Analyses of multichannel seismic reection, gravity and

magnetic data along a regional prole across

the central-western continental margin of India
A.K. Chaubey

, D. Gopala Rao, K. Srinivas, T. Ramprasad, M.V. Ramana,

V. Subrahmanyam
National Institute of Oceanography, Dona Paula, Goa 403 004, India
Received 26 July 2001; accepted 2 August 2001
Abstract
Analyses of multichannel seismic reflection, gravity, magnetic and bathymetry data along a regional profile
across the central-western continental margin of India have revealed the depositional pattern of sediments, crustal
structure and tectonics. The four most distinct and varied crustal regions of the margin are palaeo-shelf edges, shelf
margin basin, Prathap and Laccadive Ridges and the Arabian Basin. The shelf margin basin is carpeted by V4.5 km
maximum thick aggraded and prograded Paleocene to Holocene sediments. Six major seismic sequences of the
sediments of the margin are identified and their ages are assigned on correlation with drill-well results. Development
of the sequence boundaries is attributed to the events of rifting of western India, eustatic sea-level changes, Indian and
Eurasian plate collision and Himalayan orogeny. Tilted fault blocks (half-grabens) located almost equi-distance from
the igneous construct of the Prathap Ridge in the shelf margin basin suggest a failed rift associated with stretched
continental crust of the basin. 2-D model studies of gravity and magnetic anomalies, constrained by the seismic
results, have revealed 6 to 27 km thick crust across the margin. The Laccadive Ridge crust limited by two volcanic
intrusives and a steep scarp at its western end is V16 km thick. It gradually thins towards offshore and juxtaposed
with early Tertiary normal oceanic crust V6 km thick of the Arabian Basin. The crustal thickness and velocity and
density structure of the ridge are comparable to that of the Laxmi Ridge, a continental sliver. The inferences and
abrupt change in magnetic and gravity anomaly signatures across the western end of the Laccadive Ridge mark the
zone of transition from continental to oceanic crust. 2002 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved.
Keywords: Indian continental margin; Laccadive Ridge; multichannel seismic reection; seismic sequence; gravity; magnetic;
tectonics
1. Introduction
Complex structural features such as horsts and
grabens, igneous intrusives and volcanic ows of
the western continental margin of India are con-
cealed under thick sediments. Seismic imaging
and modelling from potential eld data of the
margin lead to decipher the nature and structure
of the crust and the present-day continental mar-
gin conguration. So far, detailed seismic reec-
0025-3227 / 02 / $ ^ see front matter 2002 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved.
PII: S 0 0 2 5 - 3 2 2 7 ( 0 1 ) 0 0 2 4 1 - 9
* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: chaubey@csnio.ren.nic.in (A.K. Chaubey).
MARGO 3002 2-5-02
Marine Geology 182 (2002) 303^323
www.elsevier.com/locate/margeo
tion investigations of the margin are mostly con-
ned to the shelf region for hydrocarbon explora-
tion by the Indian oil industries. Seismic refrac-
tion measurements by Naini and Talwani (1983)
have provided velocity and crustal structure of the
margin. An understanding of the evolution of the
entire margin would, however, require critical as-
sessment of the crustal structure and tectonics of
the margin and abyssal plain. Thus a detail study
of the shelf, shelf margin basin, Laccadive Ridge
and Arabian Basin is essential. The present study
is aimed to identify the sedimentary sequences,
sedimentation history, crustal structure and con-
tinent^ocean boundary/transition in the study
area. In this paper we present results of detailed
analyses of stacked seismic reection data along a
prole across the central-western continental mar-
gin of India and forward model studies of free-air
gravity and magnetic anomalies constrained by
seismic results.
2. Tectonic setting
The major crustal regions of the western continen-
tal margin of India are the shelf, shelf margin basin,
Prathap and Laxmi^Laccadive Ridges and Arabian
Basin (Fig. 1). The margin comprises a wide shelf
(V300 km) and narrow slope in the north, i.e. north
of 17N, and a narrow shelf (V50 km) and wide
slope in the south. The shelf margin basin in the
south comprises several basement rises with steep
slopes near the shelf edge (Harbison and Bassinger,
1973; Ramaswamy and Rao, 1980). The study of
Naini and Talwani (1983) revealed that some of the
basement rises constitute as a linear feature called
Prathap Ridge between 8N and 17N and transi-
tional crust between the Laccadive Ridge in the west
and the western continental slope of India in the
east. The ridge, mostly buried below the Tertiary
sediments and exposed at places, occurs as single
and multiple peaks along its length associated with
free-air gravity and magnetic anomalies. The origin
of the ridge is attributed either to volcanic intrusives
during the initial phase of rifting (Naini and Talwa-
ni, 1983; Subrahmanyam et al., 1995) or volcanic
emplacement from the Reunion hotspot when the
Indian plate moved over it (Krishna et al., 1992).
