycs Vcrc Vatching God
236
Lct cm say whut dcy wants tuh, Phocby. To my thinking
mourning oughtnt tuh last no longcr than gricl (93).
Tus bctwccn Jodys dcath and hcr ncxt rclationship, Janic cmcrgcs as
a ncw woman, rcady and ablc to makc hcr own dccisions about hcr
lilc. Shc knows thc conscqucnccs ol allowing othcr pcoplc to dictatc
thc tcrms ol oncs own lilc. !t is in that statc ol rcadincss that shc has
hcr most lilcaltcring cncountcr. Shc mccts Tca Cakc, hcr mcntor and
thc othcr whosc intcrnal jcwcl matchcs hcrs.
From thc bcginning, Janics rclationship with Tca Cakc is unlikc
thc prcvious oncs. Tis rclationship is markcd by play, a lcvcl ol
mutual honcsty and sclldisclosurc that Janics prcvious rclationships
lackcd. Tough shcs cautious about hcr ncw lrccdom, hcr bantcr with
him during thcir rst mccting is casy and rclaxcd. !t is Janic who scts
thc boundarics ol thcir rclationship carly on. Shc dccidcs whcn and
whcrc shc cngagcs with him. vcn hcr corts to avoid thc cycs ol thc
town at rst givc way vcry soon to thcir cvolving rclationship. Janics
anxicty that hc is a young man out to makc a lool ol hcr is qucllcd
by Tca Cakcs accuratc rcading ol hcr lcar. Hc scts out thcn to provc
that his intcrcst in hcr is gcnuinc and not limitcd to cithcr propcrty
or scx.
A turning point in thcir rclationship comcs altcr hc has rcturncd
to hcr altcr having disappcarcd carlicr with thc two hundrcd dollars
shc had hiddcn as sccurity in casc hc abandoncd hcr on thc road.
Upon his rcturn, hc dcscribcs to hcr in dctail what hc has donc with
thc moncy, shc asks why hc did not takc hcr with him. Likc Logan,
but cspccially likc Joc, hc voiccs thc idca that shc is too rcncd to
bc cxposcd to low lilc. Not only docs shc rcsist this vicw opcnly, but
shc also tclls him that lrom that momcnt on shc cxpccts to partakc
wid cvcrything. . . . (124). Tca Cakc acccpts this idca and tclls hcr,
Honcy sincc you loosc mc and gimmc privilcgc tuh tcll yuh about
mahscll, Ahll tcll yuh . . . (125). Tus Tca Cakc bcgins his rolc as
guidc lor Janic, sharing all thc dimcnsions ol his lilc with hcr and thus
inviting hcr to do thc samc. Janic participatcs in cvcrything as much as
shc chooscs to. Tca Cakc docs ask hcr to do things lor him: to go with
him on thc muck (work in thc Florida vcrgladcs), to livc on only
what hc can providc lor thcm, to work sidc by sidc with him in thc
clds. Tc dicrcncc is that hc invitcs hcr into his lilc, thc bcttcr to
Zora Ncalc Hurston
237
know him. !n lact, hc prcscnts thc idca ol working thc clds togcthcr
as a way lor thcm to spcnd cvcn morc timc togcthcr. Janic acccpts.
Vhcn Mrs. Turncr bclricnds Janic only to try to turn hcr against Tca
Cakc, hc asks Janic to kccp hcr away lrom thc housc, but hc docs not
blamc hcr whcn shc is not complctcly ablc to avoid thc association.
!t is a sign ol thc scvcrity ol his illncss toward thc cnd ol thc novcl
whcn hc dcmands that shc stay in his sight and bcgins to accusc hcr
ol disloyalty.
