Olea Stevens

FRINQ Sustainability
Research
2-16-14

Assessing Sustainable Water Use in Botswana
Worldwide, over a billion people have no access to safe water and over four billion die
annually of water-related disease (Reuss, 2004). In water-scarce Botswana, 60 percent of the
rural population and 30 percent of the urban population cannot meet their basic water needs
(Mirumachi & Van Wyk, 2010). Government water subsidies and increasing quality of life are
easing the cost of providing safe and reliable water to people in both urban and rural Botswana.
Water supply, however, is not increasing enough to meet fast-growing demand. Are Botswanas
water sources and use sustainable, that is, able to meet present need without compromising future
supply (Gleick, 1998)? This paper will explore water supply and demand, cost, government
influence and potentially new water sources in terms of sustainability.
Water is scarce in the land-locked
south African country of Botswana (shown
below in Figure 1 (Source: Expert Africa,
2013)) where 80% of the rainfall occurs
during the summer (Kgathi et al., 2006) and
surface water is prone to higher rates of
evaporation than accumulation (Lado, 1997).
Total surface water amounts to about 18,000
million cubic meters: national average rainfall
amounts to 450 millimeters per year (Hope &
Edge, 1996), while the evaporation rate can reach up to 2000 millimeters per year (Rahm,
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Swatuk, & Matheny, 2006). Most rivers only flow a few days per year, with the exception of the
Okavango and Chobe systems, which make up about 95% of the countrys surface water
(Arntzen, 1995). Both the Okavango and Chobe Rivers provide water to neighboring countries as
well as to Botswana, and vary naturally based on levels of precipitation (Rahm et al., 2006).
Groundwater is more readily available, but the potential is limited due to the fact that most
aquifers are already in use and gradually declining (Arntzen, 1995). Furthermore, Botswana is
often plagued by long drought periods (Ashton, 2002). The dry climate of Botswana makes it
even more important that water resources be used and managed sustainably so that the supply
may last for generations to come.
One thing the water sector has going for it is the use of incremental governance of water
which allows for better representation of different community levels and prevents domination by
a singular institution. The water sector in Botswana is controlled mainly by the Ministry of
Mineral, Energy and Water Affairs (MMEWA), which is responsible for supplying water to six
major urban and mining centers, protecting surface water, and legislating water use and rights
(Rahm et al., 2006). According to Lado (1997), MMEWA passes responsibilities on to the
Department of Water Affairs (DWA), Department of Geological Surveys (DGS), and Water
Utilities Corporation (WUC). The DWA is responsible for resource planning and to operate and
maintain 17 major village supplies. It also designs and constructs new rural village water supply
schemes, which are maintained and operated by district councils. The director of the DWA is
also the registrar of the Water Appointment Board (WAB) which records, grants and terminates
water rights in accordance with Botswanas Water Act of 1968. The DGS evaluates groundwater
resources and maintains the national archive of boreholes, according to the Borehole Act of
1956. The WUC is a commercial organization which supplies water to 25% of Botswanas
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consumers. Another 22% of the population is supplied by district councils, and 34% does not
have access to reliable water, depending on boreholes or hand-dug wells, or hauling water from
other villages (Lado, 1997). Such incremental governance of water is sustainable because it
allows more representation than if water was governed purely by one organization or department.
The goals of the water sector are to provide safe, reliable and affordable water to meet the
basic needs of the population, and to provide supply for industrial, agricultural and institutional
consumers in order to boost economic growth. They are trying to support a balance of economic
growth, use efficiency, social justice and sustainable resource management (Arntzen, 1995).
Waters scarcity is limiting further economic development (Rahm et al., 2006), but the
government should aim for not only water security but equitable and long-term water
sustainability (Ashton, 2002). According to Rahm (2006), Botswanas government considers
dams necessary for national water and food security. However, in order to avoid potential
international water conflict, the government must be aware of the extent of damming because it
shares water sources with several neighboring countries (Ashton, 2002). While damming is a
viable option in the case of the Okavango River, it becomes a more complicated issue when it
comes to river that flow out of Botswana, such as the Shashe and the Limpopo. Government
should focus on managing both supply and demand, concentrating not only on augmenting
supply, but also on increasing use-efficiency and recycling water (Arntzen, 1995).
Botswana is an impoverished country in which fifty percent of the population lives below
U.S. $2 per day (Kgathi et al., 2006). The economy is mainly focused on mining (diamonds),
livestock, and tourism (Lado, 1997), all of which are supported by water: water must be used to
wash minerals and for livestock and tourist consumption. Although the main component in
Botswanas economy, mining is controversial because while it does have significant economical
