A conceptual and numerical model for groundwater management:

a case study on a coastal aquifer in southern Tuscany, Italy

Piero Barazzuoli & Monica Nocchi & Roberto Rigati &
Massimo Salleolini
Abstract Ongoing hydrogeological research aims to
develop a correct management model for the Plio-
Pleistocene multi-aquifer system of the Albegna River
coastal plain (southern Tuscany, Italy); overexploitation of
this aquifer for irrigation and tourism has caused seawater
intrusion. The conceptual model is based on eld and
laboratory data collected during the 19952003 period.
Meteoric inltration and ows from the adjoining carbon-
ate aquifer recharge the aquifer. Natural outow occurs
through a diffuse ow into the sea and river; articial
outow occurs through intensive extraction of groundwa-
ter from wells. Water exchanges in the aquifer occur
naturally (leakage, closing of aquitard) and articially
(multiscreened wells). The aquifer was represented by a
three-dimensional nite element model using the
FEFLOW numerical code. The model was calibrated for
steady-state and transient conditions by matching com-
puted and measured piezometric levels (February 1995
February 1996). The model helped establish that seawater
intrusion is essentially due to withdrawals near the coast
during the irrigation season and that it occurs above all in
the Osa-Albegna sector, as well as along the river that at
times feeds the aquifer. The effects of hypothetical aquifer
exploitation were assessed in terms of water budget and
hydraulic head evolution.
Keywords Groundwater modeling
.
Coastal aquifer
.
Salinization
.
Water budget
.
Italy
Introduction
In many coastal areas the growth of human settlements,
together with the development of agricultural, industrial
and tourist activities, has led to the overexploitation of
aquifers. Such overexploitation induces a rise in the
freshwatersaltwater interface (seawater intrusion) and
thus the degradation of the chemical quality of ground-
water; the problem will be aggravated by the expected rise
in sea level associated with global warming (IPCC 2007).
This situation occurs in several areas of the Mediterranean
and will worsen due to the increase in the resident
population and in coastal tourism (Lpez-Geta et al.
2003). The quality and quantity of groundwater resources
along the Italian coasts has been degrading for some time;
the impact of the growing population is alarming,
especially in the southern regions, where 45% of the total
resident population lives in coastal zones (Barrocu 2003).
The southern coast of Tuscany (central Italy) is largely
affected by seawater intrusion (Bencini and Pranzini 1992,
1996; Barazzuoli et al. 1999; Angelini et al. 2000; Bencini
et al. 2001) and by the consequent deterioration of the
quality of groundwater and the local anomalous accumu-
lation of heavy metals (Grassi and Netti 2000; Protano et
al. 2000; Agati et al. 2001); this is due to intense pumping
for different purposes (above all irrigation and domestic
use), especially during summer, when the water demand
for agriculture and tourism is highest and the natural
availability of water is lowest. The problem has been
aggravated in the last few decades by the progressive
decrease in the potential renewable water resources of
southern Tuscany (Barazzuoli et al. 2002) due to a
reduction in total annual precipitation. The coastal plain
of the Albegna River is currently experiencing seawater
intrusion owing to an irrational exploitation of the aquifer
through hundreds of wells of different types and depths
and with different pumping rates. The deterioration of
groundwater quality is currently a limiting factor for local
economic growth; agriculture has either been completely
abandoned or has been directed towards crops which can
tolerate saltwater but are of inferior quality.
The intrusion of seawater in coastal aquifers was rst
conceptualized independently by Badon-Ghijben (1889)
and Herzberg (1901) assuming hydrostatic equilibrium,
immiscible uids and the existence of a sharp interface
Received: 2 March 2007 / Accepted: 16 May 2008
Published online: 1 July 2008
* Springer-Verlag 2008
P. Barazzuoli
:
M. Nocchi
:
R. Rigati
:
M. Salleolini ())
Department of Earth Sciences,
University of Siena,
Via Laterina 8, 53100 Siena, Italy
e-mail: salleolini@unisi.it
Tel.: +39-577-233811
Fax: +39-577-233938
Hydrogeology Journal (2008) 16: 15571576 DOI 10.1007/s10040-008-0324-z
between fresh- and saltwater in a homogeneous uncon-
ned aquifer. They found that the depth of the freshwater
saltwater interface below sea level (z
s
) is given by:
z
s
h
f

f
where
f
is the density of freshwater,
s
is the density of
saltwater, and h
f
is the elevation of the water table above
sea level. When the equation is applied correctly, the
estimated depth closely approximates the real one (Cheng
and Ouazar 1999); it is still widely used to simulate
saltwater intrusion (Essaid 1990; Cheng and Chen 2001)
and, especially for educational purposes, to gain clear
insight into the behaviour of fresh and saline groundwater
in coastal aquifer systems (Oude Essink 2003). Due to
molecular diffusion and hydrodynamic dispersion, fresh
and salt water are actually miscible liquids: the contact
between the two uids is therefore a transition zone rather
than a sharp interface (Gambolati et al. 1999; Cheng and
Chen 2001). The situation is further complicated by the
fact that the saltwater intrusion itself changes the uid
density, so that this parameter varies in space and time as a
function of changes in concentration, temperature and
pressure in the uid. Furthermore, the porous medium
itself is usually stochastically heterogeneous. In order to
properly reproduce the mechanism of saltwater encroach-
ment, a variable density ow and transport modelling
approach is therefore currently adopted (Voss and Souza
1987; Koch and Zhang 1992; Diersch 1998b; Holzbecher
1998; Bear et al. 1999; Diersch and Kolditz 2002).
