Sens Schoenfelder Dissertation

Exploring Scattered Waves in Seismology

Von der Fakult at f ur Physik und Geowissenschaften
der Universit at Leipzig
genehmigte
DISSERTATION
zur Erlangung des akademischen Grades
doctor rerum naturalium
(Dr. rer. nat.)
vorgelegt
von Christoph Sens-Sch onfelder
geboren am 22. November 1977 in Magdeburg
Gutachter: Prof. Dr. Michel Campillo
Prof. Dr. Heiner Igel
Prof. Dr. Michael Korn
Tag der Verleihung: 17. Dezember 2007
Dedicated to Susann
BIBLIOGRAPHICAL DATA
Sens-Sch onfelder, Christoph
University of Leipzig, dissertation
111 pages, 106 references, 39 gures, 4 tables
Abstract
This dissertation describes two dierent approaches to the use of scattered waves in
seismology. In part one, envelopes of regional earthquakes are analyzed on the basis
of radiative transfer theory to characterize the scattering and attenuation properties
of the Earths crust and to obtain information about seismic sources. This includes
a study of Lg-blockage in the western Pyrenees with elastic radiative transfer theory
in a model with deterministically described large scale structure and statistically
described small scale heterogeneity. The concept of Greens function retrieval from
ambient seismic noise is used in part two. Here the method passive image interfer-
ometry is introduced and veried by an application to data from Merapi volcano.
It is also shown how the passively retrieved Greens functions can be used to obtain
information about the data quality of seismic networks.
Contents
Acknowledgments vii
Overview 1
I Radiative Transfer Theory 5
1 Acoustic radiative transfer theory 7
1.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
1.2 Envelope modeling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
1.3 Data and regional setting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
1.4 Inversion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
1.5 Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
1.5.1 Attenuation parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
1.5.2 Source energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
1.5.3 Site response . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
1.6 Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
1.7 Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
2 Monte-Carlo simulations of elastic wave energy 29
2.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
2.2 Elastic radiative transfer theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
2.3 Monte-Carlo techniques to solve the radiative transfer equation . . . 36
2.4 Outline of the RadTrans algorithm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
2.4.1 The coordinate system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
2.4.2 Description of a particle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
2.4.3 Particle emission from a point shear dislocation . . . . . . . . 39
2.4.4 Scattering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
2.4.5 Intrinsic attenuation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
2.4.6 Ray tracing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
2.4.7 Recording of particles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
2.4.8 Evaluation of probability distributions . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
2.5 Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
v
vi CONTENTS
3 Elastic radiative transfer and Lg-blockage in the Pyrenees 53
3.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
3.2 Structure and evolution of the Pyrenees . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
3.3 Data and observations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
3.4 Modeling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
3.5 Inversion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
3.5.1 The undisturbed case . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
3.5.2 The disturbed case . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
3.6 Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
3.7 Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
II Phase Correlations 69
4 Passive image interferometry at Mt. Merapi 71
4.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
4.2 Greens function retrieval . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
4.3 Scattered Waves in the Greens Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
4.4 Passive image interferometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
4.5 Application to Merapi volcano . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
4.6 Hydrological modeling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
4.7 Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
5 Daily velocity variations and instrumental errors 85
5.1 Improving passive image interferometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
5.1.1 Hourly Greens functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
5.1.2 Hourly velocity variations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
5.1.3 Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
5.2 Detecting instrumental errors with passive imaging . . . . . . . . . . 94
5.2.1 Cross-volcano Greens functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
5.2.2 Instrumental errors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
5.2.3 Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
Summary 101
Bibliography 103
Deutsche Zusammenfassung 113
vii
Acknowledgments
This thesis kept me busy during the last three years. This time would have been
much less fun without the support that I received from many people.
I am grateful to my supervisor Prof. Dr. Michael Korn. He provided guidance
whenever necessary and freedom when I desired.
I am also grateful to Prof. Dr. Michel Campillo for his advise and the oppor-
tunity to work in his amazing group at the Laboratoire de Geophysique Interne et
Tectonophysique (LGIT) Grenoble. The LGIT provided computing facilities for the
M-C simulations.
I like to thank Dr. Ulrich Wegler for introducing me to the topic of scattering
and for inspiring discussions.
Special thanks go to Dr. Ludovic Margerin for enlightening discussions, and
the idea to work on the Lg-blockage. I really appreciated his help in preparing my
stay in Grenoble and his patience to help me with all the practical problems that
such a stay brings with it.
I am thankful for the numerous discussions with Dr. Jens Przybilla, Sigward
Funke, Dr. Florent Brenguier, Pierre Gouedard, Laurent Stehly, and Dr. Eric Larose
which were my colleagues in Leipzig and Grenoble. The experience of Jens Przybilla
with Monte-Carlo simulations was very helpful. I thank Dr. Malte Westerhaus and
Birger G. L uhr for discussion on Merapi and for meteorological data from Merapi.
I like to thank my wife and my kids for accompanying me during my work in
Grenoble. My kids were always a good reason to keep me from work whenever it
was going to be too much. I thank my wife for a lot of good ideas that I had while
she was carefully listening to my scientic problems.
I thank all the Institutes that provided data for this work. The German Seismo-
logical Central Observatory (SZGRF) provided the seismograms analyzed in chap-
ter 1. The French Atomic Energy Commission (CEA/DASE) granted access to their
great earthquake database. This data is used in chapter 3. The GeoForschungsZen-
trum Potsdam (GFZ) acquired the seismic data from Merapi volcano that is used
in chapters 4 and 5. Special thanks for this interesting data go to Dr. Jo Wasser-
mann. The US National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) provided
the precipitation data used in chapter 4 and the relief data in gure 3.9.
I also appreciate nancial support from the German Research Foundation
(DFG, grant WE 2713/1-1), the German Academic Exchange Service (DAAD,
Doktorandenstipendium), European Union through the NERIES program, and the
LGIT Grenoble.
Overview
Beginning with the rst recording of a teleseismic earthquake by Ernst von Rebeur-
Paschwitz in 1889, seismology has lead to a variety of important discoveries. Suc-
cessful methods have been developed to use seismic waves for various goals. Most
important among these is of course the seismic imaging, the extraction of infor-
mation about the spatial distribution of structural properties. Another successful
branch of classical seismology aims at the characterization of seismic sources.
These methods compare the observed waveeld with predictions made by a
deterministic model. Since small scale structure is usually not contained in these
models the related occurrence of scattered waves is unwanted and sophisticated
techniques are used to minimize their inuence.
In this work a dierent approach is used. Instead of trying to eliminate scattered
waves in seismic data they are utilized as source of information. The author presents
dierent studies with dierent aims and results, but all are based on the multiple
scattering nature of seismic waves. This work is divided into two parts according to
the dierent, and in a way complementary, theories that are applied.
Part I is based on Radiative Transfer Theory (RTT) and analyses the amplitude
of scattered waves in the seismic coda. This theory describes the propagation of
seismic energy in a scattering medium. It completely neglects phase information
of scattered waves. The rst study presented in chapter 1 is published in Sens-
Sch onfelder and Wegler (2006b). It applies RTT in a simple approximation that
allows for an analytic solution of the Radiative Transfer Equation (RTE). Regional