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returns, it is unsustainable in that it pollutes groundwater. Livestock is unsustainable because it
poses a threat to wildlife as the two groups have to compete with one another for water, which in
the past has lead to outbreaks of foot and mouth disease (Rahm et al., 2006). Another factor
contributing to the Botswana economy is tourism, which relies heavily on water availability, in
that tourists consume water and are attracted by wildlife, which relies on water (Rahm et al.,
2006). Economical factors utilize ground and surface water in an estimated 2:1 ratio (Mirumachi
& Van Wyk, 2010), which is unsustainable, considering that groundwater supply is likely to be
exhausted by 2020 (Rahm et al., 2006).
Water use and demand is concentrated in urban and mining areas, and in livestock
production. Total use (shown in Table 3 (Source: Arntzen, 1995)), including water for drinking,
sanitation and hygiene, is increasing with
quality of life, as more people are able to
afford water connections. According to
Rahm (2006), the rural population (about
50% of total) consumes only about 20% of
the nations water, which amounts to an
average per capita consumption of less than
20 liters per day (Rahm et al., 2006), compared to over 500 liters per day used by the average
American (The Water Information Program, 2014). Rural areas are supplied mainly by
communal standpipes, privately-owned boreholes, or hand-dug wells. Urbanization increases use
as urban areas have more opportunities for efficient in-home water connections (Rahm et al.,
2006). Industrial use such as mining is not sustainable, considering it not only uses a large
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amount of water, but emits pollution as well, which can spread through water even to
underground aquifers (Arntzen, 1995).
The cost of water (see Figure 3
(Source: Arntzen, 1995)) in Botswana is
influenced largely by government
subsidy: the government subsidizes and
manages pricing so that those who can
afford pay full cost, while those who
cannot are not required to (Lado, 1997). The majority of the population pays nothing, accessing
water from communal standpipes; large institutional users such as schools and hospitals have
water resources paid for by the government. Commercial water costs are low in order to boost
economic growth (Mirumachi & Van Wyk, 2010). Users pay high prices, however for non-basic
household use, paying for the connections as well as for progressive usage (Rahm et al., 2006).
Water prices are also reflective of local supply, for example in the North, where water is more
abundant, water prices are lower (Mirumachi & Van Wyk, 2010). Such price elasticity reflects
the belief that everyone has the right to water for basic needs (i.e. drinking, hygiene and
sanitation). Still, 60% of the rural and 30% of the urban populations cannot meet basic water
needs (Lado, 1997). Price elasticity is also socially sustainable because it encourages efficient
water use and leans toward economic equity. The government is concerned with establishing a
method to efficiently supply water to people in scattered and remote areas (Hope & Edge, 1996),
because the elastic pricing method is not financially sustainable for the government and the
government is already required to make up the difference of the current cost recovery
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(Mirumachi & Van Wyk, 2010). Ultimately, the government needs to find new water sources so
that it can continue to provide its people with safe and reliable water.
Some sustainable water sources are rainwater harvest (shown in Figure 4 (Source: Bear
Springs Blossom Nature Conservation, 2013)),
reuse of water, and purification of effluent.
These sources could reduce up to 20% of the
capitals water consumption (Arntzen, 1995),
and are already employed in some parts of the
country. The government is also interested in
dams, inter-basin transfers, purchases from other countries, and technological detection and
utilization of new groundwater sources, and is actively pursuing the use of solar-power
desalinization plants (Rahm et al., 2006). Another important part of sustainable water
management is reduction of supply systems loss which can be achieved through proper
collection, storage and distribution methods (Arntzen, 1995). Adoption of sustainable water
sources will prolong the life of Botswanas existing water supplies and facilitate social and
economic development.
Water scarcity in Botswana is hindering the countrys potential for economic
development. Supply and demand should be assessed and managed, and new sustainable
methods and sources of water should be explored and analyzed so that the people of Botswana
may not only meet their basic water needs, but also so that the country may expand and prosper
economically. Botswana should explore more sustainable options for water usage and supply
such as rainwater harvest and increased use efficiency instead of attempting to boost supply by
damming, which could lead to controversy. They should maintain the sustainable aspects of the
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current water system such as subsidization and elastic pricing for water equality, and if possible,
they should lean away from industries like tourism, livestock and especially mining, which put
an even harder strain on the already delicate system. Ultimately, sustainable water supply and
use is Botswanas only hope to build and maintain water security into the future.



















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