The medium- and long-term effects of land manage-
ment policies are difcult to foresee due to interaction
among numerous elements and variables of different
nature, especially as far as seawater intrusion is concerned
because many aspects of this problem are not completely
understood (Custodio and Bruggeman 1987; Custodio and
Galofr 1993; FAO 1997; Bear et al 1999; Cheng and
Ouazar 2004). Groundwater management thus requires the
use of numerical models to test present and alternative
exploitation scenarios taking into account not only
technical aspects but also economic, legal, social and
political ones (Wang and Anderson 1982; Bear and
Verruijt 1987; Emch and Yeh 1998; Custodio and Galofr
1993; van Dam 1999; Maimone et al. 2004; Bear 2004).
In this context, the authors developed a long-term hydro-
geological research program, the preliminary results of which
were published by Angelini et al. (2000) and Barazzuoli et
al. (2003, 2004). This work presents a conceptual and
numerical model for simulating the hydrodynamics of the
multi-aquifer system of the lower Albegna River valley. The
model will be used for hydrochemical simulations and
the correct management of local water resources. This
aquifer system provides a good example of the situation in
recent coastal plains (Custodio 2002; Morell 2003).
The study area
The Albegna River coastal plain, located in southern
Tuscany, consists of aeolian and alluvial sediments covering
an area of about 100 km
2
(Fig. 1). The river crosses the plain
from ENEWSW with an average annual discharge of
about 5 m
3
/s at the mouth. The area north of the Osa River
is characterized by gentle hills alternating with short at
sectors where there are sometimes both natural and articial
ditches resulting from land reclamation works. The highest
peaks, no more than 354 metres above sea level (m asl), are
in the south-eastern sector (Poggio del Leccio hill).
The average annual precipitation in the plain is about
630 mm, and the average annual temperature is about 16C.
The effective precipitation is rather low, varying from
150 mm/year in the low plain to 250 mm/year in the
surrounding hilly areas. As occurs along the entire coastline
of southern Tuscany, most precipitation is returned
to the atmosphere through actual evapotranspiration, with
an average of more than 70% (Barazzuoli et al. 1993).
According to the climatic classication proposed by
Thornthwaite (1948), the investigated area can be consid-
ered subarid C
1
(moisture index from 33.30).
This area is a tectonic depression made up of continental,
transition and marine sediments (MioceneQuaternary). These
cover a pre-Neogene substratum composed of Liguride units
(an argillaceous-calcareous-ysch complex), cropping out on
the northern and eastern borders of the plain, as well as
Tuscan units on the southeastern and northern borders
(Mancini 1960; Tozzi and Zanchi 1987; Bonazzi et al.
1992; Bossio et al. 2004). Miocene (essentially Messinian)
sedimentary sequences consist of strongly eroded con-
glomerates that can be found only in the eastern sector.
Pliocene sediments prevalently consist of clay, together
with regressive sands, gravel and conglomerates. In the
eastern sector, the limestones, lacustrine clays and
travertine deposits formed in the Pleistocene are inter-
ngered with the terraced Albegna River deposits consist-
ing of gravels, sands and conglomerates. The aeolian
sands and nest uvial deposits (clays and silts) date back
to the Holocene period.
The outcropping rocks can be divided into two main
groups with different permeability through a qualitative
classication according to formation:
Quaternary and Neogene complexes. These deposits
have weak or non-existent cementation, and show
predominantly primary permeability due to interstitial
porosity. The degree of permeability varies: it is
moderate-high in the Neogene conglomerates, sand-
stone and sand, travertine, terraced alluvial deposits,
shores, and in the horizons of coarse aeolian sediments,
but zero to low in the Pliocene clays, transition
deposits, actual and recent alluvial deposits, and in
the horizons of ne aeolian sediments.
The pre-Neogene complex. Characterized by diagenetic
formations showing predominantly secondary perme-
ability due to ssuring or ssuring and karst. The
degree of permeability varies: it is medium-high in the
Triassic dolomitic limestones and Cretaceous-Eocene
calcarenites, but zero to low in the Palaeozoic-Triassic
metamorphic rocks and Cretaceous-Eocene argilla-
ceous calcareous and arenaceous ysch.
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Hydrogeology Journal (2008) 16: 15571576 DOI 10.1007/s10040-008-0324-z
Conceptualization
Geometry and structure
The main geometric-structural and hydrogeological charac-
teristics of the Plio-Pleistocene multi-aquifer system of the
Albegna River coastal plain were reconstructed on the basis
of the general geologic reconstruction and the 61 well/
borehole and 31 geo-electric data points (Fig. 2). The system
is made up of several gravely and sandy layers which can
be combined into three main aquifer layers; these aquifers
are generally separated by aquitards composed of clayey
deposits with silt or sand in variable proportions, but they
sometimes combine to form a single-layer aquifer. Another
aquitard consisting of sandy-clayey silt is present at the top.
The upper aquifer layer (SE), consisting mainly of well-sorted
sand with a hydraulic conductivity (K) of 10
4
10
5
m/s,
extends only up to 6 km inland from the coast. It overlies the
A
2
aquitard consisting of clay and silty clay. The interme-
diate aquifer layer (SG) consists of gravely sediments with a
sandy-clayey matrix that have a very heterogeneous
lateral distribution due to shifts in the course of the
Albegna River;K varies from 10
3
to 10
5
m/s, accord-
ing to grain size. In almost the entire area covered by
the model, the SG layer lies above the rather thick
(about 2025 m), clayey A
3
aquitard that separates it
from the lower aquifer layer (GL). The latter is made up
Fig. 1 Geological-hydrogeological sketch map of the Albegna River coastal plain in southern Tuscany, Italy
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of sandy-clayey gravel of constant thickness (810 m),
with K ranging from 10
4
10
5
m/s. The hydraulic
connection between SG and GL is articially ensured by
numerous multiscreened wells, especially along the
coast where they usually reach a depth of 4050 m.