seismogram envelopes of 11 earthquakes in Germany are compared with predictions
of RTT in a half space model with multiple isotropic scattering of acoustic waves.
An inversion strategy is presented that uses amplitude information from ballistic
shear waves and the seismic coda to simultaneously estimate the seismic moment of
the source and site amplication factors of the seismic stations as well as attenuation
and scattering properties of the crust. With a transport mean free path of about
690 km and an intrinsic quality factor of 500 the distance dependent shape of the
coda envelopes can be well described. The seismic moments estimated with these
medium parameters agree well with independent moment estimates using waveform
modeling techniques. A clear correspondence is found between the estimated site
amplication factors and geological conditions at the seismograph stations.
Despite the ability of the method presented in chapter 1 to estimate parameters
of medium, source, and recording site, it relies on limiting approximations of the
RTE. Seismogram envelopes can only be modeled in the S-wave coda. P-waves,
mantle phases, and Moho reections are not contained in this simple model. In
1
2
chapter 2 a tool is introduced that was developed to solve the RTE in a more
realistic model with less restrictive approximation. This algorithm uses a Monte-
Carlo technique to numerically solve the elastic RTE with anisotropic scattering and
conversions between compressional and shear waves. It allows to model seismogram
envelopes including ballistic P- and S-waves as well as the coda of both phases. To be
applicable for the modeling of energy propagation in the earths crust the algorithm
contains modules that treat the eects of the free surface, a velocity contrast at
depth and the resulting wave-guide eects. With the additional possibility to model
the energy propagation in a model with vertical velocity gradient the, algorithm is
able to simulate complete regional seismogram envelopes from the earliest arrival of
mantle phases until the late coda.
The ability of this algorithm to model the wave-guide eects of the crust is
used in chapter 3 to study the phenomenon of Lg-blockage in the western Pyrenees.
The term Lg-blockage refers to the strong attenuation of guided shear energy in a
limited region of the crust. In contrast to other regions, the deterministic velocity
structure of the western Pyrenees cannot account for the Lg-blockage. Thus, the
phenomenon remained unexplained. It was suggested that it is caused by scattering
at small scale heterogeneities. Chapter 3 starts with a detailed data analysis used to
extract characteristic traces for propagation through the eastern and western parts
of the mountain range. The parameters of the undisturbed crust are estimated by
nonlinear inversion of the trace for propagation through the eastern Pyrenees. For
the transport mean free path and the quality factor of intrinsic S-wave attenuation
values of 750 km and 623 are found respectively. To simulate the Lg-blockage an
additional body with dierent scattering and attenuation properties is placed in
the crust below the western Pyrenees. The parameters of the medium inside this
body are obtained by inversion of the trace for propagation through the western
Pyrenees. The simulations support the hypothesis that the intrinsic properties of
this body are responsible for the Lg-blockage. Increased scattering is necessary to
attenuate the energy that propagates in the crust. Together with stronger intrinsic
attenuation inside the Pyrenean body, the model correctly describes the observations
for propagation through both the western and the eastern Pyrenees. It provides an
explanation for the Lg-blockage.
In part II a complementary theory to radiative transfer is applied that uses the
phase information of scattered waves in the seismic coda. Contrary to part I the coda
signals are not generated in the classical sense with an active source and a receiver.
Instead the principle of recovering Greens functions by correlation of random wave
elds is applied here. This concept relays on the persistence of interference eects in
diuse wave elds. In chapter 4 a technique named Passive Image Interferometry is
introduced to use the continously present seismic noise to monitor velocity variations
of seismic waves. It is demonstrated that it is possible to retrieve scattered waves, i.e.
seismic coda by correlation of seismic noise. With these scattered waves, spatially
heterogenous velocity variations are observed with a temporal resolution of one day.
A hydrological model is presented that explains the lapse time dependent velocity
variations on the basis of precipitation.
In chapter 5 two studies are presented that demonstrate the use of Greens
3
function retrieval from seismic noise for dierent purposes. It is shown that the
temporal resolution of Passive Image Interferometry can be increased to observe
daily changes. Evidence is presented for a connection between these changes and
air temperature. In the other study a method is presented to identify and quantify
instrumental errors in a seismic network. It is shown how the timing errors of
individual instruments can be measured. This allows for the synchronization of
data from stations with unreliable timing to the clocks of more precise stations.
The accuracy of this synchronization can already exceed the precision of the internal
instrument clock after one day.
4
Part I
Radiative Transfer Theory
5
Chapter 1
Acoustic radiative transfer theory
for the joint inversion
of seismogram envelopes for
source- site- and path-eects
7
8 CHAPTER 1. ACOUSTIC RADIATIVE TRANSFER THEORY
Abstract
In the present study a new technique is proposed to obtain medium parameters, site
amplication factors, and source spectra of regional earthquakes from envelopes of
seismic coda. As compared to existing methods, this approach is based on radiative
transfer theory which physically describes the scattering process that produces the
seismic coda. This allows the direct estimation of source parameters, without the
necessity to x proportionality coecients with reference events. I see an appreciable
advantage because the method is independent of the output from other techniques,
such as reference events provided by moment inversions. The main component of
this method is a joint inversion of the seismic records for source and site parameters,
as well as for medium parameters assuming isotropic sources and isotropic, acoustic
scattering in a half-space.
The method is tested with recordings of 11 earthquakes (4 M
l
6) by
the German Regional Seismic Network at epicentral distances less than 1000 km.
Traces are inverted in eight frequency bands between 0.2 and 24 Hz and it is shown
that estimates of the seismic moment are in good agreement with values obtained
in independent studies using waveform inversion techniques. In fact the estimates
of the seismic moment are better than approximations obtained from local magni-
tudes using empirical relations specically derived for the region under study. The
parameters that describe the scattering medium are mean free path that we found
to average around 690 km and the intrinsic quality factor for which
I
Q = 500 is
obtained below 3 Hz.
1.1. INTRODUCTION 9
1.1 Introduction
Since it has been recognized for some time that amplitudes of regional coda are
proportional to source excitation, attempts to extract information about the seis-
mic source from the coda have a long history. Aki and Chouet (1975) were the
rst to study source spectra with coda waves. Due to the available instruments
they obtained source spectra above 3 Hz. A correction for attenuation is necessary
that involves an empirical quality factor describing both intrinsic and scattering
attenuation. The measurements are made relative to each other and have to be
adjusted to reference events. Mayeda and Walter (1996) used two-dimensional mul-
tiple scattering to approximate coda envelopes and to measure coda amplitudes.
Above 0.2 Hz, additional empirical distance corrections were introduced. Mayeda
and Walter (1996) proposed that the inuence of body wave scattering, which is
not described by their 2D scattering model, required this empirical modication.
They transformed the frequency resolved coda amplitudes to moment-rate spectra
using reference events. Mayeda et al. (2003) extended this empirical approach and
ended up with 12 free parameters describing the coda envelopes. Mayeda et al.
(2003) tested the method and applied it to the Dead Sea Rift. Morasca et al. (2005)
used it to analyze energy-moment scaling in the western Alps. The approach of
Mayeda et al. (2003) and Morasca et al. (2005) is completely empirical and has no
connection to the physics of the scattering process. Dewberry and Crosson (1995)
used the single-scattering model in a detailed analysis of seismic source spectra of 78
north western U.S. earthquakes. They also provided coda Q and site amplication
estimates.
All these studies share the fact that they need reference events with known
source spectra to x proportionality coecients to obtain absolute values for the
source spectra. In contrast, the approach presented here is independent of external
information because it uses radiative transfer theory which originates from a physical
model of the scattering and provides a direct relation between the amplitude of
the coda and the source excitation, without any proportionality coecient. To be
able to solve the radiative transfer equation analyticly it is used in the acoustic