Vith Tca Cakc Janic trics to inhabit a ncw idcntity, onc not
limitcd by class or cxtcrnal cxpcctations. !n lact, at onc point shc
thinks,
. . . ol thc old days in thc big whitc housc and thc storc and
laugh(cd) to hcrscll. Vhat il atonvillc could scc hcr now in
hcr bluc dcnim ovcralls and hcavy shocs: Tc crowd ol pcoplc
around hcr and a dicc gamc on hcr oor! Shc was sorry lor hcr
lricnds back thcrc and scornlul ol thc othcrs. Tc mcn hcld
big argumcnts hcrc likc thcy uscd to do on thc storc porch.
nly hcrc, shc could listcn and laugh and cvcn talk somc il
shc wantcd to. Shc got so shc could tcll big storics hcrscll lrom
listcning to thc rcst (134).
Shc lcarns othcr skills bcsidcsshc can sh and hunt and shoot. Shc
is also a good cook. 8ut most ol all, shc lccls lrcc to bc hcrscll
without constraint, without prctcnsc.
Hcr rclationship to Tca Cakc can bc said to bc problcmatic,
cspccially to thc contcmporary cyc. Tca Cakc slaps hcr around
whcn hc nds out that Mrs. Turncr is trying to sct Janic up with hcr
brothcr. Hc tclls thc othcr mcn that hc docs this not bccausc ol Janics
bchavior but to show Mrs. Turncr that hc controls his homc. So cvcn
within this lovc match, Janic is not altogcthcr lrcc ol thc violcncc
and controlling bchavior that somc mcn considcr thcir right whcrc
womcn arc conccrncd. Yct, on thc muck, shc is lrcc to work or not,
to dancc, laugh, ght, cry, think, makc lovcto givc cxprcssion to a
lull rangc ol cmotions. Tis lrccdom stcms lrom Janics scnsc ol scll
sucicncy, lrom hcr condcncc in hcr ability to takc carc ol hcrscll.
Shc still has thc homc and storc that Jocs dcath has lclt hcr and
moncy in thc bank. Shc rcturns to this placc rcadily altcr losing Tca
Tcir ycs Vcrc Vatching God
238
Cakc. 8ut in hcr lilc with him shc cxpcricnccs a scnsc ol complction,
ol bcing dccply lovcd and ol loving dccply.
At thc cnd ol thc day, howcvcr, Janic has only hcrscll and hcr
hardwon knowlcdgc to rcly on. !n thc last vicw ol Janic that Hurston
providcs, shc is again taking stock. 8ut this timc whcn shc looks
insidc, shc thinks, Hcrc was pcacc. Shc pullcd in hcr horizon likc a
grcat shnct. Pullcd it lrom around thc waist ol thc world and drapcd
it ovcr hcr shouldcr. So much ol lilc in its mcshcs. Shc callcd in hcr
soul to comc and scc (193). Janic is unalraid ol thc journcy. Shc
knows who shc is now lor surc.
WORKS CITED AND SELECTED CRITICAL READINGS
Gatcs, Hcnry Louis. Teir Eyes Were Watching God: Hurston and thc Spcakcrly
Tcxt. Zora Neale Hurston: Critical Perspectives Past and Present. Hcnry
Louis Gatcs Jr. and K.A. Appiah, cds. Ncw York: Amistad Litcrary
Scrics, 1993. 154203.
. Zora Ncalc Hurston: A Ncgro Vay ol Saying. Altcrword. Teir
Eyes Were Watching God. Ncw York: Pcrcnnial Classics, 1998. 195205.
Hurston, Zora Ncalc. Teir Eyes Were Watching God. Ncw York: Pcrcnnial
Classics, 1998.
Vall, Chcryl A. Zora Ncalc Hurston: Changing Hcr wn Vords. Zora Neale
Hurston: Critical Perspectives Past and Present. Hcnry Louis Gatcs Jr. and
K.A. Appiah, cds. Ncw York: Amistad Litcrary Scrics, 1993.
Vashington, Mary Hclcn. !ntroduction. Teir Eyes Were Watching God. Ncw
York: Pcrcnnial Classics, 1998. ixxvii.
. ! Lovc thc Vay Janic Crawlord Lclt Hcr Husbands: mcrgcnt
Fcmalc Hcro. Zora Neale Hurston: Critical Perspectives Past and Present.