The Laccadive Ridge, northern part of the Cha-
gos^Laccadive Ridge (C-L-R) parallel to the west-
ern Indian margin, is the most prominent bathy-
metric feature seawards of the southwestern
continental margin of India. The ridge is associ-
ated with relative positive free-air gravity anoma-
lies in the southwest and high-amplitude magnetic
anomalies at places (McKenzie and Sclater, 1971;
Kahle and Talwani, 1973; Naini and Talwani,
1983). The origin of the ridge has been attributed
to various dierent processes, such as transform
faulting (Fisher et al., 1971; McKenzie and Sclat-
er, 1971), micro-continent tectonics (Avraham
and Bunce, 1977) and a hotspot trace (Dietz
and Holden, 1970; Morgan, 1972; Whitmarsh,
1974). Detrick et al. (1977) have suggested a sub-
areal volcanic origin of the ridge that has sub-
sided to V2075 m. Drilling results (DSDP and
ODP) suggest that the Deccan Trap province of
the Indian Peninsula and the Chagos^Laccadive
Ridge formed by volcanic outpouring during
northward motion of the Indian plate over the
Reunion hotspot (Shipboard Scientic Party,
1988; Richards et al., 1989; Duncan, 1990). These
ndings have led to a considerable debate on the
nature and origin of the Laccadive Ridge. The
crust of the Arabian Basin, west of the Laccadive
Ridge, is oceanic and formed during the early
Tertiary (Chaubey et al., 1998; Dyment, 1998).
3. Data acquisition and processing
Multichannel seismic (MCS) reection, gravity,
magnetic and bathymetry data along prole
SK12-07 across the central-western continental
margin of India were collected during 1984^1985
onboard the ORV Sagar Kanya (Fig. 1). Positions
along the prole were obtained by an integrated
navigation system using a dual channel satellite
receiver as primary navigational aid. The MCS
data were acquired using a 24-channel seismic
streamer with 32 hydrophones per group spaced
at 25 m intervals. A recording duration of 8 s, a
sampling interval of 4 ms and a shot interval of
25 m were chosen with a ship speed of 4^5 knots
to achieve a 12-fold coverage of data. The seismic
source consisted of a D-type array combination of
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A.K. Chaubey et al. / Marine Geology 182 (2002) 303^323 304
Fig. 1. Generalized tectonic map of the eastern Arabian Sea, showing magnetic lineations (28Ny^18Ny), fracture zones (dashed
lines) and main structural features (compiled from Bhattacharya et al., 1994; Chaubey et al., 1998). Diagonal osets of magnetic
lineations are pseudofaults. Location of DSDP Sites (Whitmarsh et al., 1974) and industrial drill-well KR-1 (Pandey and Dave,
1998) are shown as solid circles and star, respectively. Bathymetric contours are in metres. Refraction stations (Naini and Talwa-
ni, 1983) are shown as solid triangles. Multichannel seismic reection prole (SK12-07) is shown as solid line with open circles.
LB=Laxmi Basin, L1^L4 =Laxmi Basin magnetic lineations, PB=Padua Bank.
MARGO 3002 2-5-02
A.K. Chaubey et al. / Marine Geology 182 (2002) 303^323 305
Table 1
Summary of seismic sequence stratigraphy in the study area
Seismic
sequence
Outer shelf Shelf margin basin Seismic
sequence
Laccadive Ridge
a
Thickness
b
Seismic
character
Likely
lithology
Inferred ages Thickness
b
Seismic
character
Likely
lithology
Inferred ages Thickness
b
Seismic
character
Likely
lithology
Inferred ages
H6 0.1^0.74 Low
amplitude,
nearly
reection free
Clay L. Pleistocene^
Recent
0.2^0.48 Continuous
and parallel
reectors
Clay L. Pleistocene
^Recent
L6 0.11^0.24 Weak and
discontinuous
reectors in a
limited extent,
otherwise
acoustically
transparent
Ooze and
silty clay
Recent^
L. Pleistocene
H5 0.05^1.22 Near-parallel
reectors with
good reection
continuity
Clay M. Pliocene^
L. Pleistocene
0.09^0.6 Low-amplitude
and continuous
reectors
Clay M. Pliocene^
L. Pleistocene
L5 0.07^0.15 Ooze and
silty clay
M. Pliocene^
L. Pleistocene
H4 Claystone M. Miocene^
M. Pliocene
0.18^0.65 High-amplitude,
low-frequency
and
discontinuous
reectors
Claystone M. Miocene^
M. Pliocene
L4 0.09^0.25 Continuous,
parallel and
low-amplitude
reectors
Ooze and
silty clay
M. Pliocene^
E. Miocene
H3 0.2^0.7 Varied
amplitude near
parallel,
good to fairly
good reection
continuity
Intervening
limestones
and shales
L. Oligocene^
M. Miocene
0.1^0.68 Very good to
fairly good
reection
continuity,
high-amplitude
and near-
parallel
reectors
Intervening
limestones
and shales
L. Oligocene^
M. Miocene
L3 0.15^0.5 Chaotic
reectors to
occasional
discrete near-
parallel high-
amplitude
reectors
Ooze and
silty clay
E. Miocene^
L. Oligocene
H2 0.1^0.21 Top of H2 is
uneven, high-
amplitude,
discontinuous
to continuous
reector
Dolomitic
limestone
with minor
shale
L. Eocene^
L. Oligocene
0.1^0.9 Discontinuous,
low-frequency,
high-amplitude
reectors
Dolomitic
limestone
with minor
shale
L. Eocene^
L. Oligocene
L2 0.06^0.2 Weak and
discontinuous
reectors at
places,
otherwise
acoustically
transparent
Chalk and
ooze
L. Oligocene^
M. Eocene
H1 ^ Near-parallel
reectors
Dolomitic
limestone
with
minor
shale
Paleocene^
L. Eocene
0.1^0.9 Dolomitic
limestone
with minor
shale
Paleocene^
L. Eocene
L1 ^ Discrete
near-parallel,
high-
amplitude
reectors
Chert
(L1 top),
chalk and
limestone
M. Eocene^
E. Eocene
a
The sequence boundaries are correlated to the litho-logs of DSDP Site 219. Chert layer is the key reector over the Laccadive Ridge.
b
Values measured in seconds.