approximation with isotropic scattering. In this approximation, the direct relation
between source excitation and the coda level was previously used by Nakahara et al.
(1998). Based on theoretical developments by Sato et al. (1997), they presented an
approach to study the source process of large earthquakes in great detail. Nakahara
et al. (1998) used a model of multiple isotropic acoustic scattering to invert for the
spatial distribution of non-isotropic high frequency energy radiation on the fault
plane. In this method, medium parameters are taken from studies that belong to
another branch of coda investigations.
The aforementioned studies focus on the properties of the propagation medium
rather than on the source and aim to separate the eects of intrinsic and scattering
attenuation to characterize the small scale heterogeneities and the dissipation of en-
ergy. There are, for example, several studies (Fehler et al., 1992; Mayeda et al., 1992;
Bianco et al., 2002) applying the Multiple Lapse Time Window Analysis (MLTWA)
as developed by Hoshiba et al. (1991). MLTWA is based on multiple isotropic
acoustic scattering and uses ratios of energy integrated in three consecutive time
windows to separate intrinsic and scattering attenuation. An improvement to the
geometrical setting is due to Margerin et al. (1998), who model energy propagation
in a layer above a half-space. Lacombe et al. (2003) use a similar model consisting
of a scattering layer overlaying a transparent half-space to characterize the atten-
uation properties of Lg-waves. All these studies apply coda-normalization (Aki,
1980) to correct for unwanted eects of the source and site amplications. Coda-
normalization, however, fails for small events with a shorter coda, because the coda
can be dominated by random seismic noise before the requirement of homogeneous
distribution of energy in space is fullled. In the present study, this disadvantage
is overcome by including source excitation and site amplication directly into the
inversion process.
I present an approach to estimate the source spectrum by jointly inverting the
seismic record for medium parameters and source/site eects. The merit of this
integrated approach is that
1. it is independent of external information such as the source spectrum of ref-
erence events because a physical model of the scattering process is utilized for
which the parameters are obtained in the inversion. This model provides a
direct relation between coda amplitude and source excitation.
2. it is applicable for smaller events because the source excitation and the site
amplication factors are estimated within the inversion, thus no coda-norma-
lization is needed.
This content of this chapter is published in Sens-Sch onfelder and Wegler (2006b).
It is organized as follows. I describe the modeling of seismogram envelopes in sec-
tion 1.2 and introduce the data selection and the study area in section 1.3. The
inversion scheme is described in section 1.4 and results of the inversion are shown
in section 1.5.
1.2 Envelope modeling
Envelopes are modeled using radiative transfer theory. Scattering of waves in 3D
space is governed by the radiative transfer or Boltzmann equation (Margerin et al.,
1998). Here I restrict myself to isotropic scattering of S-waves in a half-space with
an isotropic source. In full-space the eective energy density Greens function G(t, r)
is given by the following integral equation
G(t, r) = F(t, r) + v
0
g
0
_
V
F(t t
, r r
)G(t
, r
)dt
dr
(1.1)
(Sato and Fehler, 1998, p. 175).
F(t, r) =
1
4v
0
r
2
H(t)(t r/v
0
)e
v
0
got
(1.2)
1.2. ENVELOPE MODELING 11
is the Greens function for the coherent wave energy. Here v
0
and g
0
denote average
velocity of S-waves and total scattering coecient respectively. r = [r[ is the source
receiver distance and H is the Heaviside step function. The exact solution of eq. 1.1
involves a two dimensional Fourier transform (Zeng et al., 1991; Sato and Fehler,
1998, p. 177).
To speed up the inversion an analytic approximation to the solution of 1.1 is
used that was obtained by Paasschens (1997) by interpolating between the explicit
solutions of the Boltzmann equation in 2D and 4D. The solution of Paasschens
(1997) reads
G(t, r)
e
v
0
tg
0
4r
2
(r v
0
t) +
(1 r
2
/(v
2
0
t
2
))
1/8
(4v
0
t/(3g
0
))
3/2
e
v
0
tg
0
K
_
v
0
tg
0
_
1
r
2
v
2
0
t
2
_
3/4
_
H(v
0
t r) (1.3)
where K(x) e
x
_
1 + 2.026/x. Recently this interpolation was used by Abubakirov
(2005) in a MLTWA. It is a good approximation to the solution of eq. 1.1 given by
Zeng et al. (1991). The deviation from the exact solution is below 5% where larger
deviations occur in the tail of the direct wave. The accuracy of the approximation
for the direct wave and its tail is reasonable in the present context because only an
average value in a short time window following the direct wave will be used. This
time window is largely dominated by the energy of the unscattered wave which is
correctly described in equation 1.3.
The boundary condition for radiative transfer in a half-space is zero vertical
energy ux at the surface. Assuming total reection, this condition can be accounted
for by introducing a mirror source above the surface for which the energy density
Greens function is G(t, r
+
), with r
+
being the distance between receiver and mirror
source. At the surface the upward ux of the real source equals the downward
ux of the mirror source, thereby satisfying the boundary condition. The energy
density Greens function of the half-space is thus G
h
(t, x) = G(t, r) + G(t, r
+
). In
the following it is assumed that the receiver is at the surface where r = r
+
. In this
case G
h
(t, x) = 2G(t, r) (c.f. Wegler, 2004). With this treatment only the boundary
condition for energy transfer is considered. Specic eects arising from boundary
conditions of the wave equation like mode conversions, surface waves and angle
dependent reection coecients are not accounted for.
The energy density for an arbitrary source can be obtained by convolution
with the source function. In this analysis I assume a source function of the form
W(r)(t) where W is the spectral source energy in J/Hz. Intrinsic absorption can
be accounted for with an additional time dependent factor e
bt
with the intrinsic
absorption parameter b. Finally I obtain
E
mod
(t, x) = WR
i
G
h
(t, x)e
bt
(1.4)
= 2WR
i
G(t, r)e
bt
(1.5)
for the energy density E
mod
(t, r) of the half-space model at time t and distance r
from the source of energy W. R
i
is the site response at station i.
13-4-1992
20-6-1995
21-10-1997
29-11-1997
23-6-2001
22-7-2002
22-2-2003
22-3-2003
22-5-2004
20-10-2004
5-12-2004
BFO
BRNL
BUG
CLZ
FUR
GRB1
GRC1
HAM
TNS
WET
GRFO/GRA1
BRG
CLL
MOX
STU
GSH
GEC2
IBBN
BSEG
RUE
HLG
RGN
NRDL
UBBA
4
4
8
8
12
12
16
16
48 48
50 50
52 52
54 54
Figure 1.1: Map of Germany and neighboring countries. Gray triangles: broadband
stations of the German Regional Seismic Network, the Gr afenberg array and the GERESS
station GEC2 (station codes are added); Black stars: earthquakes used in this study (dates
of occurrence are added).
1.3 Data and regional setting
Data for this study was recorded by the German Regional Seismic Network (GRSN),
the Gr afenberg array (GRF) and the reference station of the GERESS-array. The
stations are equipped with STS-2 or STS-1 (GRF stations) broadband seismometers
and traces are sampled at 80 Hz. Refer to Korn (2002) for a detailed discussion from
the GRSN. For this work data of 25 dierent stations is used (gure 1.1).
As sources I use local and regional events from Germany and adjacent areas in
the period from the installation of the GRSN in 1991 until December 2004. Events
with local magnitudes estimated by the German Central Seismological Observatory
(SZGRF) larger or equal to 4 are chosen. To reduce scatter in the estimates of the
parameters events from the Alps are excluded because of dierences in the geological
conditions. One event that occurred on 18 October 1994 in the North Sea is excluded
1.4. INVERSION 13
because I observed suspicious dierences in the arrival times, perhaps due to location
errors or an unsuitable velocity model. In the end 11 earthquakes (gure 1.1) are
used and more than 100 3-component broadband records. Locations, magnitudes
and depths as provided by the SZGRF are listed in table 1.1. With the possible
exception of the Roermond 1992 earthquake, where depths even below 20 km have
been estimated (Korn, 2002), the events occurred in the upper crust. The last three
columns of table 1.1 contain seismic moments estimated by waveform modeling and
the method presented here. They will be discussed later.
Preparation of data involves ltering of the seismograms in eight frequency
bands centered at 0.1875, 0.375, 0.75, 1.5, 3.0, 6.0, 12.0 and 24.0 Hz with a narrow
normalized Gaussian lter. Choosing the lter such that
_
[B(f)[
2
df = 1 where
B(f) is the frequency response, ensures that the spectral energy density is preserved
in the lter process (Wegler et al., 2006a). Envelope sections are selected according
to the following criteria:
1. S/N - ratio greater than 4
2. No obvious disturbances e.g. aftershocks (checked manually)
3. Hypocentral distance greater than 60 km.
The hypocentral distance range is limited to distances greater than 60 km because of
the simple half space velocity model, with a mean shear wave speed v
0
= 3.5 km/s,
which is inappropriate for shorter distances.
The observed energy density E
obs
(t, r), i.e. the seismogram envelopes, is ob-
tained from the bandpassed velocity seismogram u(t, r) using
E
obs
(t, r) =