Hcnry Louis Gatcs Jr. and K.A. Appiah, cds. Ncw York: Amistad
Litcrary Scrics, 1993.
Zora Ncalc Hurston
239
, Acknowledgments .
Alighicri, antc. To Can Grandc dclla Scala. Dantis Alagherii Epistolae: Te
Letters of Dante. Trans. Pagct Toynbcc. xlord: Clarcndon Prcss, 1966
(First publishcd 1920). 160211.
8crgstcn, Staan. Tc Latcr Quartcts. Time and Eternity: A Study in the
Structure and Symbolism of T.S. Eliots Four Quartcts. Stockholm, Swcdcn:
Svcnska 8oklorlagct, 1960. 20644. 1960 by 8crlingska 8oktryckcrict
Lund. Rcprintcd by pcrmission.
8rockbank, J.P. Tc amnation ol Faustus. Marlowe: Dr. Faustus. Voodbury,
N.Y.: 8arrons ducational Scrics, 1962. 5160. 1962 by J.P.
8rockbank.
8utlcr, H.. !ntroduction: Tc Sixth 8ook ol thc Aeneid. Te Sixth Book of the
Acncid. xlord: 8lackwcll Publishing, 1920. 118.
Gucrard, Albcrt J., Tc Journcy Vithin. Conrad the Novelist. Cambridgc,
Mass.: Harvard UP, 1958. 159. 1958 by thc Prcsidcnt and Fcllows
ol Harvard Collcgc, rcncwcd 1984 by Albcrt J. Gucrard. Rcprintcd by
pcrmission.
Holland, Norman N. Rcalism and Unrcalism: Kalkas Mctamorphosis.
Modern Fiction Studies 4.2 (Summcr 1958): 14350. 1958 by Johns
Hopkins Univcrsity Prcss.
Rudicina, Alcxandra F. Crimc and Myth: Tc Archctypal Pattcrn ol Rcbirth
in Trcc Novcls ol ostocvsky. PMLA \ol. 87, No. 5 (ct. 1972),
1,0651,074 1972 by Modcrn Languagc Association. Rcprintcd by
pcrmission ol thc Modcrn Languagc Association ol Amcrica.
Stcinbrink, Jcrcy. 8oats Against thc Currcnt: Mortality and thc Myth ol
Rcncwal in Te Great Gatsby. Twentieth Century Literature, \ol. 26,
No. 2 (Summcr 1980), 15770. 1980 by Holstra Univcrsity. Rcprintcd
by pcrmission.
240
Still, Colin. Shakespeares Mystery Play: A Study of Tc Tcmpcst. London: Cccil
Palmcr, 1921.
Tolkicn, J.R.R. 8cowull: Tc Monstcrs and thc Critics. Beowulf: Te Monsters
and the Critics. arby, Pa.: Tc Ardcn Library, 1978, 1936. Copyright
1983 by Frank Richard Villiamson and Christophcr Rcucl Tolkicn as
xccutors ol thc statc ol J.R.R. Tolkicn. Rcprintcd by pcrmission ol
Houghton Miin Harcourt Publishing Company. All rights rcscrvcd.
Vilcockson, Colin. Tc pcning ol Chauccrs Gcncral Prologuc to Te
Canterbury Tales: A iptych. Review of English Studies 50: 34550.
1999 by xlord Univcrsity Prcss. Rcprintcd by pcrmission.
Acknowlcdgmcnts
241
, Index .