Note: thickness and seismic character of sequences H5 and H4 of the outer shelf are given together. Seismic character of sequence L5 of the Laccadive Ridge is
same as that of L6.
M
A
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3
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2
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2
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)
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3
2
3
3
0
6
7 air guns with a total capacity of 7.98 l. A stan-
dard processing package NORSEIS of GECO,
Norway was used on an ND-570 computer at
the National Institute of Oceanography, Goa to
obtain stacked sections. The gravity data were
acquired using the Bo denseewerk sea gravimeter
system KSS-30. The free-air gravity anomalies
were computed using the IGA 1967 international
gravity formula and by applying the Eo tvo s cor-
rection. Total magnetic intensity data were col-
lected using the Proton Precession Magnetometer
and the prole plot was made after being duly
corrected for the IGRF. Bathymetry data were
collected using a Honeywell Elac narrow beam
echosounder. The measured depth values were
corrected for variation of the sound velocity using
Matthews tables (Carter, 1980).
4. Analyses of the data
4.1. Seismic reection
The 720 km long seismic section, along SK12-
07 in 80^4300 m water depth across the central-
western continental margin depicts seismic se-
quences and basement images. The sequence
boundaries and facies changes are identied and
ages are assigned. The seismic character, inferred
lithology, thicknesses (in two-way travel time,
TWT, in seconds) and their ages are presented
in Table 1.
4.1.1. Outer shelf
Seismic sequences H2, H3, H4+H5 and H6 of
V3.0 s thick are identied on the shelf in 80^200
m water depth (shot points, sps, 29 000^27 000;
Fig. 2). The H2 top occurs at V0.53 s subsurface
depth (sp 28 600). Sequence H1 and base of the
sequence H2 could not be identied due to the
presence of multiples. The sequences H4 and H5
are marked together as they are not easily discern-
able individually. The sequence H2 top is very
uneven especially towards the coast (sps 28 900^
28 100). The lower parasequences of the H3 lap
onto it. The sequences H4+H5 and H6 together
indicate a typical sigmoidal reection pattern in
the vicinity of the shelf break. A marked change
in the gradient of sequences H2 (top) and H3
(top) reectors occurs at shot points 27 300 and
Fig. 2. Multichannel seismic reection record and interpreted line drawing across the outer shelf show seismic sequences H1^H6,
present and palaeo-shelf breaks and Late Oligocene erosional unconformity. Location of prole is shown in Fig. 1.
MARGO 3002 2-5-02
A.K. Chaubey et al. / Marine Geology 182 (2002) 303^323 307
27 350, respectively, indicating palaeo-shelf edges.
The palaeo-shelf edge marked by the H3 top re-
ector is V8 km behind the present shelf break.
4.1.2. Shelf margin basin
The basin in 200 to 2100 m water depth, paral-
lel to the shelf edge between the Laccadive Ridge
and shelf (sps 27 000^22 400; Figs. 3 and 4), is
about 115 km wide. It is divided into two parts:
the eastern and western basins separated by a at-
topped structural high (sps 25 850^25 300). The
high bounded by near-vertical faults is 14 km
wide, carpeted by sediments of V1.3 s maximum
thickness. It rises by V550 and V1700 m from
the adjacent seaoor of the eastern and western
basins, respectively.
The eastern basin, carpeted by sediments of
about 3.5 s maximum thickness in V1000 m
water depth, is 30 km wide and consists of se-
quences H1^H6 (Fig. 3). The base reector of
the sequence H1 is high-amplitude, uneven and
deepens towards the centre of the basin and is
marked as acoustic basement (ACB). The western
basin carpeted by sediments of about 2.3 s max-
imum thickness in V2000 m water depth is 72 km
wide (Fig. 4). Here the base of sequence H1 dis-
plays hyperbolic reections. In the centre of the
basin (sps 24 500^23 500, Fig. 4) the reections
with vertices at varied depths constitute a base-
ment high at 0.5 s subsurface depth with a total
relief of V1.6 s from the adjoining areas. To-
wards the margins of the basin, short-segmented
H1 top reectors are bounded by faults and are
tilted away from the centre of the basin (Fig. 4).
Fig. 3. Multichannel seismic reection record and interpreted line drawing across the shelf margin basin (eastern) show seismic
sequences H1^H6, present and palaeo-shelf breaks and shelf margin high. ACB=acoustic basement. Location of the prole is
shown in Fig. 1.
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Fig. 4. Multichannel seismic reection record and the interpreted line drawing across the shelf margin basin (western) show Prathap Ridge Complex, half-grabens
(tilted fault blocks), eastern ank of the Laccadive Ridge and seismic sequences H1^H6. Location of prole is shown in Fig. 1.
M
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3
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3
3
0
9
4.1.3. Laccadive Ridge
The Laccadive Ridge, V255 km wide in 1650^
3700 m water depth, is overlain by V0.9 s thick
sediments and is bounded on the east and west by
steep scarps at sps 22 400 and 12 200, respectively
(Figs. 4 and 6). Two basement highs, character-
ized by hyperbolic reections, occur near the
western end of the ridge at sps 14 000 and
12 300 and are V4.5 km apart with V1.0 km
relief. A steep fall of V560 m in seaoor topog-
raphy occurs at the western end of the ridge. The
seismic sequence L1 top reector is high-ampli-
tude, and discontinuously associated with numer-
ous diraction hyperbolae (Fig. 5). The underly-
ing reectors are less distinct and near parallel
(sps 20 000^19 000). Further deep reections of
crystalline basement could not be identied. The
sequences L2 and L3 reectors are near parallel.