0
2
u
2
(t, r) +H
2
( u(t, r))
2
. (1.6)
Here
0
is the mean density of the medium and H denotes the Hilbert transform.
0
= 2700 kg/m
3
is used throughout this study.
1.4 Inversion
In the inversion scheme I estimate values for the parameters g
0
, b, W and R
i
that
minimize the mist function
=
N
i=1
end
i
j=start
i
_
log
_
E
obs
(t
j
, r
i
)
E
mod
(t
j
, r
i
)
__
2
. (1.7)
Here N denotes the number of stations. start
i
and end
i
correspond to the indices
of the rst and the last sample in the coda time window (gure 1.2) at the i th
station. The coda time window starts after twice the S-wave travel time and ends
when the S/N drops below 4. All available traces of a certain event in one frequency
band are simultaneously inverted for g
0
, b, W and R
i
. The inversion scheme is a
combination of a one dimensional grid search for g
0
and a linear inversion for the
remaining parameters. Figure 1.2 illustrates the constraints of this process which
works in the following ve steps.
0 100 200 300 400
10
15
10
10
10
5
direct
Swave seismic coda
lapse time [s]
E

[
J

m
3

H
z
1
]
envelope
model
inversion
time windows
Figure 1.2: Example of an observed seismogram envelope (thin curve) on a logarithmic
scale with the best tting model (bold black curve). Time windows used in the inversion
are indicated at the bottom of the gure. Note that in the time window of the direct
S-wave only the average values (black dot) of envelope and model are tted.
1. A value of g
0
is picked (a range of g
0
is probed in a grid search) and the
energy density Greens functions G(t, r
i
) is calculated for all stations i, using
the approximation in eq. 1.3.
2. I equate E
obs
(eq. 1.6) and E
mod
(eq. 1.5) and rearrange terms like
ln
_
E
obs
(t
j
, r
i
)
G(t
j
, r
i
)
_
= ln (2WR
i
) bt
j
. (1.8)
Here ln denotes the base e logarithm. By tting a linear curve to the left
hand side of eq. 1.8 as function of time the appropriate values of b and (WR
i
)
are obtained. To reduce the eect of direct surface waves and anisotropic
scattering the graph is only tted in the coda time window (gure 1.2)
starting at twice the S-wave travel time. Additionally I apply the constraint
that average values of the modeled and observed envelopes within the direct
S-wave time window (gure 1.2) are equal. At distance r from the source this
time window contains the samples with lapse time t in the range 3.5 km/s >
r/t > 3.0 km/s. This constraint is applied to resolve the tradeo between g
0
and (WR
i
) that exists in the later coda.
3. With the values of b and (WR
i
) obtained in step two E
mod
is calculated ex-
plicitly (eq. 1.5) to estimate the mist (eq. 1.7).
4. Steps one to three are repeated for a range of g
0
values. The nal model for
one event and one frequency band is that with the smallest value of .
5. For the best tting model W and R
i
are calculated explicitly by simply taking
W to be the logarithmic average of all (WR
i
) values. This way it is implicitly
1.5. RESULTS 15
assumed that the average of the logarithms of the R
i
is zero. This means
that site amplications are measured relative to the network mean which is
assumed to be one.
The constraint that makes use of the direct S-wave time window originates
from the following problem. In a weakly scattering medium the dierence between
the coda of two models with dierent W and g
0
can be very small provided the
product Wg
0
is equal for both models. The single scattering approximation (Sato
and Fehler, 1998, p. 47) which is valid for small g
0
predicts that the energy density
E
mod
is proportional to Wg
0
. In this range it is inherently impossible to separate
W and g
0
. But also for moderate scattering that is not adequately modeled in the
single scattering approximation it can be practically impossible to separate W and
g
0
due to noisy data and other simplications in the model if only information from
the coda is used.
In contrast the ballistic energy density is proportional to We
(v
0
g
0
+b)t
. Here
a tradeo is observed between g
0
and b which corresponds to the known fact that
intrinsic and scattering attenuation can not be separated using unscattered energy
only. However, the energy W and total attenuation can be separated because of the
dierent time dependence.
In the inversion the envelopes are tted in the coda time window indicated
in gure 1.2. But I restrict the possible models to these which correctly predict the
ballistic energy in the direct S-wave time window (gure 1.2). I want to stress
that in a weakly scattering medium it is on the one hand not possible to reliably
estimate W from the coda alone without a priory knowledge of g
0
. On the other
hand it is impossible to estimate W solely from the ballistic wave because in order
to apply radiative transfer theory which provides the source energy W I need to
separate g
0
and b. I note that information from the unscattered wave is implicitly
evaluated also by MLTWA to separate g
0
and b since the rst time window of the
MLTWA generally contains the ballistic energy.
1.5 Results
As all available recordings are inverted simultaneously I implicitly assume that there
are no lateral variations in the structural parameters g
0
and b. The results represent
integral values averaged over possible regional variations. An example of the t that
is achieved with the model is given in gure 1.3. The observed envelopes are plotted
as thin lines whereas bold lines represents the model envelopes. Average energy
density values in the direct S-wave time window are indicated as gray and black
dots for observed and modeled envelopes respectively. The model generally ts the
envelopes in the coda time window. Deviations in the direct S-wave window
are probably due to directionality of the source.
In the following I will rst present the results of the attenuation parameters
as they are fundamental for the estimated source parameters that are presented
thereafter. I will also briey mention the estimates of the site amplications.
10
16
10
14
10
12
10
10
10
8
BFO
r=123km
0 200 400 600
BRG
r=594km
lapse time [s]
0 200 400 600
BSEG
r=671km
10
16
10
14
10
12
10
10
10
8
BUG
r=346km
10
16
10
14
10
12
10
10
10
8
CLZ
r=469km
FUR
r=342km
0 200 400 600
GEC2
r=520km
GRA1
r=364km
10
16
10
14
10
12
10
10
10
8
GRB1
r=382km
e
n
e
r
g
y

d
e
n
s
i
t
y

E

[
J

m
3

H
z
1
]
GRC1
r=363km
GRFO
r=364km
IBBN
r=446km
MOX
r=439km
0 200 400 600
10
16
10
14
10
12
10
10
10
8
RUE
r=681km
STU
r=191km
TNS
r=245km
WET
r=464km
Figure 1.3: Comparison between the envelopes (thin curves) of the 22-2-2003 earthquake
with the model (bold black curve) in the 1.5 Hz band on a logarithmic scale. Time windows
used in the inversion are indicated with gray bars at the bottom of the plots. Note that
in the time window of the direct S-wave only the average values of envelope and model
are tted. These levels are indicated as gray and black dots for envelope and model
respectively.
1.5. RESULTS 17
1.5.1 Attenuation parameters
Scattering strength can be expressed in terms of the total scattering coecient g
0
which is the inverse of the mean free path or in terms of scattering attenuation
parameter
Sc
Q
1
. The relation between both is
Sc
Q
1
=
g
0
v
0
2f
(1.9)
where f denotes frequency. Figure 1.4 displays g
0
as function of frequency. Small
gray dots in gure 1.4 indicate measurements of individual earthquakes. The scat-
ter of these values is due to uncertainties of the measurements but additionally
regional dierences of the scattering strength will increase the variations in the g
0
values. Black dots with error bars indicate the logarithmic averages of the individ-
ual measurements together with their 95% condence limits. Individual measure-
ments range between 10
7
m
1
and 10
5
m
1
. Logarithmic averages range between
910
7
m
1
and 310
6
m
1
. There is no signicant frequency dependence of g
0
and
logarithmically averaged over all measurements irrespective of frequency a value of
1.45 10
6
m
1
is obtained corresponding to a mean free path of 690 km. I compare
my estimates with Abubakirov and Gusev (1990); Fehler et al. (1992); Mayeda et al.
(1992) and Lacombe et al. (2003) who studied coda waves in Kamchatka, Japan,
Hawaii/Long Valley/central California and France respectively. Table 1.2 summa-
rizes the results of the dierent studies in frequency bands centered at 3.0 Hz. Refer
to Bianco et al. (2002) for graphical representation of most of these results. The
value obtained in the present study is low in this comparison but the dierence can
be attributed to geological distinctions since the central European intraplate region
is likely less heterogeneous than the volcanic areas listed in table 1.2. Compared
to the results from France obtained by Lacombe et al. (2003) the dierence might
partially be due to a dierent model setup.
The intrinsic attenuation parameter
I
Q
1
is related to the absorption parameter
b as
I
Q
1
=
b
2f
. (1.10)
Figure 1.5 displays the results of individual measurements with small gray dots and
logarithmic averages in the individual frequency bands together with 95% condence
limits as black dots with error bars. Averaged over individual measurements in
the separate frequency bands values of
I
Q
1
between 2.6 10
4
and 2.2 10
3
are
obtained. For frequencies below 3 Hz
I
Q
1
is approximately constant at 2 10
3
.
Above approximately 3 Hz a power law decrease like
I
Q
1
f
1
is observed. These
values are within the range of results from dierent regions listed in table 1.2 and
very close to the results from France Lacombe et al. (2003). However, there may
be some bias because regional records are inverted with a half space model. I
probably overestimate
I
Q
1
because leakage of energy through the Moho into a
weakly scattering mantle is mapped into attenuation (Margerin et al., 1998; Wegler,
2004).
10
1
10
0
10
1
10
8
10
7
10
6
10
5
10
4
f [Hz]
g
0

[
m
1
]
individual events
mean with
95% confidence limits
Figure 1.4: Results for the total scattering coecient of S-waves. Gray dots: scatter-
ing coecients measured by inversion of individual events; Black dots with error bars:
logarithmic mean of individual measurements with 95% condence limits.
1.5.2 Source energy
Since the present approach is on one hand based on a physical model of energy
propagation and on the other hand does not require a coda normalization, the
inversion parameter W can be interpreted directly. By measuring the source energy
at various frequencies I obtain the source energy spectrum W() of radiated S-
waves. Assuming particle motion is caused by a double couple and is observed in
the far eld one can obtain a relation between W() and the seismic moment by
integrating the energy ux density over a sphere containing the source. Sato and
Fehler (1998, p. 152) state
W() =