A
Adl Ratignolle (Awakening),
2021
Aeneid, Te, Book 6 (Virgil), 112
Dante and, 5, 11
Elysium and theme of rebirth, 1,
56
Greece and Rome compared, 4
haunting beauty and melancholy,
5
heart of poem, 24
Introduction, 1
judge of dead duties as undened,
9
lack of completion and Vergils
death, 910
metempsychosis doctrine, 1011
Pythagoreanism and, 6, 11
twilight beauty overall, 5
underworld spirits in, 78
uniqueness of, 11
Albany (King Lear), 151
Alce Arobin (Awakening), 13, 20
Alena Ivanovna (Crime and
Punishment), 63
Alighieri, Dante. See Divine Comedy
(Dante)
Amy (Beloved), 29
Angelou, Maya, 135143
Arnsberg, Lilane K., 135136
Augustine, 57, 79, 94
Augustus (Aeneid), 3, 4
Awakening (Chopin), 1323
lack of sympathy for Edna, 20
plot of, 1314
provocative ending of, 1415,
2223
See also specic names of characters
(e.g., Edna Pontellier)
B
Baby Suggs (Beloved), 26, 30
Bailey (Caged Bird), 135, 139
bastards, in Elizabethan drama, 145
Beloved (Morrison), 2533
Beloved as mystical incarnation,
25, 28, 3132
epilogue, 31
hair combing as metaphor, 25
healing of human psyche and,
3334
infanticide as metaphor, 26
plot of, 2527
power of language and, 29
religious context and, 2627
remembering slavery and,
2627
sexual imagery and, 30
and suspension of disbelief, 26
Index 242
See also specic names of characters
(e.g., Sethe)
Benvolio (Doctor Faustus), 84
Beowulf, 3549
Christianity and, 35, 3839,
4142
courage as potent element,
3738
dragon as fairy-story dragon, 36,
45, 49n13
heroic-elegiac poem, 35, 45
historical poem of pagan past,
4041
inhuman foes, 45
Introduction, 35
legacy of, 46
monsters as essential to theme,
37, 39
Old English meter and, 4344
pivotal moment in rebirth in
human history, 35, 46
structure of poem, 42, 4445
tale not original, 43, 46
theme as man at war with hostile
world, 37
theme that all shall die, 40
See also specic names of characters
(e.g., Grendel)
Bergsten, Staan, 153167
Bertha Flowers (Caged Bird), 140
143
Brockbank, J. P., 8394
Bruno (Doctor Faustus), added
episode, 84
Butler, H. E., 112
C
Can Grande della Scala, Dantes
letter to, 6981
Canterbury Tales (Chaucer), 5159
centrality of patterning in
medieval poems, 56
death and rebirth as theme, 53
death and resurrection integrated,
5354, 58n2
elaborate symmetries in, 5556
Elesmere MS structural
conguration, 5253, 57n1
rst thirty-four lines of General
Prologue, 5153
Introduction, 51
March as month of Creation, 54
numerology at work in Prologue,
57, 57n1
rime riche provides form for
spiritual balance, 57
rime riche provides spiritual
balance, 52
signicance of physical world, 54
sun described
anthropomorphically, 5455
Central and Displaced Sovereignty
in Tree Medieval Poems
(Spearing), 56
Cesar of Pompey (Aeneid), 10
Chaucer, Georey, 5159
Clastidium (Aeneid), 4
Collar, Te (Herbert), 130
Conrad, Joseph, 109123
Cordelia (King Lear)
banishment of, 146
capture and hanging of, 151152
queen of France, 151
Cornwall (King Lear), blinding of
Glaucester by, 148
Crime and Punishment (Dostoevsky),
6168
crime merges with punishment,
6364
!ndcx 243