This hydrogeological system overlies an impervious
clayey basement, except at the borders of the plain, where
hydraulic connections with the outside are possible through
permeable rocks. In the south-eastern sector, water exchanges
between the cavernous limestone (K of 10
3
to 10
4
m/s;
Nocchi 2002; Nocchi and Salleolini 2007) and the aquifer
layers (especially outow from the limestone towards the
alluvial deposits) occur through faults, as conrmed by
hydrodynamic and hydrochemical evidence (Angelini et al.
2000; Nocchi 2002, 2004). A similar situation, but with a
reduced ow of water, also occurs in the northern sector,
where the fault along the Osa River causes the ysch
formations and cavernous limestone to crop out; further-
more, at the Melosella locality, the GL aquifer layer lies
directly above arenaceous formations (K of about 10
5
m/s).
The aquifer system is mostly recharged by the direct
inltration of precipitation falling in the modelled area; it
is also recharged by inltration into the aquifer layers
outside the modelled area (lateral ows, in the northern
and eastern sector) and by the ow of water through the
contact alluvial deposits and the cavernous limestone
(lateral and vertical ows in the south-eastern sector). The
natural outow is discharged into the sea and the Albegna
River; the intensive withdrawal from the aquifer through
wells is the articial outow. Water exchange within the
aquifer occurs due to both natural (leakage, close of
aquitards) and articial causes (multiscreened wells).
Piezometric surface and hydraulic properties
The piezometric level in 62 wells was measured monthly
from February 1995 to February 1996 (Angelini et al. 2000).
Note that, due to continuous groundwater extraction from
the various wells in the area, it was only possible to
measure the dynamic water level; hydraulic head data thus
do not reect the natural equilibrium conditions, especially
in the summer months, when the demand for water
increases due to irrigation and tourism. Since both fresh
and salt water occur in the area, a method similar to that of
Post et al. (2007) was used to convert water level
measurements to fresh water heads; a maximum correction
of about 0.15 m was obtained in the higher salinity zones.
It was impossible to complete a detailed study of the
hydrodynamics of the Plio-Pleistocene aquifer due to the
lack of hydraulic head measurements at various depths.
Nevertheless, the partial stratigraphic continuity of the
aquifer layers, the widespread presence of semipervious
interlayers, and the wide variety of connections between the
different layers due to the hundreds of multiscreened wells
effectively guarantee the hydraulic continuity within the
aquifer complex. This continuity was conrmed by the good
local correlation among hydraulic head measurements. Each
piezometric measurement therefore corresponds to the total
hydraulic head of all aquifer layers constituting a single
hydrological system in hydraulic equilibrium, and piezo-
Fig. 2 Schematic cross-sections and conceptual model of the multi-aquifer system in aeolian and alluvial sediments of the Albegna River
coastal plain (redrawn from Nocchi 2004). The vertical scale is exaggerated about 20 times
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metric surfaces were reconstructed using hydraulic head
measurements from all observation wells.
Collected data show that the aquifer is unconned (or
semi-conned) in the north-eastern and southern sectors, but
semi-conned (or conned) downstream due to the presence
of semipervious (or impervious) covers and/or intercala-
tions. The reconstructed piezometric surfaces (Fig. 3) show
that withdrawals strongly affect groundwaters, causing
wide areas of negative hydraulic head in the main well
eld. Major depressions southeast of Fonteblanda and E
NE of Albinia are well below sea level from spring to
autumn, with a maximum depth of 7 m above sea level
(asl) and maximum extension in July. In June and July the
whole coastline between the Osa River and Albinia, as far
inland as the conuence Albegna-Magione Radicata (about
6 km from the coast), is marked by a negative hydraulic
head; this depression does not spread southeastward owing
to the important ow of water from the cavernous
limestone. Groundwater always has a centripetal movement
towards the valley bottom; the various ows originate in
the hills surrounding the plain and move towards the
Albegna River (the main groundwater drainage axis),
through which the waters nally reach the sea. Hydraulic
head measurements carried out in September 2002 and
February 2003 yielded piezometric surfaces very similar to
the previous ones (Nocchi 2002, 2004).
The hydraulic properties of the aquifer are hardly known.
Angelini et al. (2000) report on the only pumping tests carried
out in the area (Fig. 4): tests A and B refer to wells screened
in all aquifer layers, which have an average hydraulic
transmissivity (T
a
) of 5.710
3
m
2
/s, average hydraulic
conductivity (K
a
) of 5.610
4
m/s and average storativity
(S
a
) of 310
3
; test C refers to a well only screened in the SE
and SG Pleistocene layers (T=910
4
m
2
/s,K=3.810
5
m/s,
S=310
4
). The authors estimate the aquifer transmissivity
distribution by multiplyingK
a
and the saturated thickness
matrix; the relative map (see Fig. 4) shows transmissivity
values ranging from zero, where the pre-Neogene basement
crops out, to 2110
3
m
2
/s in the Albinia area, with an
average value of 8.510
3
m
2
/s. This reconstruction was
conrmed indirectly and locally by means of the good
correlation between transmissivity and the normalized
transverse resistance obtained through vertical resistivity
sounding in the Osa-Albegna coastal sector following the
procedure proposed by Ahmed et al. (1988), and in
agreement with the direct relationships derived by Urish
(1981), Ponzini et al. (1983), Gorman and Kelly (1990) and
Barazzuoli et al. (1999).