4
[M()[
2
10
0
v
5
0
(1.11)
where v
0
,
0
and M() denote mean S-wave velocity, mean density, and the Fourier
transform of the moment time function respectively. From eq. 1.11 one obtains the
source displacement spectrum [M()[.
In gure 1.6 the source displacement spectra of the events listed in table 1.1
are shown. Error bars correspond to the resolution of the inversion process and
not to the scatter of individual measurements as in gure 1.4 and 1.5. The mist
in eq. 1.7 is the variance of the logarithmic dierence between the samples of
the observed and modeled energy densities. I use the F-test to decide whether two
models are signicantly dierent based on the ratio of their variances . The error
bars mark the range of values for the displacement spectra that can be obtained for
models which cannot be distinguished from the best model according to the F-test
(Buttkus, 2000, p. 231) with a 5% signicance level.
Most of the curves show the expected characteristics of a displacement spec-
trum. A at region can be observed towards the low frequency limit whereas the
1.5. RESULTS 19
10
1
10
0
10
1
10
5
10
4
10
3
10
2
f [Hz]
I
Q
1
individual events
mean with
95% confidence limits
Figure 1.5: Results for the attenuation parameter of intrinsic absorption. Gray dots:
attenuation parameter measured by inversion of individual events; Black dots with error
bars: logarithmic mean of individual measurements with 95% condence limits.
displacement decays above a corner frequency. A dierent behavior is found for the
October 2004 event that occurred in Northern Germany which is tectonically quiet.
Neither low frequency plateau nor corner frequency can be observed. I regard this
as an evidence for a complex source process.
The low frequency plateaus can be compared with seismic moments M
wm
0
in-
dependently obtained from waveform inversions. For most of the events the so-
lutions of the Swiss regional moment tensor catalog that is available on-line at
http://www.seismo.ethz.ch/mt/ are used. Refer to Braunmiller et al. (2002) for ex-
amples and a description of the method. M
wm
0
estimates for the three events before
2000 can be found in Braunmiller et al. (1994) and Braunmiller (2002). For the event
in 1995 there is no seismic moment available. The waveform inversion estimates of
M
0
are plotted as thick lines in gure 1.6. Obviously the low frequency values of the
displacement spectra obtained in this study match the moments from the waveform
inversion well. Assuming that the corner frequencies of the events used here exceed
1.5 Hz I take the logarithmic average of the displacement spectra in the four lowest
frequency bands as a coda based estimate of the seismic moment denoted M
coda
0
. In
gure 1.7 the values of seismic moment obtained in this study (M
coda
0
) are plotted
against the values from waveform modeling (M
wm
0
). On average there is a dierence
of 36% between the waveform and the coda results.
Another reference that is interesting to compare with the displacement spec-
tra is the local magnitude scale. Recently Reamer and Hinzen (2004) investigated
earthquakes in the Northern Rhine Area (around station BUG in gure 1.1) and
established the relation
log
10
M
Ml
0
= 1.083Ml + 10.215 (1.12)
between the local magnitude Ml and the seismic moment M
Ml
0
in Nm. The super-
10
11
10
13
10
15
10
17
1992_04_13 1995_06_20 1997_10_21 1997_11_29
10
11
10
13
10
15
10
17
2001_06_23
s
o
u
r
c
e

d
i
s
p
l
a
c
e
m
e
n
t

s
p
e
c
t
r
u
m

|
M
(
)
|

[
N
m
]
2002_07_22 2003_02_22
10
1
10
0
10
1
2003_03_22
10
1
10
0
10
1
10
11
10
13
10
15
10
17
2004_05_22
10
1
10
0
10
1
2004_10_20
f [Hz]
10
1
10
0
10
1
2004_12_05
Figure 1.6: Double logarithmic plots of source displacement spectra of the 11 earth-
quakes used in this study. Numbers within the charts indicate the dates of the events
in yyyy mm dd format. Dots with continuous curve: source spectra estimated in this
study. Error bars correspond to 95% condence limits of the resolution of the inversion
(see text for explanation). The low frequency part shown in black is averaged to obtain
M
coda
0
. Thick horizontal line: seismic moment M
wm
0
estimated independently using wave-
form modeling techniques (Braunmiller et al., 2002). Thin dashed curve: omega - square
spectra independently calculated from local magnitudes using empirical relations. Low
frequency limit corresponds to M
Ml
0
.
script Ml indicates that the seismic moment M
Ml
0
is estimated from local magni-
tudes. Figure 1.7 also shows the comparison of M
Ml
0
with the results from waveform
modeling (M
wm
0
). On average the dierence between the magnitude-derived and the
waveform-derived moments is 57%. The scatter in the magnitude derived estimates
is thus larger than that of the coda derived estimates. However, according to the
F-test with 10 degrees of freedom the dierence between this 57% and the 36% mean
deviation of the coda-derived moment is not signicant at a 95% condence level.
This means the coda derived estimates of the seismic moment are at least as good
as the estimates that can be obtained directly from the local magnitudes.
Assuming an omega-square source model according to [M
Ml
()[ = M
Ml
0
/(1+
f/f
c
)
2
(Aki and Richards, 1980a, p. 823) one can use equation 1.12 to calculate
an approximate source displacement spectrum if the corner frequency f
c
is known.
1.5. RESULTS 21
10
14
10
16
10
18
10
14
10
15
10
16
10
17
10
18
M
0

f
r
o
m

c
o
d
a

/

m
a
g
n
i
t
u
d
e

[
N
m
]
M
0
wm
from waveform inversion [Nm]
M
0
coda
M
0
Ml
Figure 1.7: Scatter plot of the seismic moments obtained from seismic coda (M
coda
0
)
in this study and moments estimated from local magnitudes (M
Ml
0
) against estimates of
seismic moments from long period waveform modeling (M
wm
0
). Straight line indicates the
locations of perfect agreement of the dierent estimates.
Further assuming a stress drop of 10 MPa, it can be obtained from f
c
=
3
_
/M
Ml
0

0.49v
0
(Hough et al., 2000). These approximate source spectra are plotted as thin
dashed lines in gure 1.6. Note that these approximate source spectra are solely
based on the local magnitude estimated by the SZGRF.
Figure 1.6 shows that also the local magnitudes can give reasonable estimates
of the seismic moment. There are some dierences between the magnitude- and
coda-derived spectra in the corner frequency and in the high frequency asymptote.
[M
coda
()[ shows a steeper decline than the omega-square model.
1.5.3 Site response
Site amplication factors for velocity amplitudes range between 0.3 and 3. Mostly
they can easily be related to local geology (table 1.3). In the 0.375 Hz band for ex-
ample we nd amplications of crystalline sites only below 1 (logarithmic mean: 0.8)
whereas stations on sediments show amplications exclusively above 2 (logarithmic
mean: 3.0). Sites on sedimentary rocks occupy an intermediate range between 0.75
and 1.75 (logarithmic mean: 1.1). As examples the site factors for the stations BUG
and FUR in gure 1.8 are shown. BUG is situated on a clastic sedimentary rock.
The site amplication is not frequency dependent with a mean of 0.9. In contrast
FUR is placed on moraine over molasse (i.e. sediments). Here a clear amplication
of a factor greater than 2 is seen. Response factors for all stations and frequencies
are listed in table 1.3, together with information about geology.
10
1
10
0
10
1
BUG
s
i
t
e