cpiloguc convcrsion in, 6566
!ntroduction, 61
Napolconic Promcthcism and, 64,
65
Raskolnikovs rcsurrcction
lorcshadowcd, 66
rcbirth principlc bcgins with dccd,
63
rcdcmption lollows Christian
myth, 61, 66
violcncc as conccrn ol, 62
Scc also specic names of characters
(e.g., Raskolnikov)
D
aisy 8uchanan (Great Gatsby)
as objcct ol Gatsbys obscssion,
100102
charactcr ol, 97
Gatsbys disillusion with, 103, 104
rcjcction ol Gatsby by, 103
cnvcr (Beloved), 25, 28
ickcns, Charlcs, 201209
ido (Aeneid), 2, 5, 9
ionysius, 76
Divine Comedy (antc), 6981
allcgorical/litcral mcanings ol,
7174
as polyscmous work, 69, 70
comcdy vs. tragcdy and, 72
csscncc and virtuc procccd lrom
primal onc, 76
First Movcrs glory and, 7576
hcavcn provcn to rcccivc divinc
light, 7778, 81n7
Holy Spirit and, 7677
!ntroduction, 69
languagc inadcquatc to dcscribc
cclcstial kingdom, 7980
Metaphysics, 70, 73
Paradisc dcscribcd in, 79
part vs wholc ol, 7273
short conclusion to cxposition, 80
six points ol inquiry on litcraturc,
70
titlc, 7172
twolold lorm ol, 71
uncommon matcrial rcquircs thrcc
rcquisitcs, 7475
Doctor Faustus (Marlowc), 8394
critical cvaluation ol, 8384,
9394
damnation ol Faustus, 85
damncd pcrpctually, 9093
cpiloguc, 9394
!ntroduction, 83
last judgmcnt, 8990
plight ol thc mcn, 8789
vision ol Hclcn, 8587
worlds rcgard lor, 8384
Scc also specic names of characters
(c.g., Faustus)
onnc, John, 125134
Catholicism and, 125126
comparcd to Hcrbcrts Tc
Collar, 130
complcxity ol rclationship with
God, 126, 129130, 131, 133
dcath cvcr prcscnt thrcat,
127128
divinc origins acknowlcdgcd by,
130131
prcoccupation with dcath, 126
127
spiritual rcncwal as thcmc ol,
128129
sucring and dcath rcquircd lor
salvation, 133
Scc also Holy Sonnets
!ndcx 244
ostocvsky, Fvodor Mikhailovich,
6168
dragon (Beowulf ), 36, 49n13
E
dgar (King Lear), 146, 147, 152
dmund (King Lear), 145146, 148,
151
dna Pontcllicr (Awakening)
ambiguity ol hcr dcath, 1415,
2223
as protagonist, 13
charactcr ol, 15, 18
conictcd translormation ol,
1617, 18, 1920
rcjcction ol hclp lrom Mandclct
by, 21
rcpctitions ol past pattcrns by, 17, 19
liot, Tomas Stcrns, 153167
lysium (Aeneid), 1, 56
ttari, Gary, 125134, 145152
vans. Robcrt C., 135143
F
Fabricius (Aeneid), 3
Faustus (Doctor Faustus)
condcmncd to dic, 87
dcvils blamcd lor moral bcing, 89
larcwcll to scholars by, 89
nal angclic pronounccmcnts on,
90
nal soliloquy ol, 9091
Hclcn and, 8587
hcll strivcs with gracc in hcart ol,
88
rcpcntancc ol, 83, 9293
Fitzgcrald, F. Scott, 95108
Fowlcr, Alastair, 55
Frccman (Caged Bird)
dcath ol, 136, 139
dcmcanor ol, 136
prcrapc intimacy with Maya,
137138
rapc ol Maya by, 135, 138
trial ol, 135136
Fryc, Northrop, 147
G
Girard, Rcn, 65, 191192
Glouccstcr (King Lear), 145, 148, 149
Goncril (King Lear), 145, 151
Good Angcl (Dr. Faustus), 8990
Great Gatsby, Te (Fitzgcrald),
95108
as Fitzgcralds mastcrwork, 95
cnding on notc ol accommodation,
105106
passagcs dclctcd lrom, 101
sctting ol, 9596
writing ol, 9596
Scc also specic names of characters
(e.g., Nick Caraway)
Grcgor Samsa (Metamorphosis)