The sequence L4 reectors are continuous, paral-
lel and low-amplitude. Two low-relief graben-like
features, bounded by vertical faults, are noted on
the crest of the ridge. Fig. 5 shows one of the
grabens between sps 18 800 and 18 600. The se-
quence L5 could not be traced over 25^30 km
distance (sps 20 250^19 800) and here the L6 re-
ectors overlie directly the sequence H4 reectors
and thus form two lens-shaped structures (sps
20 600^20 000, and 19 900^19 100; Fig. 5). The
seaoor topography here also shows a bathymet-
ric low of V200 m and V8 km wide. It perhaps
marks erosion in the geological past and is most
probably due to palaeo-contour currents paral-
leling the ridge.
4.1.4. Arabian Basin
The Arabian Basin, to the west of the Lacca-
dive Ridge in 4200 to 4300 m water depth, is
carpeted by sediments of V1.2 s maximum thick-
ness (Figs. 6 and 7). The sediments consist of two
well-dened seismic sequences. The reectors of
the top sequence are discontinuous, near parallel
and some of them lap onto the top reector of the
underlying sequence. Their continuity is often ob-
literated by short-distance oblique reections cen-
tred by depressions. They mark cut- and ll-type
sediment reectors typical of turbidites. The re-
ectors of the lower sequence are continuous
and near parallel. The reector separating the
two sequences is medium- to high-amplitude,
which we denote as R. This reector marks the
Fig. 5. Multichannel seismic reection record and interpreted line drawing over the Laccadive Ridge show seismic sequences L1^
L6, graben-like feature and prominent Early^Middle Eocene chert reector. Location of the prole is shown in Fig. 1.
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A.K. Chaubey et al. / Marine Geology 182 (2002) 303^323 310
Fig. 6. Multichannel seismic reection record and interpreted line drawing towards seaward edge of the Laccadive Ridge show the seismic sequences L1^L6,
prominent Early^Middle Eocene chert reector, volcanic intrusives and inferred ocean^continent boundary/transition. Location of prole is shown in Fig. 1.
M
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1
1
boundary between two distinct phases of sedimen-
tation. The basal reectors (sps 12 100^10 500) at
0.8 s subsurface depth are discontinuous and
high-amplitude associated with diractions.
4.2. The free-air gravity and magnetic anomalies
The free-air gravity anomalies along the prole
SK12-07 (Fig. 8) display three distinct patterns.
High-amplitude (50^95 mGal) and short-wave-
length (50^60 km) anomalies occur in the shelf
and shelf margin basin. A relative positive broad
anomaly superimposed by short-wavelength low-
amplitude anomalies characterises the Laccadive
Ridge. The anomalies of the Arabian Basin are
subdued and show a regional trend at higher lev-
el. The amplitude and wavelength of magnetic
anomalies of the Arabian Basin are distinct and
dier from the rest of the area. The marked dier-
ences in the anomalies occur in the close vicinity
of the intrusive volcanic body (sp 12 300) at the
western end of the Laccadive Ridge indicating
basic dierences in the crust and density structure.
4.3. Refraction velocities and crustal structure
The published refraction investigations (Fig. 9,
location shown in Fig. 1) close to the seismic line
SK12-07 at sites 73V, 84C, 59V and 72V of the
Arabian Basin, and L12 and L08 of the Laccadive
Ridge are considered to constrain the crustal
structure of the margin. The velocities 1.7^3.8
km/s, 5.3^5.7 km/s, 6.4^6.6 km/s of the Arabian
Basin are comparable to the velocities of layer 1
(sediments), layers 2 (extrusive basaltic lava) and
3 (gabbroic rocks), respectively, of the normal
oceanic crust. The velocity structure of the Lacca-
dive Ridge consists of 1.65^2.12 km/s, 4.2^4.4
km/s, 5.6^5.7 km/s, 6.3 km/s and 7.2^7.3 km/s,
while the representative velocity structure of the
Laxmi Ridge shows 2.04, 4.46, 5.43, 6.2 and 7.15
km/s. The Laccadive Ridge crustal layer velocities
are comparable to the Laxmi Ridge, which is
widely accepted as a continental sliver by Naini
and Talwani (1983), Miles et al. (1998), Talwani
and Reif (1998) and Todal and Eldholm (1998).
Two-dimensional model studies, constrained by
seismic results, of the free-air gravity and mag-
netic anomalies of prole SK12-07 are carried
out to determine the crustal structure of the mar-
gin (Fig. 8). The densities are obtained using pub-
lished refraction velocities and the velocity^den-
sity curve of Nafe and Drake (1963). Densities
of 1.03 and 3.3 g/cm
3
are assumed for seawater
and upper mantle, respectively. A reasonable t
between the computed and the observed gravity
Fig. 7. Multichannel seismic reection record and interpreted line drawing across the Arabian Basin show oceanic basement, pe-
lagic and turbidite sediments separated by reector R of Middle^Late Oligocene age. Location of prole is shown in Fig. 1.
MARGO 3002 2-5-02
A.K. Chaubey et al. / Marine Geology 182 (2002) 303^323 312
anomalies is obtained with a mist of individual
points generally less than 5% of the observed val-
ues. The best-t model revealed V27, V16
and V6 km thick crusts of the outer shelf,
Laccadive Ridge and Arabian Basin, respectively.