a
m
p
l
i
f
i
c
a
t
i
o
n

f
a
c
t
o
r

R
10
1
10
0
10
1
10
1
10
0
10
1
FUR
f [Hz]
s
i
t
e

a
m
p
l
i
f
i
c
a
t
i
o
n

f
a
c
t
o
r

R
individual events
mean with 95%
confidence limits
Figure 1.8: Site response spectra for the stations BUG and FUR. BUG is placed on
sedimentary rock whereas FUR is situated on sediments.
1.6 Discussion
The model used in the present study is a rst-order approximation of S-wave scatter-
ing in the earth. It neglects anisotropic scattering and mode conversions, does not
pay attention to source radiation patterns and assumes a statistically homogeneous
half-space. Some of these eects could be incorporated into the model by solving the
radiative transfer equation with Monte-Carlo techniques. This allows to take into
account anisotropic scattering or mode conversion of elastic waves (Przybilla et al.,
2006). Even anisotropic sources and deterministic earth structure, like a depth de-
pendent velocity and scattering coecient can be simulated (Margerin et al., 1998,
chapter 2). The improvement of the model that can be achieved by incorporating
these eects will be variable and the successful application of more complex models
requires detailed knowledge about the medium and the source (Hoshiba et al., 2001).
The source radiation patterns for example will probably have a minor eect on the
present results because in the late coda the eect vanishes due to the averaging by
multiple scattering and the direct S-wave is measured and averaged over a lot of
1.6. DISCUSSION 23
stations. Note that S-waves always have less pronounced radiation patterns than
P-waves irrespective of the station conguration (Sato and Fehler, 1998, p.150).
The acoustic approximation is justied here because the dierent magnitude of
the conversion scattering coecients for S to P and P to S conversion (Aki, 1992)
leads to a stable partitioning of energy at large lapse times which is dominated by
S-waves. In this regime P-waves carry only about 10% of total energy (Ryzhik et al.,
1996, eq. 5.40). In order to model the early S- and P-wave coda the treatment of the
elastic scattering problem seems to be the most promising modication to the present
approach (c.f. chapter 2). The computational eort, however, is substantially higher.
A still unsolved problem is the treatment of conversion and scattering of surface
modes.
One consequence of the half-space model is the inability to handle Lg-waves.
Lacombe et al. (2003) model Lg-waves using a Monte-Carlo technique to separate
intrinsic absorption and scattering attenuation. Interestingly Lacombe et al. (2003)
could not satisfactorily separate elastic and anelastic attenuation without the use
of information from direct waves incorporated as total attenuation. This directly
corresponds to my observation that led to the constraint of the inversion with the
ballistic energy.
Nevertheless, the present results are encouraging. Though a very simple model
is used I can directly relate the shape and amplitude of seismogram envelopes to
the moment of the source. These moment estimates are in good agreement with
independent results from moment tensor inversions. I nd reasonable values for the
total scattering coecient g
0
and the intrinsic attenuation parameter
I
Q
1
and ob-
tain site response factors that reect local geology. I think that the approximations
are justied in order to obtain fast estimates of relevant parameters without a priori
knowledge about medium or source.
There are some technical parameters in the algorithm that might inuence the
results. First, the choice of the mist function might have an eect. I veried that
log(E
obs
/E
mod
) is approximately Gaussian distributed in the coda time window if
the model ts well. For comparison I inverted the dataset using dierent mist
functions including the L1-norm and found no signicant dierences.
Another inuence might come from the choice of the inversion time windows.
The seismic coda time window starts at two times the S-wave travel time. In
this part of the seismogram the distribution of energy is traditionally believed to be
close to the diusion limit (Rautian and Khalturin, 1978; Wu and Aki, 1985). This
is not required in the present method but also the assumption of isotropic scattering
is a better approximation in the later coda. Additionally direct surface waves are
excluded by tting only the late coda. The direct S-wave time window starts at
the arrival of the direct S-wave (v = 3.5 km/s) and lasts until waves with apparent
velocities above 3.0 km/s have passed the station. This is somewhat arbitrary but
the objective was to collect energy that was radiated as S-wave from the source in
the direction of the receiver. Taking into account nite source duration and envelope
broadening due to forward scattering (Sato, 1989; Saito et al., 2002) this appeared
to be a reasonable choice. By comparing the results with inversions done with
dierent lengths of the direct S-wave time window I veried that the inuence is
small compared to the uncertainties of the estimates.
A new aspect of this method is the frequency range used for inversion. Typically
only frequencies above 1 Hz have been used in studies of seismic scattering (Fehler
et al., 1992; Mayeda et al., 1992; Bianco et al., 2002; Lacombe et al., 2003). On one
hand this is due to the short period data used in these studies. On the other hand
low frequency coda is believed to be inuenced by surface waves (Wu and Aki, 1985;
Abubakirov and Gusev, 1990). The latter argument appears to be not well founded.
Mode conversions between body and surface waves as well as surface to surface
wave scattering are not bound to frequencies below 1 Hz. Since it is important
for the purpose of estimating the low frequency level of the source spectrum, i.e.
the seismic moment of the earthquakes, the broadband data is further exploited to
obtain information below the corner frequencies.
The major advantage of this method is that I can easily obtain source parame-
ters like the seismic moment without a priori knowledge about attenuation functions
that are needed for magnitude estimations and without waveform modeled reference
events that are needed if envelopes are approximated on the basis of empirical for-
mulae. The approach is thus optimally suited for source parameter estimation with
temporal seismic networks.
Another possible application is related to the stability of the coda compared to
direct waves. If the medium parameters g
0
and
I
Q
1
and the site response factors
R
i
have been estimated once in a study like the present, the seismic coda can be
used to obtain magnitude estimates that are more stable than estimates from direct
waves because the coda is less sensitive to source radiation patterns. In fact Mayeda
et al. (2003) showed that coda amplitudes have 35 times less interstation scatter as
compared to direct phases. Just like the method of Mayeda et al. (2003) my approach
can be used to signicantly improve the magnitude estimates in permanent seismic
networks.
Compared to waveform modeling techniques the present method has a funda-
mental advantage for the estimation of the seismic moment. Modeling waveforms
requires knowledge about the Greens function of the propagation medium. Due
to small scale heterogeneities in realistic earth models this is impossible for high
frequencies. Therefore waveform techniques can not be applied to small (Ml < 3.5)
earthquakes. As I model energy densities rather than waveforms the approach only
requires knowledge of the energy density Greens function. In this case the phase
relation between waves that interacted with these small scale structures can be ne-
glected and it is possible to obtain the Greens function in a statistical sense. It is
thus possible with this method to obtain estimates of the seismic moment for small
events with high frequency sources.
1.7 Conclusions
A new method is presented to extract information from the seismic coda using ra-
diative transfer theory in the acoustic approximation. It is based on the modeling of
coda envelopes as S-waves that were isotropically scattered at randomly distributed
1.7. CONCLUSIONS 25
heterogenieties in a statistically homogeneous half-space. I do not apply coda nor-
malization but instead incorporate the eects of dierent sources and site responses
into the inversion scheme which allows to explicitly resolve these parameters together
with medium parameters.
Source spectra and seismic moments can thus directly be obtained from seis-
mogram envelopes and it is shown that there is excellent agreement between my
estimates and values independently obtained in moment tensor inversions. Addi-
tionally, site response factors are obtained and intrinsic and scattering attenuation
are separated.
2
6
C
H
A
P
T
E
R
1
.
A
C
O
U
S
T
I
C
R
A
D
I
A
T
I
V
E
T
R
A
N
S
F
E
R
T
H
E
O
R
Y
Table 1.1: List of earthquakes used in this study. Source time, location, depth, and local magnitudes are provided by the German
Central Seismological Observatory. Seismic moments estimated by modeling waveforms are listed in column 6 with respective references
in column 7. The last column lists seismic moments estimated in the present study.
Date Time Location Ml Depth M
wm
0
in Nm Reference M
coda
0
in Nm
(waveform modeling) (this study)
1992/04/13 01:20:03.1 51.14
o
N 6.05
o
E 6.0 15 9.210
16
Braunmiller et al. (1994) 9.310
16
1995/06/20 01:54:57.5 50.57
o
N 4.82
o
E 4.6 10 9.010
14
1997/10/21 16:44:39.4 48.78
o
N 9.72
o
E 4.0 10 2.310
14
Braunmiller (2002) 1.710
14
1997/11/29 20:06:09.3 50.31
o
N 8.35
o
E 4.0 7 3.010
14
Braunmiller (2002) 4.510
14
2001/06/23 01:40:05.3 50.87
o
N 6.17
o
E 4.3 10 9.2310