Groundwater quality
The main physicalchemical characteristics of groundwa-
ter were dened through electrical conductivity surveys
completed at the time of the piezometric surveys and
analysis of water samples from 38 wells to determine Cl

and NO
3

concentrations (Angelini et al. 2000); further-

more, 12 samples of groundwater, seawater and thermo-
mineral spring water were taken to estimate major ion
Fig. 3 Groundwater level contour map for the Plio-Pleistocene aquifer (redrawn from Angelini et al. 2000): a February 1995; b July 1995
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concentrations. The distribution of chloride (Fig. 5)
reveals how the quality of groundwater has deteriorated
substantially throughout the coastline up to about 4 km
inland from the shore, where local values of 2,000 mg/L
are reached even in spring; lower values of 100 mg/L
were observed in the southeastern sector (where lower
electrical conductivity values were also observed), con-
rming the ow of freshwater from the cavernous
limestone. The waters coming from wells screened in the
lower aquifer layer (Pliocene gravel and sand) are those
with the highest chloride concentrations; this layer
therefore seems to be the one most affected by seawater
intrusion. These wells are located in the sector facing the
coast, where the piezometric depression is greatest, and
their structure (with more screens) facilitates seawater
intrusion within the aquifer system. Moreover, based on
chemical and isotopic data, Bencini and Pranzini (1996)
suggested that the cation exchange process and inltration
of sulphate river waters (originated by dissolution of the
gypsum formation and mixing with thermal waters) may
be another cause of groundwater salinization in the
Albegna plain.
Due to the high correlation observed between electrical
conductivity and chloride concentrations, in September
2002 only electrical conductivity was monitored in surface
water and groundwater (Fig. 6). Measurements show that
seawater intrusion mostly affects natural and articial
watercourses, even inland from the sea, whereas the
electrical conductivity (and thus the salinity) of ground-
water is generally lower, even near the coast (Nocchi
2002). At the Barca del Grazi locality, the following
values were recorded for the Albegna River: 12,565 S/cm
(at 20C) at low tide and 29,135 S/cm at high tide.
In March 2003, surface water was sampled in four river
sections in order to determine major ion concentrations
(see Fig. 6). Analytical data were processed according to
Piper (1944) and compared with the water quality of the
Saturnia thermomineral spring (Fig. 7), which discharges
into the upper course of the Albegna River, largely
contributing to its baseow (0.30.6 m
3
/s; Mancini
Fig. 4 Hydraulic transmissivity map of the Plio-Pleistocene aquifer (modied after Angelini et al. 2000). The gure shows the location of
pumping tests (star with upper-case letter)
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1960; Fanelli et al. 1982). Albegna River water in this
stretch has the same earthy alkalinesulphate composition
of the above-mentioned thermomineral water, but lower
absolute concentrations (Nocchi 2004); Patrignone water
(sect. 3), with its earthy bicarbonatealkaline composition,
has very different characteristics.
Role of surface water
The 20022003 eld surveys were carried out with the
aim of better understanding the interaction between
surface water and groundwater. The investigated parame-
ters therefore also include (Nocchi 2002, 2004): the depth
of the river bottom (comparing data provided by the Osa-
Albegna Land Reclamation Consortium with that reported
on 1:5,000 scale regional technical cartography), the
relative water level, and the discharge rate (by placing a
spinner in the previously mentioned sections of the
Albegna River, see Fig. 6).
The water level of the Albegna River in the investigated
area was everywhere lower than the piezometric level in
winter, conrming the role of the river as the aquifer
drainage axis (the situation is locally reversed in the summer
months by withdrawal from wells near the river). Further-
more, in its nal stretch (from the conuence with the
Magione-Radicata Stream to the mouth), the river bottom of
the Albegna River is below sea level; consequently, sea
water ascends the river and determines the free-surface water
level. Electrical conductivity measurements at the Barca del
Grazi locality corroborate this theory (see Fig. 6).
Discharge measurements in the river were completed in
the absence of precipitation, so that watercourses received
no runoff and only the baseow was measured; results are
summarized in Fig. 7. Collected data reveal a substantial
increase in discharge downstream, with greater drainage in
the stretch between sections 4 and 1 (about 100 l/s/km),
where the difference between the height of the piezometric
level and that of the water surface is greatest.
Numerical modelling
Software
The groundwater numerical ow model was developed
using FEFLOW (nite element subsurface ow system)
working under both steady-state and transient conditions.
For theoretical and practical information concerning soft-
ware use and the solution of equations, the reader can refer to
the respective manuals (Diersch 1998a, b). The nite
element method was adopted for its exibility and capacity
to simulate complex geometric forms and to rene the
nodal grid around points and/or single lines (observation
points, coastline, etc.). Geolithological, hydrogeological
and hydrochemical data processing was carried out in a
GIS environment (ArcView) that can be totally interfaced
with FEFLOW; this was very useful in the development of
Fig. 5 Chloride concentration contour map for the Plio-Pleistocene aquifer (redrawn from Angelini et al. 2000): a MarchApril 1995;
b OctoberNovember 1995
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the conceptual model, in the creation of the numerical
model and in the analysis of simulation results.
Discretization and boundary conditions
The aquifer system was discretized using a grid of triangular
elements made up of 6,794 nodes and 13,231 elements
ranging from 80 to 170 m in size and covering an area of
about 90 km
2
. A higher degree of renement was adopted
for the control points (observation wells, which were
placed in the grid as xed nodes representing their true
position) and along the river and coast (important bound-
aries for the correct simulation of ow). The three-
dimensional grid consists of six layers corresponding to
the above-mentioned hydrogeological layers; it is therefore
made up of nearly 80,000 linear prismatic elements with a
triangular base, for a total volume of about 4.3 km
3
. The
reconstructed geometry matches that represented in geo-
logical sections constructed by Angelini et al. (2000). The
boundary conditions assigned to the numerical model
derive directly from the conceptual reconstruction of the
aquifer system (Fig. 8).
A constant head value was assigned to nodes along the
coastline (or lagoon), where groundwater is in contact with
the free surface of the sea. A hydraulic head of 0 m asl was
assigned to grid nodes coinciding with the topographic
surface; starting fromthe underlying grids (along the vertical
of the coast line), the overpressures deriving from the higher
density of sea water were calculated considering a typical
freshwatersaltwater interface geometry (Diersch 1998c),
Fig. 6 Electrical conductivity measured in surface waters and groundwaters during the September 2002 survey (redrawn from Nocchi
2004); surface water values at Barca del Grazi refer to low tide (12,565 S/cm) and high tide (29,135 S/cm). The gure shows the river
sections in which discharge measurements and water sampling for chemical analysis were completed in March 2003; only sections 1, 2, 3
and 5 were sampled
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and results were assigned to the nodes as head increments.