dcath parallcls Christs dcath, 175
mctamorphosis ol, 170
unrcality scts in altcr
mctamorphosis, 171173
workplacc and cmploycr dcscribcd
by, 171173
Grcndcl (Beowulf ), 36, 40, 41, 44, 46
Gucrard, Albcrt J., 109123
H
Hawthornc, Nathanicl, 191200
Heart of Darkness (Conrad), 109123
approach to unconscious, 115
Index 245
as document of brutal exploration,
110, 122n4
as pure expression of melancholy
temperament, 121
as travelogue, 110, 119, 121, 121n2
autobiographical basis of, 109110
Catholic psychology in, 111112
chief contradiction in, 112
compared to Lord Jim, 117118
darkness as theme, 120
impressionistic style of, 117118
Introduction, 109
variation of prose, 119120
vegetation symbolism of, 120121
See also Kurtz; Marlow
Helen (Doctor Faustus), Faustus and,
8587
Hester Prynne (Scarlet Letter)
Bloom on, 193
denied personhood as fallen
woman, 197
hope sign of rebirth and renewal,
199
idealization of Dimmesdale by,
195196
led by A: to be martyr, 191192,
194197
mimetic crisis undergone by,
193194
scaold and picture gallery,
192193
Hobby, Blake, 191200
Holland, Norman, 169170
Holy Sonnets (Donne), 125134
Te Collar and, 130
dedication of, 130
eeting nature of mortality and,
132
introduction to, 125
Meditation XVII, 132
paradoxes in, 131, 133
Sonnet I, 126127
Sonnet V, 131
Sonnet VI, 132
Sonnet X (Death Be Not
Proud), 127
Sonnet XIV, 128129
Sonnet XIX, 131
spiritual renewal as theme of, 128
See also Donne, John
Horace, 3, 72
Hrothgaar (Beowulf ), 43
Hurston, Zora Neale, 229237
Hygelac (Beowulf ), 45
I
I Know Why the Caged Bird Sings
(Angelou), 135143
Flowers brings Maya back from
muteness, 140143
introduction to, 135
Mayas guilt after Freemans death,
139140
Mayas sense of superiority to
Freeman, 136137
metaphorical death as theme, 135
plot of episode, 135136
rape discovered by Bailey, 139
sexual intimacy with Maya by
Freeman, 138139
silence of Maya punished by
family, 140
See also specic names of characters
(e.g., Maya)
J
Janie (Teir Eyes Were Watching God)
antipathy towards Nanny, 235
!ndcx 246
lrccdom altcr Jocs dcath,
235236
Joc and, 233234
Logan and, 232233
photo ol scll not rccognizcd by,
231
protagonist, 229
rcbirth ol lrom cxpcricnccs, 231
scllawarcncss at cnd, 236237
Tca Cakc and scnsc ol complction,
236238
Jay Gatsby (Great Gatsby)
ambition to bcgin ancw with
aisy, 101102
background ol, 9899
dcath ol, 103
utch sailors and, 103104,
107n9
past aair with aisy, 100101
Jordan 8akcr (Great Gatsby), 98
Julian ol Norwich, 161
K
Kalka, Franz, 169170
Kcnt (King Lear), 152
King Lear (Shakcspcarc), 145152
complcxity ol rcbirth and rcncwal
in, 145, 150151, 152
dcaths in nal sccnc, 151
disordcr among lamilics, 145147
introduction to two lamilics, 145
loss ncccssary to rcbirth and
rcncwal, 150151, 152
naturc and, 147148, 149150,
152
Scc also specic names of characters
(e.g., Cordclia)
king ol Francc (King Lear), as
Cordclias suitor, 146, 147
Kurtz (Heart of Darkness)
dcath and burial ol, 116
dctcrioration through solitudc,
114
cntranccmcnt ol, 115, 122n8
mccting with Marlow dclcrrcd,
115, 121
rcscuc opposcd by, 110