14
www.seismo.ethz.ch/mt 5.410
14
2002/07/22 05:45:03.8 50.91
o
N 6.17
o
E 5.2 10 8.6610
15
15
2003/02/22 20:41:05.5 48.35
o
N 6.68
o
E 5.7 10 1.6410
16
16
2003/03/22 13:36:16.3 48.25
o
N 8.98
o
E 4.7 10 8.5210
14
14
2004/05/22 05:19:03.3 50.38
o
N 7.44
o
E 4.0 10 2.7810
14
14
2004/10/20 06:59:16.0 53.04
o
N 9.54
o
E 4.5 5 3.4410
15
15
2004/12/05 01:52:38.8 48.12
o
N 8.04
o
E 5.1 10 8.0410
15
15
1
.
7
.
C
O
N
C
L
U
S
I
O
N
S
2
7
Table 1.2: Comparison of structural parameters g
0
and
I
Q
1
for dierent regions in frequency bands centered at 3 Hz.
Reference g
0
in m
1 I
Q
1
Region Distance range Model
Abubakirov and Gusev (1990) 6.710
6
0.0032 Kamchatka local half space
Fehler et al. (1992) 6.510
6
0.0026 Kanto-Tokai (Japan) local half space
Mayeda et al. (1992) 4.2610
5
0.00317 Long Valley local half space
2.8210
5
0.00336 Central California local half space
3.1910
5
0.00055 Hawaii local half space
Bianco et al. (2002) 2.7 10
6
0.0034 Italy local-regional half space
Lacombe et al. (2003) 410
6
0.0012 France regional layer over half-space
Abubakirov (2005) 5.310
6
0.0031 Kamchatka regional half space
this study 1.4510
6
0.0013 Germany regional half space
2
8
C
H
A
P
T
E
R
1
.
A
C
O
U
S
T
I
C
R
A
D
I
A
T
I
V
E
T
R
A
N
S
F
E
R
T
H
E
O
R
Y
Table 1.3: Site response factors of the 25 seismic stations that were used in this study. The sign denotes the logarithmic uncertainty.
The site factor is to be multiplied or divided by the uncertainty to obtain the limits of the 95% condence interval. If no uncertainty is
given only a single event could be inverted. The two stations marked with * are placed several 100 m below surface.
Station Geology 0.1875 Hz 0.375 Hz 0.75 Hz 1.5 Hz 3.0 Hz 6.0 Hz 12.0 Hz 24.0 Hz
BFO granite 0.71 1.61 0.76 1.26 0.72 1.16 0.73 1.20 0.64 1.28 0.57 1.18 0.94 1.54 1.06 2.85
BRNL cenozoic sediments 3.78 4.61 3.72 7.52 2.03
BRG slate 1.10 2.09 0.81 1.46 0.56 1.15 0.60 1.16 0.90 1.23 1.21 8.32
BSEG anhydrit 2.11 1.19 1.23 2.04 0.58 1.52 0.62 2.05 1.13 0.53
BUG sedimentary rocks 0.87 1.37 0.96 1.41 0.88 1.25 0.86 1.21 1.08 1.39 1.11 1.42 0.72 1.39 0.85 1.31
CLL Greywacke rocks 1.12 2.18 0.91 1.27 0.74 1.17 1.10 1.21 1.20 1.23 1.85 1.40
CLZ sedimentary rocks 0.87 1.20 0.86 1.22 0.91 1.13 0.84 1.09 0.91 1.12 1.37 1.12 2.13 1.37
FUR moraine over Molasse 2.80 1.37 3.45 1.14 2.49 1.11 1.89 1.14 1.89 1.34 1.06 2.99
GEC2 granite 1.11 1.27 0.77 1.17 0.65 1.20 0.68 1.13 0.75 1.45 1.30 1.57
GRA1 limestone 1.28 1.18 1.58 1.24 1.69 1.08 1.26 1.09 0.98 1.11 0.63 1.24
GRB1 limestone 1.04 1.19 1.32 1.17 1.61 1.09 1.73 1.11 2.97 1.18 2.51 1.23
GRC1 limestone 0.97 1.33 0.86 1.22 0.97 1.10 1.18 1.16 0.79 1.14 0.79 1.50
GRFO limestone 1.31 1.17 1.57 1.24 1.55 1.08 1.00 1.07 0.51 1.06 0.63 1.20
GSH slate 0.28 0.97 0.71 0.97 1.43 1.77 1.00
HAM cenozoic sediments 7.26 5.03 43.31 2.52 8.11 1.40 1.46
HLG sandstone 1.87 3.51 1.37 92.54 1.54 2.35 1.68 1.81 1.15 10.82 1.44
IBBN 1.21 1.32 1.23 1.60 1.17 1.37 1.02 1.26 1.22 1.42 1.60 1.23 2.40
MOX slate 0.98 1.35 0.87 1.19 0.65 1.09 0.69 1.07 0.78 1.08 0.94 1.19 1.39 4.65
NRDL Zechstein sediments* 1.16 1.74 0.61 0.36 0.29 0.29
RGN soft sediments 2.52 5.06 2.60 1.94 2.23 2.61 5.14 5.83
RUE limestone 1.83 1.53 1.16 1.52 0.93 1.31 0.81 1.61
STU hard marls 0.92 1.38 0.86 1.27 1.05 1.20 1.82 1.14 1.47 1.24 0.56 2.70
TNS quartzite 0.88 2.00 0.70 1.42 0.72 1.28 1.09 1.41 0.79 1.36 0.74 1.65 0.79 1.77 1.11 1.48
UBBA Zechstein sediments* 0.90 17.77 0.76 1.00 0.40 1.76 0.40 2.24 0.40 1.33 0.42
WET gneiss 0.89 1.68 0.69 1.17 0.54 1.10 0.63 1.17 0.78 1.17 1.54 1.18 2.16 2.09
Chapter 2
Monte-Carlo simulations of elastic
wave energy in the presence of
deterministic structure
29
30 CHAPTER 2. MONTE-CARLO SIMULATIONS
Abstract
In this chapter a short introduction into the transfer problem of elastic energy in
heterogeneous media is given. A comparison of dierent strategies for Monte-Carlo
simulations leads to the description of an algorithm that was developed to solve
the elastic radiative transfer equation in a model that is close to the situation of
the earth crust. The algorithm treats anisotropic scattering including conversions
between compressional and shearing modes. Deterministic large scale structure is
incorporated in terms of a free surface and an interface at depth that reect and
convert and in the case of the interface also transmit seismic energy. The horizontal
interface separates an innite half space which may have a vertical velocity gradient
from the overlaying layer of constant velocity.
INTRODUCTION 31
2.1 Introduction
In chapter 1 radiative transfer theory is applied in the approximation of multiple
acoustic and isotropic scattering. For the analysis of the S-wave coda and the es-
timation of basic medium and source/site parameters this approximation is useful.
The main shortcoming for practical applications is the inability of this approxima-
tion to model the P-wave and its coda. From the theoretical point of view, the
limitation to acoustic and isotropic scattering means a severe simplication of the
physics of wave propagation through a heterogeneous elastic medium. In this chap-
ter an algorithm is introduced that solves the radiative transfer equation with less
restrictive approximations. The fundamental improvement is the simulation of elas-
tic energy with conversion between P- and S-modes. This can be done in a model
that contains velocity gradients and discontinuities.
The radiative transfer of elastic energy in a model with deterministic velocity
structure is perhaps the most accurate approach to the description of the scat-
tering of seismic waves in the earths crust, that is available. Numerous approx-
imation to this situation can be found in the literature. Most simple approaches
assume isotropic single scattering of acoustic energy an innite medium (e.g. Aki
and Chouet, 1975). Isotropic means that the there is no preferred direction of scat-
tering. The acoustic approximation limits the scattering to S-waves. P-waves and
conversions are neglected. The single scattering approach assumes that waves are
scattered only once on their way from the source to the receiver. Since there is
strong evidence for multiple scattering of seismic waves in the crust (Hennino et al.,
2001; Larose et al., 2004), this approximation strongly limits the applicability of this
approach. The diusion approximation (Dainty and Toks oz, 1981; Wegler and L uhr,
2001) that assumes strong scattering is the other extreme, that is only applicable
for late lapse times of crustal seismic records. Multiple scattering is suitable for the
intermediate range of moderate scattering (e.g. Hoshiba, 1991).
The approximation of isotropic scattering was replaced by non-isotropic scat-
tering by Hoshiba (1995). The modeling of seismogram envelopes using elastic scat-
tering at distributed spheres is due to Margerin et al. (2000). This was extended
to random heterogeneity by Shearer and Earle (2004) and Przybilla et al. (2006).
Deterministic structure in terms of an interface was rst modeled by Margerin et al.
(1998) for acoustic waves.
Here, everything is brought together and an algorithm is presented that is able
to synthesize seismogram envelopes for multiple non-isotropic scattering of elastic
waves at randomly distributed heterogeneities in deterministic structure. Before the
details of the algorithms components are discussed, I present the radiative transfer
equation in the from that is used by the algorithm and briey compare dierent
Monte-Carlo techniques for their solution.
2.2 Elastic radiative transfer theory
The central quantity of transfer theory is the radiance or specic intensity I(n, r).
It measures the energy ux from a radiating surface into a unit solid angle around
direction n. This angular spectrum of the energy ux may be a local quantity and
depend on position r. Alternatively to the energy ux described by the radiance
one may work with the local and directionally resolved energy density a(n, x) that
is related to the radiance by
a(n, x) =
1
v
I(n, x) (2.1)
with v being the velocity of the ray. Here, and in all what follows I implicitly
assume dependence of the radiance or related quantities on time and frequency.
This is justied because on one hand the energy transport in seismology is always
non-stationary which implies an intrinsic time dependence. On the other hand the
propagation medium is stationary which ensures that frequencies do not change with
time and remain uncoupled.
In the classical book of Chandrasekhar (1960), the radiative transfer equation
that describes the radiance is introduced phenomenologically to describe light prop-
agation through atmospheres. The phenomenological view of the transport problem
is based on considerations of energy conservation. Regarding the energy ux in
direction n at a xed point in space, the energy balance can be expressed as:
variation of energy
ux in direction n
=
decrement of energy ux due to ab-
sorption and scattering from direction
n into n
+
increment of energy ux in direction n
due to scattering from directions n
into
n
+
increment of energy ux due to radia-
tion of sources in direction n
These heuristic considerations are physically transparent and seem intuitively
convincing without further explanations. For several decades this eld developed
without complete physical foundations and independently of wave physics. A rigor-
ous statistical substantiation of this concept was achieved when the direct connec-
tion between the angular Fourier transform of the radiance and the spatial coherence
function of the wave eld was discovered. The coherence function dened as
(x, , t) = u(x + , t)u
(x, t)) (2.2)