This procedure was adopted because of the lack of
information on the density of uids at various depths
(obtainable only through specic soundings and surveys)
the greatest limitation of the model.
In the modelled area, the Albegna River is in contact with
the aquifer; the specied head was therefore also assigned to
the nodes representing the course of the river. In this case,
constant hydraulic heads were established on the basis of the
height of the river bottom and the average height of the free
surface of water measured in sections and interpolated along
the river; head values were considered constant throughout
the year due to the rivers regular and substantial baseow
with small hydrometric oscillations. The test application of
variable functions to the river nodes always produced scant
Fig. 7 Results of the March 2003 survey for river sections shown
in Fig. 6 (redrawn from Nocchi 2004): a Piper diagramthe cross
represents the Saturnia thermomineral spring (values by Fanelli et
al. 1982), which discharges into the upper course of the Albegna
River (about 30 km from the coast)]; b discharge values
Fig. 8 Boundary conditions of the numerical model

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variations in the piezometric surface, in terms of both level
and spatial distribution.
Based on head data, the following ux conditions were
assigned to the boundaries crossed by water from outside
the modelled area: uxes of 410
6
m/day from the north
and 710
6
m/day from the east, assigned to layers GL
and SG respectively, simulate meteoric inltration in their
areas of recharge outside the model; a ux of 210
6
m/day from the southeast, assigned to layer SG, represents
the contribution of the local carbonate formation. East of
the lagoon, where the permeable alluvial sediments lie
directly above the cavernous limestone, water exchanges
between the two aquifers were simulated through a
vertical inow at the base of the model (see Fig. 2) that
varies according to piezometric relationships. Where no
condition was specied, the model uses no-ow boundary
conditions (impervious basement, no evidence of ow).
Flow conditions were also used to assign inows or
outows, which vary in time and space; they were thus used
to simulate meteoric inltration in the model (areal
recharge). Effective precipitation (Pe) was initially estimated
according to Thornthwaite and Mather (1957) on an annual
or monthly basis, depending on simulation conditions
(steady-state or transient); inltration was then estimated
as the percentage of Pe according to soil type and on the
basis of hydrologic classications proposed by Favi and
Rossi (1991) and Civita et al. (1999). The percentage
calculations were rened through calibration as follows
(Fig. 9): 96% for the sandy deposits cropping out in the
southern and western sectors (hydrologic group A: soils
with high inltration rates even under conditions of full
imbibition and with high transmission rates); 576474%
for sandy sediments cropping out in the northern sector
(usually belonging to group B: moderate inltration and
transmission rates); 21% for the river terrace outcrops in
the eastern sector (group C: low inltration and transmis-
sion rates); 2% for the ner deposits of the Albegna River
(group D: very low inltration and transmission rates).
Fig. 9 Percent meteoric inltration zoning with respect to the effective precipitation assigned to the model; letters (A, B
1
, etc.) represents
the soil hydrologic group according to Favi and Rossi (1991)
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The discharge condition was assigned to the wells which
exploit the aquifer; water extractions at individual nodes
simulate withdrawal, which was estimated using statistical
data and distributed according to the density of wells. The
ability of FEFLOW to simulate hydraulic connection
between aquifer layers through multiscreened wells was
used to determine discharge rates; a very high hydraulic
conductivity is assigned to the well node, and the calculated
discharge is automatically distributed according to the
permeability of the various layers. Water requirements in
this area are determined chiey by agriculture needs, while
tourism needs are met by the aqueduct, which exploits other
aquifers. Due to the lack of reliable data on surface water and
groundwater withdrawals for agriculture purposes, these
quantities were estimated on the basis of information
provided by the last censuses completed by the Central
Institute of Statistics and processing the following data
(Bilardo et al. 1997): in the agricultural sector, the extension
of cultivated lands according to crop type, water require-
ments and the irrigation system; in the zootechnical sector,
the type and number of livestock and water requirements.
Withdrawals for irrigation of back gardens and parks and
for industrial purposes were not taken into consideration,
since they are not signicant in the investigated area.
Calibration
The main objective of the calibration stage is to obtain
results as much as possible in agreement with the eld
data by acting on the variables which characterize the
system. The parameters calibrated with the model were the
Fig. 10 Hydraulic conductivity zoning (K) within aquifer layers: a upper SE (1) layer, b intermediate SG (2 and 3) layer, and c lower GL
(4 and 5) layer. The blank zone within the model boundary represents a non-existent aquifer (aquifer layers are not continuous throughout
the modelled area). The table shows the assigned value and the range of K values. For the aquitard, K
vert
=510
8
m/s
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Hydrogeology Journal (2008) 16: 15571576 DOI 10.1007/s10040-008-0324-z
hydraulic conductivity and specic storage of aquifer
layers and the vertical hydraulic conductivity (K
vert
) of
aquitards; aquifers were further subdivided according to
their hydrogeological characteristics.
The model was initially calibrated for steady-state
conditions, taking into consideration the piezometric level
measured in February 1995 by Angelini et al. (2000); as
the latter is the seasonal maximum, it was possible to
exclude withdrawals from the initial uncertainties. The
few known values of hydraulic properties were used as
input parameters; by varying the hydraulic conductivity,
simulations were carried out so as to achieve the best t
among estimated and measured piezometric values for a
sufcient number of control points. The PEST software
(Doherty 1998), which is able to optimize the parameters
of any model, was used to achieve optimum calibrations
for different starting conditions. The obtained results are
shown in Fig. 10, together with the adopted subdivision of
the aquifer layers.