The crustal densities of the Arabian Basin consist
of three layers of 2.3, 2.75 and 2.85 g/cm
3
repre-
senting sediments, and layers 2 and 3 of the oce-
anic crust, respectively, whereas the crustal struc-
tures of the shelf, shelf margin basin and
Laccadive Ridge consist of 2.3, 2.6 and 2.9 g/
cm
3
, representing sediments, upper and lower
continental crust, respectively. A density of 2.8
g/cm
3
is assigned to the intrusive bodies of the
Laccadive Ridge.
The magnetic anomalies across the continental
margin are interpreted as several two-dimensional
bodies of various magnetization intensities (1^5
A/m), while alternate normal and reverse magnet-
izations, similar to seaoor spreading type crust,
are considered to explain the magnetic anomalies
of the Arabian Basin. The best t between syn-
Fig. 8. Two-dimensional gravity and magnetic model and interpreted crustal structure along the seismic line SK12-07. OCB=
ocean continent boundary/transition, SMB=shelf margin basin.
MARGO 3002 2-5-02
A.K. Chaubey et al. / Marine Geology 182 (2002) 303^323 313
thetic and the observed magnetic anomalies of the
Laccadive Ridge has been simulated using either
densely spaced igneous intrusive-type magnetic
sources, or both ows and intrusions. We prefer
the later model to explain the anomalies consid-
ering the geologic situation of the area. The
marked dierence between the oceanic and conti-
nental crust is clearly discernable from the calcu-
lated anomalies and crustal structure at the west-
ern end of the Laccadive Ridge.
5. Interpretation
5.1. Ages of the seismic sequences
5.1.1. Seismic sequences H1^H6 of the shelf and
shelf margin basin
The ages of seismic sequences H1^H6 of the
shelf and shelf margin basin are interpreted as
Paleocene to Late Eocene, Late Eocene to Middle
Oligocene, Middle Oligocene to Middle Miocene,
Fig. 9. Compilation of velocity structure (after Naini and Talwani, 1983) along line SK12-07 from refraction stations of the Ara-
bian Basin (73V, 84C, 59V and 72V), Laccadive Ridge (L12 and L08) and continental shelf (85C). LR represents average crustal
column of the Laxmi Ridge. P-wave velocities (km/s) are shown inside the crustal column. Location of refraction stations are
also shown in Fig. 1.
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A.K. Chaubey et al. / Marine Geology 182 (2002) 303^323 314
Fig. 10. Correlation of boundaries of seismic sequences H1^H5 (top) of the outer shelf and shelf margin basin with the lithostra-
tigraphy of drill-well KR-1 (Singh and Lal, 1993) and eustatic sea-level curve (Haq et al., 1987). Location of prole is shown in
Fig. 1.
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A.K. Chaubey et al. / Marine Geology 182 (2002) 303^323 315
Middle Miocene to Middle Pliocene, Middle Plio-
cene to Late Pleistocene and Late Pleistocene to
Holocene, respectively, on correlation with drill-
well results of KR-1 (Singh and Lal, 1993; Pan-
dey and Dave, 1998), global sea-level curve (Haq
et al., 1987) and published results (Ramaswamy
and Rao, 1980; Biswas and Singh, 1988).
In the shelf region, top of H3 is a key horizon
and correlates well with the Middle Miocene re-
ector of the KR-1 drill-well (Fig. 10). We there-
fore assign a Middle Miocene age to the H3 top.
The sequence H2 top (Fig. 2) is another promi-
nent reector which lies V550 m below seaoor.
This reector is very uneven and overlying para-
sequences of H3 lap onto it. The velocity structure
from a nearby refraction station, 85C (Fig. 9, lo-
cation in Fig. 1), has revealed V1.6 km/s velocity
of the sequence indicating absence of any vol-
canics at that depth. Haq et al. (1987) have inter-
preted a major drop in eustatic sea-level (V350 m)
at the end of the Early Oligocene (Fig. 10). Whit-
ing et al. (1994) inferred a characteristic Late Oli-
gocene to Early Miocene rapid increase in subsi-
dence rate of the western continental margin of
India. The interplay between eustatic sea-level and
tectonics during the Early Oligocene have caused
the sequence to remain within the wave base or
sub-aerial erosion resulting in the observed reec-
tion pattern. Subsequent rise of the sea-level fol-
lowed by sediment deposition had given rise to
onlapping sequences of H3 onto the H2 top. We
therefore infer that this boundary is an erosional
unconformity of Early Oligocene age.
The upper reectors of sequences H1 and H2 of
the shelf margin basin (Fig. 3) are at 2.7 s and 1.6
s subsurface depths, respectively, and are corre-
lated to the unconformities of sequence II identi-
ed by Rao and Srivastava (1984). Based on in-
terval velocities, they opined that sequence II
might represent carbonate sediments developed
during stable platform conditions. Singh and Lal
(1993) have inferred that the end of the Middle
Eocene and the Early Oligocene marked regional
hiatuses. Thus, the sequences H1 and H2 tops
mark the Middle Eocene and Middle Oligocene
unconformities, respectively, within the carbo-
nates.
The near-parallel and acoustically transparent
reectors of the seismic sequences H4 and H5 of
the shelf margin basin (Figs. 3 and 4) reect a
change in facies of the sediments. Middle Pliocene
and Late Pleistocene ages are assigned to the se-
quences H4 and H5 tops, respectively (Fig. 10).