sclldcccption ol, 110111
sharp visualization ol, 119
unspcakablc lusts ol, 112, 117,
122n10
L
Lcar (King Lear)
capturc ol, 151
conscqucntial dccisions madc by,
146147
lamcnt lor Cordclia, 151152
thc storm and, 148
Loncc Pontcllicr (Awakening), 13,
15
Littlc Gidding lrom Four Quartets
(liot), 153167
1st paragraph imprcssionistic,
154
conclusion rccalls antcs
Paradiso, 166
conclusion to liots poctical
work, 153
amc Julian on cvil, 161
dcath and rcbirth as thcmc, 163
dcstruction ol bombs suggcstcd,
158
nal scction concludcs Quartets,
162, 166
Fourth, lyric Scction symbolism,
161162
historical associations in, 155156
!ndcx 247
history partakcs a timclcss pattcrn,
156157
homagc paid to pocts ol past,
158159
!ntroduction, 153154
last lincs imagcs ol rc and thc
rosc, 165
last paragraph as musical nalc,
164165
limitations ol poctry to
communicatc, 166
pcrsonal timc idca with history,
160161
purposc ol Four Quartets in third
scction, 159160
symbols lrom prcvious Quartets,
158
thcmc ol aging rccurs, 159
timclcss momcnt linkcd to
historical tradition, 157158
visit to Littlc Gidding litcral
mcaning, 154
wintcr and spring contrastcd in,
155
Lizavcta (Crime and Punishment), 63
Lord Jim (Conrad), 117
Lucic (Tale of Two Cities)
as inspiration to Carton, 204, 205
Carton and, 204
goldcn light in opcning, 206, 207
moral pcrccption linkcd to, 205
Lucilcr (Doctor Faustus), as sovcrcign
lord, 88
M
Madamc clargc (Tale of Two Cities)
lorcc ol dark dcstruction in,
206207
plot to dcstroy Lucic, 207208
Madcmoiscllc Rcisz (Awakening), 20
Mandclct, octor (Awakening),
2021
Marccllus (Aeneid), 4, 10
Marlow (Heart of Darkness)
as protagonist, 112113
autobiographical basis ol, 113
drcamlikc quality ol narrativc, 114
mccting with Kurtz dclcrrcd, 115,
121
shock on discovcry ol missing
Kurtz, 116, 117
spiritual voyagc ol sclldiscovcry
ol, 109
tcmptations ol, 113114
witncss to atrocitics by, 110, 121
Marlowc, Christophcr, 149150
Maya (Caged Bird)
lcclings toward Frccman by,
136137
guilt ol, 135136, 137, 139
prcrapc intimacy cnjoycd by,
137138
rapc ol, 135, 138
silcncc ol, 139140
Mcphostophilis (Doctor Faustus)
as cmissary ol Lucilcr, 88
mockcry ol, 89
pcrlorms in twinkling ol an cyc,
85
Metamorphosis, Te (Kalka),
169179
Christianity satirizcd by, 177178
division ol into thrcc parts, 171
lamily changcs altcr
mctamorphoscs, 172173
lamilys acccptancc ol Grcgors
dcath, 176
human prcdicamcnt dramatizcd
in, 178179
!ndcx 248
!ntroduction, 169170
rcalistic clcmcnts chargcd with
nonrcalistic, 175
rcalistic tclling ol unrcalistic
situation, 170171
symbolism ol cockroach, 176177
symbolism ol lood, localc, locks,
174
See also Grcgor Samsa
Metaphysics (antc), 70, 73
Minos (Aeneid), 23, 9
Miscnus (Aeneid), 2
Morrison, Toni
dcning ol lovc, 31
on mcmory ol past, 29
mctaphors uscd by, 25
on powcr ol languagc, 29
scxual imagcry uscd by, 30
N
Napolconic Promcthcism, 6465
Nick Caraway (Great Gatsby)
as Gatsbys complcmcnt, 103,
107n8
charactcr ol, 9697
on Gatsby, 98, 99100, 103
rcncwal ol, 95
rcturn to roots ol, 104105,
108n1011
Nola (Aeneid), 4
