Jeffery Osvold

ANTH 1130-01
Dr. Mallery
3/5/14
Alcohol in Prehistory

In Rob Montgomerys book, Animals and Psychedelics, a number of species are
shown to actively seek out specific types of flora in an effort to enter altered states of
mind. In laymens terms, theyre out to get smashed. Be it goats in the Horn of Africa
tracking down and munching on catha edulis, or khat, a plant that contains a naturally
occurring amphetamine-like stimulant, or reindeer and caribou scavenging for amanita
muscaria, or fly agaric, a mushroom with psychoactive properties that provokes them to
prance about in an intoxicated fashion, two things are clear; living things enjoy being in
an altered state of mind and, after having experienced an altered state of mind, they are
likely to pursue the same experience again. Naturally, animals are not the only beings to
do this. Today, humans seek out altered states of mind by using illicit drugs, such as
cannabis, opiates, and hallucinogens, or natural methods like sweat lodges. However, the
most common way modern day humans enter altered states of mind is by drinking
alcohol. Given our love of beers, wines, and liquors, one must wonder where alcohol
came from and how long weve been indulging in it. For the most part, many people
would believe alcohol to be an invention of the postclassical era or, at the earliest,
sometime in ancient history. Yet, alcohol has been around a lot longer than that. In fact,
the oldest known evidence of alcohol dates back to roughly 7,000 B.C. As such, one must
take into account the presence of alcohol in prehistoric societies, as well as its affect on
all that we know, or surmise, to have happened in the daily life of early Homo sapiens.
First, in order to understand the importance of the evidence uncovered at the
various sites that I will be mentioning, one must have a basic understanding of what goes
into the creation of alcohol. The two types of alcohol that will be discussed are wine and
beer, which were the primary forms of alcohol consumption among prehistoric peoples.
This is because other forms of alcohol, such as hard liquors, which are labeled as such
because of their high proof, or alcohol content, and would have been too difficult for
people to produce without the use of true distillers, which didnt show up until the 12
th

century A.D. In general, alcohol is created by a process known as fermentation, in which
the sugars that are derived from sources such as wheat, barley, rice, figs, or grapes, are
converted into alcohol due to a chemical reaction between the sugars and yeast.
Yeast, a curious, unicellular microorganism, classified as fungi, can come from a
number of places, but the most common one available to prehistoric humans would be in
the air. As a naturally occurring microorganism, yeast can be found in the air itself and
when it comes into contact with things like the aforementioned source of sugars, or fruits
and vegetables, it lands upon them and begins to thrive and grow. The most recognizable
example of this occurrence is food spoilage, which happens when yeast converts various
food components into metabolic products, ultimately changing the foods chemical and
physical properties. Yet, this type of spoilage doesnt occur during the brewing process.
The reason for this is simple. During the fermentation process, the products being
fermented (sources of sugars, yeast, water, flavorings) are kept in an anaerobic state, or
without access to oxygen. This can be done by simply covering or sealing the
fermentation vessel.
Now, looking at the evidence from excavations, one can see that alcohol
production took a great deal of thought and chemistry, which was most likely
accomplished through trial and error over an extended period of time. As mentioned
before, the earliest known evidence of alcohol was dated to approximately 7,000 B.C.
The evidence, a shard of pottery from a vessel that was either used for fermentation,
storage, or as a drinking cup, was found in China at a site called Jiahu. Discovered in
1962 by archaeologist, Zhuzhi, the site was not further excavated until 20 years later in
the 1980s. Furthermore, the importance of it was not discovered until the late 20
th