The results of this calibration are plotted in Fig. 11,
which shows the good t between measurements and
calculations in the 60 observation wells inside the
modelled area; the two sets of values are highly correlated
and plot very close to the perfect correspondence line. The
average absolute difference is about 0.50 m; this is a
highly satisfactory value, since the conceptual model
cannot take into account local changes occurring in the
real system, and hydraulic head values were determined
on the basis of altimetry reported in the 1:5,000 scale
regional technical cartography. The same consideration
can be made when comparing the simulated piezometric
surface with the one measured in February 1995 (see also
Fig. 11 a Groundwater level contour map and b calibration curve obtained for steady-state conditions (comparison is made with February
1995 values for 60 observation wells)
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Hydrogeology Journal (2008) 16: 15571576 DOI 10.1007/s10040-008-0324-z
Fig. 3a): the general framework is very similar, with
practically the same gradients and heads.
The model was subsequently calibrated for transient
conditions. In this case, the simulation calculates piezo-
metric surface variations in time; it is therefore possible to
calculate the parameters coming into play in the temporal
equation (specic yield or specic storage). The evolution
of inows (ux at boundary, meteoric recharge) and
outows (withdrawals) at aquifer boundaries was also
taken into consideration. The aim was to simulate
piezometric oscillations registered at the control points
during the observation period as accurately as possible. The
simulation reference period is the one in which groundwa-
ter level measurements were carried out; the computed
piezometric surface in steady-state conditions was assigned
as the initial condition, and comparison was made on the
same days in which measurements were completed. The
simulation started on 19 February 1995 and ended on 28
February 1996, lasting a total of 375 days.
The hydraulic heads assigned to the sea were constant
(since the small tidal oscillations of 0.150.20 m were not
taken into consideration), as were the ones assigned to the
river, since no registration of its level is available. Lateral
ows were also assumed to be constant in time, whereas the
vertical owcoming fromthe cavernous limestone increased
progressively and peaked in July, when the local wells reach
the piezometric minimum (this simulates the recharge effect
that occurs here in August, i.e. before meteoric inltration).
This simulation uses the wells which pump water mostly for
irrigation and livestock farming; since irrigation starts in
March and continues through to June or September, depend-
ing on the crop type, withdrawals vary in time and were
assigned considering piezometric uctuations. Meteoric
recharge was assigned by applying the mentioned inltration
percentages to the effective monthly precipitation; the
monthly inltration value was distributed evenly throughout
the respective month.
The adopted specic yield of 0.12 was determined by
estimating porosity through the empirical relationship
proposed by Archie (1942) and considering a specic
retention of 0.10 (Angelini et al. 2000). Using this method,
Gabbani and Gargini (1992) found a similar value for
Fig. 12 Specic storage zoning. The gure indicates the location of observation wells shown in Fig. 13 (dot with number)
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Hydrogeology Journal (2008) 16: 15571576 DOI 10.1007/s10040-008-0324-z
another alluvial coastal plain of southern Tuscany. This
value was assigned to all aquifer layers because of its minor
inuence on simulation results. Specic storage is a highly
signicant parameter, because calculations were completed
for a conned aquifer. Figure 12 shows the calibration
results for this parameter, which depend essentially on the
systems degree of connement and thus on the grain-size
distribution of the cover sediments (see also Fig. 9).
The results of the calibration under transient conditions
are shown in the plots of Fig. 13, where results are
compared with measurements in selected control points.
Note the good match between the two sets of values (the
average absolute difference is about 0.50 m in July 1995);
in some cases, it is better than the match between control
point measurements and the results of the simulation
under steady-state conditions. Pumping causes a substan-
tial drawdown of the groundwater level in MarchJune;
the end of irrigation and autumn rains subsequently
determine a rise in the water level. Comparison between
computed and measured piezometric surfaces in the 1995
1996 period leads to the same considerations made for
calibration under steady-state conditions.
Water budget
By drawing up the aquifer water budget it is possible to
calculate the volumes of water exchanged at the model
boundaries (Fig. 14 and Table 1). In the period of 19
February 199528 February 1996, the aquifer system
shows a negative balance of over 610
5
m
3
(about 1,700
m
3
/day). Note that this period was characterized by
below-average meteoric recharge ( 25%); considering
an average inltration, there would be equilibrium
between inow and outow (also considering that
approximations are unavoidable in such calculations).
The most interesting issue is the considerable quantity of
water crossing the coastline (over 14210
6
m
3
inow and
14310
6
m
3
outow) through the typical ownet to the
freshwatersaltwater contact (inow from the bottom,
ascent along the interface and outow from the top); the
difference (about 5.510
5
m
3
) represents the net outow
of groundwater towards the sea, which occurs mostly
south of the Albegna River. The sea water that actually
enters the aquifer system, causing the decay of the
chemical quality of groundwater (seawater intrusion), is
mostly the balance of ows crossing the coast in the Osa-
Fig. 13 Comparison between computed (red line) and measured (blue line) hydraulic heads in different wells used for different purposes
(see also Fig. 12). The starting date of the simulation is 19 February 1995; comparison is made with monthly values
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Hydrogeology Journal (2008) 16: 15571576 DOI 10.1007/s10040-008-0324-z
Albegna sector (almost 310
5
m
3
). The situation is made
worse by sea water that ascends the Albegna River; during
certain periods of the year (when the piezometric level is
lower than the hydrometric level) this water recharges the
aquifer (about 610
4
m
3
) for a total of about 3.510
5
m
3
(over 900 m
3
/day).