O
ld Man (Doctor Faustus), 85, 87
Orlando (Vooll ), 181190
accumulatcd lilc spans thrcc
ccnturics, 184185
biographical link to Sackvillc
Vcst, 182183
gcndcr dicrcnccs and clothing,
187188
lovc ol Sasha, 185186
rlandos cmcrgcncc as woman,
186187
spirit ol thc agc rccctcd in,
184
symbolic rcbirth rccalling Jane
Eyre, 188189
thcmc ol rcbirth and rcncwal, 181,
189
P
Passionatc Shcphcrd to His Lovc,
A (Marlowc), 149150
Paul (Beloved), 25, 28, 3334
Pearl, 53, 54, 56
Pctcrscn, Cliord, 56
Philosophcr (Metaphysics), 73
R
Rankin, Arthur, 201209
Raskolnikov (Crime and
Punishment)
admission ol guilt to policc by,
65
as product ol own crimc,
6364
as protagonist, 61
contcmplation ol logical crimc
by, 63
disintcgration ol altcr crimc,
6465
Napolconic Promcthcism as
modcl lor, 64, 65
protcsts that dccd was not crimc
to Sonya, 65
Rcgan (King Lear), 145, 151
!ndcx 249
rime riche (dcncd), 52
Robcrt Lcbrun (Awakening), 13, 18,
2122
Rudicina, Alcxandra, 6168
Russcll, Lorcna, 181190
S
SackvillcVcst, \ita, 182183, 189
Scarlet Letter, Te (Hawthornc),
191200
A as symbolic objcct ol dcsirc,
191192, 194, 195
clarity ol vision ol immcsdalc,
191
Hcstcr as scapcgoat, 191, 198
mcmctic trianglc is playcd out,
196197, 198
rcvcngc sought by Chillingworth,
198, 199
See also Hcstcr Prynnc
Scipios (Aeneid), 3
Scthc (Beloved)
cscapc to Cincinnati by, 26
hcaling ol mcmory and, 2829
inlanticidc and, 26, 31
Paul and, 3334
Shakcspcarc, Villiam, 145152,
211227
Shicld ol Acncas (Aeneid), 3
Sibyl (Aeneid), 7, 10
Sir Gawain and the Green Knight
(Chauccr), 53, 56
Sonya (Crime and Punishment), 65,
66
St Erkenwald (pocm), 56
Stcinbrink, Jcrcy, 95108
Still, Colin, 211227
Sydncy Carton (Tale of Two Cities)
as standin lor rcadcr, 204
charactcr ol, 202203, 208
Lucic as inspiration lor, 204,
205
pcrsonication ol strugglc against
nihilism, 207
rcbirth lrom wastrcl to hcro
shown, 207208
sacricc by kcy to novcls succcss,
202203
vision and scnsc ol pcacc nal
imagc ol, 208209
T
Tale of Two Cities (ickcns), 201209
conclusion cnlorccs importancc ol
sacricc, 208209
critical cvaluation ol, 208
dark mood ol novcl, 204205
opcning and closing ol, 202
opcnings in ickcns novcls, 201
sacricc and rcncwal in, 202,
208209
See also Lucic, Madamc clargc,
Sydncy Carton
Tantalus (Aeneid), 9
Tempest, Te (Shakcspcarc),
211227
allcgory as account ol initiation,
211215
Caliban as Tcmptcr/csirc,
222223
antc and, 218219
piloguc as rcqucst lor
intcrprctation, 225
Fall ol Man rcvcrsal, 211, 212
213, 218, 221222, 224225
Fcrdinand and Grcatcr !nitiation,
219220, 226n6
!ntroduction, 211
Index 250
mythical sirens recalled in, 216
217
pagan rites and, 211, 223
Prospero as equal of God, 223
224
temptation myths and, 214216
Teir Eyes Were Watching God
(Hurston), 229237
overview, 229230
African-American life and rebirth
as focus of, 229230
authors most celebrated work, 229
critical evaluation of, 230
See also Janie
Tolkien, J. R. R., 3549
Tom Buchanan (Great Gatsby), 97,
102
Tom OBedlam. See Edmund (King
Lear)
W
Wilcockson, Colin, 5159
Woolf, Virginia, 181189
Z
Zoroaster, 85