century when the archaeologist, Patrick McGovern, and a team of scientists applied
biomarker chemical analysis to the shards of pottery, finding signature molecules that
proved the presence of alcohol made from fermented rice. Additionally, the team
discovered traces of added aromatics like honey, hawthorne leaves, chrysanthemum
flowers, and tree resins, which would have acted as a preservative, allowing the wine to
be stored for fairly long periods of time.
The next oldest site, dating back to 5,400 B.C. resides in Iran and is known as
Haiji Firuz Tepe. This tell site, standing 10.3 meters above the surface of the Gadar River
Valley, was discovered in 1936 by Sir Aurel Stein, but was not excavated further until 20
years later in 1958, or finished until 1968 by Charles Burney, T. Cuyler Young Jr.,
Robert Dyson, and Mary Voigt. Yet, what they discovered was well worth the wait.
There, embedded in the floor, the team of archaeologists found six 2.4-gallon jars in a
mudbrick kitchen-type building. Moreover, they did a chemical analysis of a yellowish
residue on the insides of the jars and found it to be tartaric acid, calcium tartrate, and tree
resin. By considering the preservative properties of tree resin and the fact that tartaric
acid and calcium tartrate are only found in a few things including grapes, one can draw
the conclusion that these jars had once contained a prehistoric wine, derived from the
crushing of grapes, whose skins contained yeast and would have effectively fermented
the sugars from the grapes and cereal grains. Another indication of these jars housing
wine is the discovery of stoppers that fit the top of the vessels, which means they were
being sealed for the purposes of fermentation or storage.
The next important site is that of Dikili Tash, another tell site that stands 15
meters above the Drama Plain in Greece. Dating to 4,200 B.C. this site was an excellent
discovery because of its remarkable preservation. This is due to evidence of a fire at the
site, which quickly burned 4 houses down and covered the evidence with a protective
layer of ash and carbonized material. Beginning in the early 1900s, this site was initially
excavated by Carl Blegen and F.B. Welch, and continues to be excavated to this day.
Among its discoveries was the telltale shard of pottery with chemically tested residue that
showed similar evidence as the other sites. But, the most significant finds at this site were
the scatterings of grape pips, or seeds, and the pressed grape skins that littered the floors
of the houses. Totaling up to 2460 seeds and 300 skins, this discovery makes it clear that
prehistoric people were crushing grapes in order to make wine.
Another important site, dating only 100 years from Dikili Tash (4,100 B.C.), is
Areni-1, found in the village of Areni, which is a part of Vayots province in the Republic
of Armenia. After its discovery in 2007 by a team of American and Irish archaeologists,
Boris Gasparyan and Ron Pinhasi headed up the excavation until its completion in 2010
and were sponsored by the National Geographic Society and UCLA. As part of a cave
complex, Areni-1 proved to be an ideal place for brewing and, as luck would have it, the
team discovered one of the oldest breweries known today, surpassing the one found in
Gibeon on the West Bank, which only dated to 700 B.C. The reason Areni-1 is
considered the oldest brewery, beating out the other sites listed, is that it shows evidence
of mass production. At this site, Archaeologists unearthed a 14-15 gallon vat that was 2
feet deep, numerous ceramic drinking cups, and a long, clay basin that measured 3 feet
in length. Even better, they found the clay basic to be coated with malvidin, which is a
compound found in wine. By using mass spectrometers and a process known as
chromatography, the archaeologists were able to see syringic acid, which is released
when malvidin breaks down. Additionally, they found more grape seeds, skins from
crushed grapes, prunes and walnuts, and desiccated (liquid has been removed), which
were all preserved very well despite being organic matter. This is because the caves roof
had partially collapsed, causing the people to abandon the site, allowing sheep to wander
in and defecate, which effectively stopped fungi from destroying the organic material.
So far, the evidence of prehistoric alcohol that has been presented has all been
associated with wine and there has been no appearance of beer or ales, which is strange
because wheat was domesticated in 8,500-8,000 B.C., albeit only in the Fertile Crescent.
But evidence shows that it spread quickly over the next 800 years, and that einkorn, one
of the primary types of wheat was harvested as early as 7,800 B.C. in the Euphrates
Valley, Syria, as evidenced by the site, Abu Hureya. Furthermore, barley, the main
ingredient used in beer to make sweet malts, was first harvested in 8,500 B.C. and
domesticated in Aby Hureya as well. Despite all these beer-related crops and the
knowledge of brewing that existed around 4,000 B.C., the first evidence of beer being
brewed only dates back to 3,000 B.C. at the site, Godin Tepe, in Iran. Here, the evidence
of beer is a byproduct called beerstone, which is similar to the residue found of whine
jugs. It is essentially a chemical reaction between the fermenting beer and stone used for
the vessel. Another site of beer brewing is the tell Mardikh in the city of Ebla. This site is
unique because it holds the oldest surviving recipe that was written down on tablets, now
known as the Ebla Tablets. The recipe, for lack of a better word, is a poem, written to the
Goddess Ninkasi, who was believed to be the Goddess of brewing.
Given the information provided by the sites, a number of interpretations and
judgments can be made about the makers and drinkers of these prehistoric brews. First,
one must consider the fact that the earlier sites most likely werent using domesticated
crops to brew their wines. Although the fig was domesticated around 9,000 B.C., one
cannot brew with figs alone, and they were probably only used as an additive. This is
important because it means that the societies, who were still hunting and gathering (even
though they may have been farming grain), used precious food, like grapes, to concoct
alcoholic beverages in the pursuit of that aforementioned altered state of mind.
Another interpretation that can be made from the scarcity of these drinks is that
they were probably sacred to the people who made them. The main support of this theory
is purely human nature, which places value on commodities. The other central support of
this theory is the evidence found at Areni-1, which was also used as a burial ground,
besides being a brewery. When Archaeologists dug up the cave complex, they found
numerous drinking cups placed around the graves, backing up the idea that alcoholic
drinks were sacred and possibly of religious or ritualistic importance.
Areni-1 also brings into play, the idea of higher intelligence, which would be
needed to create wine in such large proportions that could be considered manufacturing.
This is because manufacturing is a process that needs hierarchy and specialized workers,
meaning that there was mostly likely a chain of command amongst the brewers. Also,
manufacturing wine would necessitate domesticated grapes, which are much more
difficult to domesticate than figs, wheat, barley, or any other food at that time. Therefore,
the people of this time period should be given credit for their higher order thinking in the
field of horticulture, a subject that is still growing and producing new results to this day.
Thanks to the evidence of various sites, an astute prediction can be made to the
presence of alcoholic beverages. Even though alcohol is not associated with anything
more than getting hammered during a sporting event, or gaining the confidence to
approach attractive women these days, it can be surmised that it was much more
important to societies of prehistoric homo sapiens and speaks volumes about their daily
lives. Yet, there are still unanswered questions as to alcohols development, such as how it
started, who did it first, did they share the secret to brewing, or did other societies figure
it out on their own? Many of these questions will go on being unanswered as long as we
have no written record form that period of time, which frustrates archaeologists to no end.
But, at least they can turn to a glass of beer and thank their ancestors for such a
magnificent gift.