Two distinct sediment inux maxima in the Late
Miocene (9^6 Ma) and Middle Pliocene (4^2 Ma)
have been also reported in the northern Indian
Ocean (Rea, 1992). The overlying H6 sequence
represents Holocene sediments.
5.1.2. Seismic sequences L1^L6 of the Laccadive
Ridge
Seismic sequences stratigraphy of the Laccadive
Ridge (Fig. 11) has been determined based on
correlation with the lithologs of the DSDP site
219 (Whitmarsh et al., 1974). The top of seismic
sequence L1 is a very prominent reector and is
condently identied across the ridge (Figs. 5 and
6). The DSDP Site 219 results have revealed the
presence of a chert layer, V4.0 km/s P-wave ve-
locity, of Early and Middle Eocene age. The ve-
locity structure from the nearby refraction station
also revealed a layer with a velocity of V4.2 km/s
overlain by a sediment layer with a velocity of 2.0
km/s (Fig. 9). The reection character of the chert
layer (Whitmarsh et al., 1974) is strikingly similar
to that of the L1 top. Considering the reection
pattern and refraction velocities, we interpret
upper sequences of the L1 as a chert layer and
assign an Early^Middle Eocene age. The sequen-
ces L2 and L3 are thin and their upper boundaries
are also prominent reectors. Lower sedimenta-
tion rates during the Middle Oligocene to Middle
Miocene period and an unconformity at the end
of the Early Miocene were reported at the DSDP
site 219. Therefore, we assign an Early Miocene
and a Late Oligocene age for the top reectors of
L3 and L2, respectively. The post-Early Miocene
seismic sequences L4 and L5 may represent the
Fig. 11. Correlation of boundaries of seismic sequences L1^L5 (top) of the Laccadive Ridge with the lithostratigraphy of DSDP
Site 219 (Whitmarsh et al., 1974). The location of prole is shown in Fig. 1.
MARGO 3002 2-5-02
A.K. Chaubey et al. / Marine Geology 182 (2002) 303^323 316
Fig. 11.
MARGO 3002 2-5-02
A.K. Chaubey et al. / Marine Geology 182 (2002) 303^323 317
Middle Pliocene and Late Pleistocene ages, re-
spectively, similar to the shelf margin basin se-
quences.
5.1.3. Reector R of the Arabian Basin
The sedimentary column in the Arabian Basin
is divided into two sequences separated by a re-
ector R which marks a major unconformity
surface (Fig. 7). According to the results of the
DSDP Site 221, illite-rich sediments characteristic
of Indus Fan sediments started depositing in the
distal Arabian Sea by the Middle^Late Oligocene
(Weser, 1974). Considering the Late Paleocene^
Early Eocene age of the oceanic basement (Chau-
bey et al., 1998), the onlapping nature of the
upper sequence onto reector R and the nature
of the upper seismic sequence possibly represent-
ing Fan sedimentation, a Middle^Late Oligocene
age is suggested for reector R.
Fig. 12 presents crustal regions, interpreted seis-
mic sequence boundaries and structural elements
along transect SK12-07 across the central-western
continental margin of India.
5.2. Nature and sedimentation history
In the shelf and shelf margin basin (sequence
H1) and over the Laccadive Ridge (sequence L1),
the sedimentation has started since the Paleocene.
The Eocene through Middle Miocene is dominat-
ed by deposition of carbonates and carbonates
interspersed with shales in the shelf and shelf mar-
gin basin (sequences H2 and H3). The widespread
carbonate sedimentation under stable platform
conditions (Aubert and Droxler, 1996) during
the Eocene to Middle Miocene are reported on
the shelf (Nair et al., 1992; Rao and Srivastava,
1984). The sequences L2 and L3 of about the
same period over the Laccadive Ridge also show
carbonate sedimentation. However, they are very
thin compared to the corresponding shelf margin
basin sequences. The upper boundary of sequen-
ces H3 and L3 show remarkable change in the
sedimentation pattern. In the shelf, the upper
boundary of sequence H3 also coincides with
the Middle-Miocene shelf edge. The onset of the
intense Indian monsoon, as a result of Indian^
Eurasian plate collision and the build-up of the
Himalayas during the post-Middle Miocene,
caused rapid erosion and deposition of terrige-
nous clastics onto the shelf and shelf margin basin
and cessation of carbonate deposition (Rao and
Srivastava, 1984; Nair et al., 1992; Singh and Lal,
1993; Whiting et al., 1994), whereas the Laccadive
Ridge continued to receive less sediments, which
is clearly evident from the thickness of sequences
and their internal reectors. Due to high sedimen-
tation on the shelf, the palaeo-shelf edge (upper
boundary of sequence H3) has prograded sea-
wards by V8 km to form the present shelf
edge. Furthermore, the sequences H4, H5 and
H6 clearly depict the sigmoidal reection pattern.
An aggraded phase of sedimentation is interpreted
between the Middle Miocene and Middle Oligo-
cene, as the Oligocene shelf edge (top of H2 se-
quence) lies below the Middle Miocene shelf edge.
The seismic records of the continental shelf and
slope region (Fig. 2) thus show three distinct shelf
edges: Middle Oligocene, Middle Miocene and
Present.
The reection pattern of the sediments of the
Arabian Basin suggests that the lower sequence
diers markedly from the upper sequence in de-
positional environment. The two sequences ap-
pear to be conformable along the reector R.