Figure 15 shows water ow variations in time for the
various components of the water budget; note that meteoric
inltration occurs mostly in January and February, and that
the withdrawals are strongly inuenced by precipitation in
the irrigation period. Figure 15b shows the coastal ow
divided according to zone and aquifer layer. An outow of
groundwater (for a total of about 8.510
5
m
3
) always
occurs in the southern sector of the Albegna plain,
whereas seawater intrusion affects the northern sector
throughout the investigated period, except in December
and January, when increased precipitation brings about an
outow towards the sea. In accordance with eld data,
seawater intrusion mostly affects the lower aquifer layer
(GL), whereas the upper one (SE) is always characterized
by an outow towards the sea; this difference is in part
due to the fact that during simulations, the pumping wells,
especially those withdrawing substantial amounts of
water, almost all extract water from the underlying layers.
The older wells located in the upper aquifer layer are
exploited very little. Figure 15c shows the variations in
space and time of relationships between the aquifer and
the river within the modelled area; the ow towards the
aquifer occurs not only upstream (with a balance of about
210
5
m
3
) but also downstream, where in June and July
the aquifer receives the above-mentioned 610
4
m
3
of
saltwater that ascends the river along the bottom.
Fig. 14 Computation grid for the three-dimensional numerical model and water budget of the Plio-Pleistocene aquifer of the Albegna
River coastal plain in the 19 February 199528 February 1996 period obtained for transient conditions: balance of inows (positive value)
and outows (negative value) in the modelled area expressed in m
3
/day
Table 1 Water budget of the Plio-Pleistocene aquifer of the Albegna River coastal plain (19 February 199528 February 1996) under
transient conditions
Item Inow (m
3
) Outow (m
3
) Balance (m
3
)
Meteoric inltration 1,646,577 1,646,577
Lateral ows 747,347 747,347
Flows from the cavernous limestone 785,432 785,432
Withdrawals 2,932,010 2,932,010
Albegna upstream 595,924 394,246 201,678
Albegna downstream 59,784 578,413 518,629
Total Albegna 655,708 972,659 316,951
Sea Osa-Albegna sector 73,425,320 73,138,660 286,660
Sea opposite lagoon 69,015,580 69,864,140 848,560
Total sea 142,440,900 143,002,800 561,900
Aquifer system 146,275,964 146,907,469 631,505
Albegna: upstream from La Marsiliana to the conuence with the Magione-Radicata stream; downstream from the conuence with the
Magione-Radicata stream to the mouth. Mare:Osa-Albegna sector from the mouth of the Osa R. to the mouth of the Albegna R.;opposite
lagoon from the mouth of the Albegna R. to the southern end of the model
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Hydrogeology Journal (2008) 16: 15571576 DOI 10.1007/s10040-008-0324-z
Validation
A calibrated model is validated when it can closely
reproduce a different set of eld data, i.e. predicted values
approximate measured ones. The model can be built even
when time series data are lacking, since it is enough to
have data on a single hydrological cycle (as in this case);
however, the model can only be effectively used after a
long period of experimentation, during which it will likely
need to be rened, because the true relationships between
the developed sequence and system trends in the medium
and long term are not known (Anderson and Woessner
2002; Oude Essink 2004).
Since the calibration was performed with reference to the
19951996 period, one characterized by below average
meteoric inltration, the model was validated against eld
data acquired in 2003, a year in which meteoric inltration was
Fig. 15 Water ows in transient conditions for the 19 February 199528 February 1996 period (positive values are inows, negative
values are outows): a ow of the main components of the water budget (values relative to the sea and to the Albegna River are the
difference between inows and outows) with respect to local precipitation (expressed in mm); b balance of ows crossing the coastline,
divided according to zone and aquifer layer; c balance of ows exchanged with the Albegna River divided according to zone. For the
denition of zones and symbols, see text and Table 1
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Hydrogeology Journal (2008) 16: 15571576 DOI 10.1007/s10040-008-0324-z
close to average. This validation aimed to assess the models
ability to correctly reproduce the response of the aquifer
system to different areal recharge conditions. Starting from
1996, monthly precipitation data were input into the model
(the rest remained unchanged), so that it was possible to
calculate the piezometric surface for February 2003. Validation
results were tested by comparing calculated values against
measurements in 51 observation wells; the two sets of values
are highly correlated and plot near the perfect correspondence
line (the absolute difference is about 1.00 m). The same
considerations hold for the comparison between computed and
measured piezometric surfaces for February 2003.
Conclusions and future research
A conceptual and numerical model was developed for
simulating the hydrodynamics of the Plio-Pleistocene
aquifer of the Albegna River coastal plain. The model
can be used to determine the most important components
of the water budget and to identify river/aquifer/sea
relationships. At present, inows and outows appear to
ensure the equilibrium of the aquifer system; however,
seawater intrusion along the coastline is responsible for
the substantial deterioration of the chemical quality of
groundwater. The model helped establish that water
withdrawal near the coast during the irrigation season is
the main cause of seawater intrusion, especially in the
Osa-Albegna sector; sea water also inows along the river
which at times inltrates the aquifer. The deterioration of
groundwater quality therefore appears to be due to the
way in which withdrawals are carried out (where and
when) rather than to the substantial quantity of water
being pumped (about 310
6
m
3
/year). Groundwater
degradation is currently a limiting factor for local
economic growth, above all for agriculture, and is
producing conicts among the different users; there is
therefore urgent need to improve the state of the aquifer
through a plan for its rational exploitation based on a
correct conceptual representation of physical conditions.
In this framework, the presented model represents the
basis for future hydrochemical simulations that will help to
better manage local freshwater resources. This model is still
not completely reliable because of the incomplete knowl-
edge of the system and the few opportunities to fully check
results; however, it can already provide important informa-
tion on the general evolution of the system under different
stress conditions. In particular, the model can be used to
quantitatively assess the impact of variations in the amount
of water withdrawn and/or in the position of wells that
could help remediate saltwater intrusion.