We consider the upper sequences due to fan sed-
imentation, and the lower sequences to pelagic
sedimentation.
The Laccadive Ridge remained elusively a phys-
iographic high either since the Paleocene or earlier
and received only pelagic or hemi-pelagic sedi-
ments. It is evident from the abutting nature of
the H1 sequence reectors of the shelf margin
basin, dierence in thickness between the sequen-
ces over the Laccadive Ridge and the sequences of
the shelf margin basin, the near-vertical scarps in
the west and east disassociating the ridge from
oceanic crust of the Arabian Basin and the shelf
margin basin, respectively. The chert layer across
the ridge may owe its origin either to pelagic sed-
imentation rich in siliceous oozes (due to high
biogenic productivity) over a long duration of
time (few millions of years), or to extrusive vol-
canism. Deposition of siliceous-rich sediments by
these processes is possible because of (1) proved
upwelling on the western margin of India, and (2)
MARGO 3002 2-5-02
A.K. Chaubey et al. / Marine Geology 182 (2002) 303^323 318
Fig. 12. Interpreted line drawing of the seismic section along track SK12-07. ACB=acoustic basement, SMH=shelf margin high, SMB=shelf margin basin,
PRC=Prathap Ridge complex.
M
A
R
G
O
3
0
0
2
2
-
5
-
0
2
A
.
K
.
C
h
a
u
b
e
y
e
t
a
l
.
/
M
a
r
i
n
e
G
e
o
l
o
g
y
1
8
2
(
2
0
0
2
)
3
0
3
^
3
2
3
3
1
9
volcanism related to rifting and/or passage of the
Indian plate over the Reunion hotspot.
5.3. Nature of the crust of the Laccadive Ridge
The origin of the ridge is equivocal and many
workers suggested its origin as due to the mantle
plume trace of the Reunion hotspot formed dur-
ing the northward motion of the Indian plate over
this hotspot (Shipboard Scientic Party, 1988;
Richards et al., 1989; Duncan, 1990). Hotspot
related volcanism can occur in a large variety of
plate tectonic settings ranging from continental to
oceanic lithosphere. In the continental setting,
magma is erupted through thick and old litho-
sphere, whereas in an oceanic lithosphere setting
especially near the spreading ridge, high exten-
sional factors allow the mantle plume to generate
a substantial amount of melt. We present two
plate tectonic settings: (1) on-spreading-ridge hot-
spot volcanism, and (2) o-spreading-ridge hot-
spot volcanism. They are discussed in the light
of published results as well as results of the
present study.
The mantle plume can generate a thick igneous
crust if it lies directly beneath the spreading
centres. The seismic investigations of parts of
the aseismic Kerguelen and Madagascar Ridges,
formed due to a mantle plume lying beneath the
spreading centre, have revealed a maximum crus-
tal thickness of 20 1.3 km (Sinha et al., 1981;
Recq et al., 1990; White et al., 1992). The vol-
canic record of the Reunion hotspot and palaeo-
geographic reconstruction of the western Indian
Ocean indicate that the Reunion hotspot was
never centred directly below a spreading centre
at least up to V47 Ma (Duncan, 1990). By the
time the hotspot was away from the Indian sub-
continent and was lying below the Northern Cha-
gos Bank. Further, in case of sub-aerially em-
placed on-spreading axis hotspot volcanic con-
structs of the ridge and/or subjected to shallow
submarine conditions over a considerable geologic
period, as was the case with the Laccadive Ridge,
a thick layer 2 (2A and 2B) would develop due to
weathering. Krishna et al. (2001) have reported an
excessively thick (4^5 km) upper crustal layer (2A
and 2B) of the Ninetyeast Ridge, a plume em-
placed construct. The refraction results over the
Laccadive Ridge have revealed a comparatively
less thick ( 62 km) crustal layer 2 which lies be-
neath the chert layer of V4.2 km/s velocity (Fig.
9). Therefore, it is dicult to believe that the
Laccadive Ridge is a solely volcanic build-up
due to the mantle plume lying directly beneath
the spreading centre.
Mantle plumes such as Hawaii, Iceland and the
Cape Verdes in an oceanic crust setting (o-
spreading ridge) generated a region of anoma-
lously hot asthenospheric mantle extending up
to 1000 km away from the central plume and
caused variations in crustal structure (Courtney
and White, 1986; Watson and McKenzie, 1991).
The reported igneous crustal thicknesses from
seismic measurements and rare-earth element in-
version of such regions are 10.3 1.7 km and
10.7 1.6 km, respectively (White et al., 1992).
The estimated crustal thickness of V16 km over
the Laccadive Ridge from the present study is
higher than the crustal thickness for o-spread-
ing-ridge hotspot volcanism.
The thickness, velocity and density structure,
structural (volcanic intrusives and graben) and
physiographic features of the Laccadive Ridge
do not support a volcanic construct either due
to on-spreading-axis or o-spreading-axis hotspot
volcanism. Moreover, the velocity and density
structure and crustal thicknesses are comparable
with the Laxmi Ridge, which is widely accepted as
a continental sliver of the northwestern Arabian
Sea. The Laxmi Ridge is associated with a pro-
nounced gravity low in a geographic and tectonic
setting similar to that of the Laccadive Ridge.
Interestingly the Laccadive Ridge is not so well
reected in the free-air gravity anomaly in spite of
its large dimensions (V2 km relief from present
seaoor and V255 km width). The lack of an
appreciable gravity anomaly over the ridge per-
haps suggests the isostatically compensated nature
of the ridge. These results and observations point
to thinned/extended continental crust of inter-
mediate thickness intruded by volcanics. The in-
dustry drill-well of the Oil and Natural Gas Cor-
poration Limited of India on the Padua Bank,
northern part of the Laccadive Ridge (Fig. 1),
was terminated in continental basalts (Murty et
MARGO 3002 2-5-02
A.K. Chaubey et al. / Marine Geology 182 (2002) 303^323 320
al., 1999). Based on results of the drill-well and
vertical seismic proling, they suggested the exis-
tence of continental crust beneath the bank and
even further west of it. Their inferences further
support our contention that the crust of Lacca-
dive Ridge is a stretched continental crust.
5.4. Nature of the crust of the shelf margin basin
The crustal features of the shelf margin basin
are buried under thick sediments. The Prathap
Ridge, 1000^3000 m water depth, parallel to the
shelf edge between 8 and 17N latitudes and as-
sociated with hyperbolic reections, lies close to
the centre of the basin and its structure is complex
with multi-peaks. It is bounded on either side by
well-developed rotated fault blocks. They repre-
sent half-grabens, tilted away from the ridge,
and are located almost equi-distance from the
ridge. These results lead us to suggest that the
basin represents a failed rift of extended continen-
tal crust and igneous emplacement in the middle
of the basin.
5.5. Oceanic^continent transition
The volcanic intrusives and steep scarp at the
western end of the Laccadive Ridge limit further
seaward extension of the ridge. Similar features of
the ridge have also been identied in the south by
Gopala Rao et al. (1987), and thus they appear to
be regional in extent. They are also associated
with relatively positive magnetic and gravity sig-
natures. Again, a marked dierence in the anoma-
lies occurs on the seaward side of the intrusives
with a steep gradient in free-air gravity anomaly.
Basement ridges of many rifted margins, e.g. the
Gabon^Cango region of West Africa (Belmonte
et al., 1965) and Norwegian margins (Talwani
and Eldholm, 1972), are reported. Widespread oc-
currences of the basement ridges at the continen-
tal margins are interpreted as due to initial rifting
and volcanic emplacement (Burk, 1968). We
therefore infer that the volcanic features at the
western end of the Laccadive Ridge mark the
boundary of the rifted crust and early rift-em-
placed volcanics. Major change in the basement
elevation normally occurs at the boundary be-
tween oceanic and continental crusts (Talwani
and Eldholm, 1973). The observed linear ridges,
steep scarps of the Laccadive Ridge, and the grav-
ity and magnetic signatures at the western end of
the Laccadive Ridge indicate the continent^ocean
crust transition. Therefore, the ocean^continent
boundary/transition must lie to the immediate
west of the Laccadive Ridge where thinned con-
tinental crust of the ridge is juxtaposed with the
known early Tertiary normal oceanic crust.
6. Summary
The study of the seismic reection, gravity,
magnetic and bathymetry data of the 720-km-
long SK12-07 prole across the central-western
continental margin of India has revealed the fol-
lowing:
(1) The shelf, shelf margin basin, Laccadive
Ridge and Arabian Basin are carpeted by sedi-
ments of, respectively, 3.9, 4.5, 1.2 and 1.6 km
maximum thickness. Six major seismic sequences
of sediments of Paleocene to Holocene age are
identied on the shelf, shelf-margin basin and
Laccadive Ridge. The pre- and post-Middle Mio-
cene periods were dominated by carbonate and
clastic sedimentation, respectively. The seismic
section of the shelf and slope region displays three
distinct shelf edges: Late Oligocene, Middle Mio-
cene and Recent. The Middle Miocene shelf edge
prograded V8 km to form the present-day shelf
edge. The Late Oligocene to Middle Miocene sed-
imentation was dominantly aggradational. An
erosional unconformity of Late Oligocene age (de-
veloped during lowered sea-level) was interpreted
on the shelf and a chert layer of Early^Middle
Eocene age across the Laccadive Ridge is identi-
ed.
(2) The shelf margin basin is characterized by
the presence of rotated fault blocks at the margins
of the basin and emplaced volcanic construct
(Prathap ridge). They suggest failed rift and vol-
canism of the stretched continental regime of the
basin.
(3) The crustal and velocity structure, structural
elements (intrusions, ows, grabens, physio-
graphic features) and free-air gravity and mag-
MARGO 3002 2-5-02
A.K. Chaubey et al. / Marine Geology 182 (2002) 303^323 321
netic signatures of the Laccadive Ridge indicate
thinned continental crust and associated volcan-
ism.
(4) The ocean^continent boundary/transition is
inferred to lie at the western end of the Laccadive
Ridge in the vicinity of the western scarp face of
the ridge where as V16 km thick crust of the
ridge gradually thinned and juxtaposed to V6
km thick early Tertiary oceanic crust of the Ara-
bian Basin.
Acknowledgements
The authors are thankful to Dr Ehrlich Desa,
Director, National Institute of Oceanography for
support and encouragement to carry out this
work. The authors are grateful to the Department
of Ocean Development (DOD), Government of
India for providing the ORV Sagar Kanya to
collect the data. Thanks are due to scientific and
technical colleagues, officers and crew of the ORV
Sagar Kanya (cruise 12) for their help during data
collection. Mr R. Uchil is thanked for neatly
drafting the figures. We are also grateful to
journal reviewers Lindsay Parsen and John
Sclater. This is NIO contribution 3706.
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