The effects of hypothetical aquifer exploitations were
assessed in terms of water budget and the evolution
hydraulic head starting from February 2003; these fore-
casts concern the next 10 years and take into consideration
the local climate trends, i.e. a decrease in effective
precipitation of about 2 mm/year (Barazzuoli et al.
2002). In particular, two exploitation scenarios were
examined: the E scenario considers the relocation of all
coastal wells to at least 3 km inland from the shore and the
maintenance of the current overall withdrawal; in contrast,
the B scenario considers halving withdrawal from all wells
in the plain but no relocation. The results of these
simulations are compared with those obtained maintaining
unchanged the current aquifer exploitation, i.e. scenario A
(Fig. 16 and Table 2).
Analysis of water budget variations reveals that halving
the discharge (B scenario) determines both an increase in
Fig. 16 Water budget in scenarios A,B and E for the February
2012February 2013 period (positive values are inows into the
aquifer system, negative values are outows). For the denition of
components and scenarios, see text and Table 2
Table 2 Difference between the water budget in scenarios B and A and in scenarios E and A for the Plio-Pleistocene aquifer of the
Albegna River coastal plain (February 2012February 2013)
Item Scenario Bscenario A Scenario Escenario A
Inow (m
3
) Outow (m
3
) Balance (m
3
) Inow (m
3
) Outow (m
3
) Balance (m
3
)
Withdrawals 1,406,000 0
Albegna upstream 203,700 284,700 488,400 81,400 167,300 248,700
Albegna downstream 58,166 358,000 416,166 35,390 22,900 12,490
Sea Osa-Albegna sector 90,000 90,000 180,000 80,000 80,000 160,000
Sea opposite lagoon 40,000 40,000 80,000 50,000 60,000 110,000
Balance aquifer system 222,860 33,200
All scenarios consider a 1.72 mm/year decrease in effective precipitation (according to Barazzuoli et al. 2002). The different scenarios are
as follows: A exploitation of the aquifer continues under the present conditions; B halving the discharge from all wells in the plain, and no
relocation of wells;E relocation of all coastal wells up to 3 km inland from the shore and maintenance of the current overall discharge. For
the denition of components, see Table 1
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Hydrogeology Journal (2008) 16: 15571576 DOI 10.1007/s10040-008-0324-z
the quantity of water drained by the river and a decrease in
the quantity of water from the river, for an overall decrease
of about 910
5
m
3
in the ow of water from the Albegna
River to the aquifer; note that the quantity of water which
inltrates in the saline portion of the river decreases by
nearly 610
4
m
3
. The opposite effect is obtained by
relocating the coastal wells further inland (scenario E):
the Albegna River recharges the aquifer more (for a total of
over 2.510
5
m
3
) and increases by about 3.510
4
m
3
the
quantity of seawater penetrating the aquifer as it ascends
the river. As for the coastal limit, in both scenarios there is
an increase in aquifer discharge to the sea, especially in the
Osa-Albegna sector, where extraction is greatest; the
relocation of coastal wells therefore determines a decrease
in saltwater intrusion, and can effectively contrast the
degradation of groundwater quality.
Figure 17 shows the piezometric surface at the end of
the simulation (February 2013, when it has an average
height of 5.34 m asl), and its variations with respect to
calculated values in scenarios B and E; note that the B
scenario produces a rather uniform increase in the
piezometric level, with an average value of 0.56 m (the
balance of the aquifer system increases by over 210
5
m
3
,
see Table 2), whereas the E scenario leads to a decrease in
the piezometric level in the northern sector and an increase
in the southern sector near the lagoon, for an average
reduction of 0.40 m (the amount of water in the aquifer
decreases by about 3.510
4
m
3
).
In conclusion, a considerable decrease in extraction
from the aquifer would lead to the reactivation of net
groundwater discharge to the sea and especially to the
Albegna River. When wells are only relocated, with no
signicant decrease in water extraction, there is a decrease
in seawater intrusion but a lowering of the groundwater
level (a greater share of freshwater is extracted).
Future research will improve the geological and
hydrogeological reconstruction of the aquifer system
through the implementation of new lithostratigraphic data
from wells and boreholes, and through further piezomet-
ric, hydrometric (height of the river bottom and of the free
Fig. 17 a Simulated groundwater level contour map for February 2013 (A scenario). b Piezometric difference between scenarios B and A
for February 2013. c Piezometric difference between scenarios E and A for February 2013. For the denition of scenarios, see text and
Table 2
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Hydrogeology Journal (2008) 16: 15571576 DOI 10.1007/s10040-008-0324-z
water surface), topographic (GPS measurement of ground
elevation in areas with a low hydraulic gradient) and
physicalchemical (electrical conductivity, temperature,
major ion and isotope contents) surveys. Pumping and
tracer tests will improve knowledge of the hydraulic and
dispersive properties of the aquifer. In particular, perfo-
rations planned in coastal areas will provide data on the
vertical distribution of aquifer salinity (and therefore of
uid densities), thereby reducing the aforementioned
uncertainties in the local distribution of hydraulic heads,
which currently represent the greatest weakness of the
model. Lastly, public bodies will monitor temperatures
and precipitation rates and will complete a census of the
most important wells and keep a record of water discharge
rates. These data will be used to signicantly improve the
conceptual and hydrodynamic models of the aquifer,
thereby allowing the construction of a robust numerical
transport model essential for monitoring saltwater intru-
sion and managing local water resources.
Acknowledgements Research was supported by a grant from the
University of Siena to M. Salleolini. The manuscript was reviewed
by P. Renard, G.H.P. Oude Essink, M. Antonelli and an anonymous
reviewer, who are gratefully acknowledged for their constructive
criticism and suggestions that signicantly improved the quality of
the manuscript.
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Hydrogeology Journal (2008) 16: 15571576 DOI 10.1007/s10040-008-0324-z