for a monochromatic wave eld u(x, t) = A(x)e
i(knxt)
is given by the angular
Fourier transform of the radiance (Apresyan and Kravtsov, 1996, p. 22):
(x, , t)
_
I(n, x, t)e
ikn
d
n
. (2.3)
ELASTIC RADIATIVE TRANSFER THEORY 33
This makes the radiance somewhat like the angular spectrum of the wave eld.
Finally this link between the radiance and its wave-origin lead to the derivation
of the radiative transfer equations for elastic waves by Ryzhik et al. (1996) and
Weaver (1990). This is a system of two coupled integro-dierential equations for the
P-wave Intensity and the 2 2 coherence matrix for the S-waves. The coherence
matrix

I takes into account the two S-polarizations with degenerate dispersion laws
and their phase relation. It is dened as (Apresyan and Kravtsov, 1996, p. 72)
I =
_
I
_
= c
_
A
) A
)
A
) A
)
_
(2.4)
where I dene the directions of the components indicated by the subscripts and
as the directions of increasing angles and of the polar coordinate system shown
in gure 2.2. Here A
and A
are the components of the S-wave amplitude and c is

a proportionality coecient. Alternatively the polarization can be described by the
Stokes vector P. Following Margerin et al. (2000) I dene P including the P-wave
intensityI
P
as
P =
_
_
_
_
_
_
I
P
I
S
I
S
U
V
_
_
_
_
_
_
=
_
_
_
_
_
_
I
P
I
+ I
i(I
)
_
_
_
_
_
_
= c
_
_
_
_
_
_
[A
P
[
2
)
[A
[
2
)
[A
[
2
)
2ReA
)
2ImA
)
_
_
_
_
_
_
. (2.5)
with c being a vector of proportionality constants with components c
1
=
2
/2
and c
2...5
=
2
/2. I
S
and I
S
correspond to the intensities of SV- and SH-waves

respectively. The parameters U and V can be written in terms of the phase dierence
between the two S-polarizations in and directions:
U = 2c
4
A
cos()) (2.6)
V = 2c
5
A
sin()) (2.7)
The Stokes vector provides a full description of the state of polarization in-
cluding linear and elliptic polarizations. The character of a seismic shear source as
detailed in section 2.4.3 and the structure of the scattering coecients (sec. 2.4.4)
allows to simplify the treatment of polarizations. A seismic shear dislocation point
source emits completely linearly polarized waves. For these waves the phase shift
is zero. Also during scattering events the two polarizations remain in phase. This
leads me to an approximation of the Stokes vector. In the following I assume that
S-waves are completely linearly polarized and no elliptic polarization occurs. This
allows to omit the V -component of the Stokes vector which is zero for linear polarized
waves (cf. equation 2.6 for = 0). The U-component is determined by the following
relation that holds for completely polarized waves (Apresyan and Kravtsov, 1996,
p. 74)
(I
S
+ I
S
)
2
= (I
S
I
S
)
2
+ U
2
+ V
2
. (2.8)
For V = 0, U is dened by I
S
and I
S
. This approximation allows to write the

transport equations as three coupled scalar equations for I
P
, I
S
and I
S
. They fol-
low directly from the energy balance in a multi-mode system (c.f. Apresyan and
Kravtsov, 1996, p. 84) and describe three propagating modes. The transport equa-
tion for I
P
reads:
_

0
t
+n
_
I
P
(n, r) =
_
g
PP
0
+ g
PS
0
+

0
I
Q
P
_
I
P
(n, r) (2.9)
+
_
4
g
PP
()I
P
(n
, r)d
n
+
_
4
g
SP
(,
)I
S
(n
, r)d
n
+
_
4
g
SP
(,
)I
S
(n
, r)d
n
.
Here I used the following notation:
0
is the mean P-wave velocity, g
AB
0
are the
total scattering coecients given by equations 2.47, and
I
Q
P
is the quality factor of
intrinsic P-wave attenuation (section 2.4.5). The scattering coecients g
AB
(, )
are discussed in section 2.4.4. These coecients are assumed to be given in the local
scattering coordinate system, i.e. is the scattering angle between n and n
and is
measured between the polarization direction of the incident wave and the scattering
plane spanned by n and n
. is dierent for I
S
and I
S
. Here d
n
= sin()dd.
In a similar notation the transport equations for I
S
and I
S
read
_

0
t
+n
_
I
S
(n, r) =
_
g
SS
0
+ g
SP
0
+

0
I
Q
S
_
I
S
(n, r) (2.10)
+
_
4
g
SS
l
(,
)I
S
(n
, r) cos
2
()d
n
+
_
4
g
SS
r
(,
)I
S
(n
, r) sin
2
()d
n
+
_
4
g
SS
l
(,
)I
S
(n
, r) cos
2
()d
n
+
_
4
g
SS
r
(,
)I
S
(n
, r) sin
2
()d
n
+
_
4
g
PS
()I
P
(n
, r) cos
2
()d
n
.
ELASTIC RADIATIVE TRANSFER THEORY 35
X Z
Y
I
S
l
I
S
r
Figure 2.1: Illustration of the S-polarization directions in the radiative transfer equations.
Angles are identied by color of the arcs. The red and blue arrows indicate directions n
and n respectively. The bluish lines with the I

S
l
and I
S
r
labels indicate the directions of
polarization of the parallel and perpendicular intensity components respectively
and
_

0
t
+n
_
I
S
(n, r) =
_
g
SS
0
+ g
SP
0
+

0
I
Q
S
_
I
S
(n, r) (2.11)
+
_
4
g
SS
l
(,
)I
S
(n
, r) sin
2
()d
n
+
_
4
g
SS
r
(,
)I
S
(n
, r) cos
2
()d
n
+
_
4
g
SS
l
(,
)I
S
(n
, r) sin
2
()d
n
+
_
4
g
SS
r
(,
)I
S
(n
, r) cos
2
()d
n
+
_
4
g
PS
()I
P
(n
, r) sin
2
()d
n
.
The angle is measured between the scattering plane and the vertical plane that
contains the vector n. This form of the transfer equations is unusual but it best
refers to the way I solve the equations with the Monte-Carlo technique. There are
two rotations hidden in the integrands of these equations. The rst corresponds to
the notation of the scattering coecients in the local frame with orientation of the
polar axis along n
and measured from the direction of polarization. This results

in the use of the two angles
and
for the two polarizations which of course

obey the relation
= /2 +
. Figure 2.1 illustrates this situation.

The second rotation is done by the sin
2
() and cos
2
() terms which project
the intensities I
S
r
(n) and I
S
l
(n) given in the directions perpendicular and parallel
to the scattering plane respectively onto the and directions. The sin
2
() and
cos
2
() terms correspond to the rotation matrix for the Stokes vector (Ishimaru,
1978). These two rotations transfer the scattering matrix for intensities (given by its
components g
AB
) into the M uller matrix (Margerin et al., 2000). I do not explicate
the M uller matrix because I evaluate the scattering coecients in the local frame in
the Monte-Carlo simulations.
2.3 Monte-Carlo techniques to solve the radiative
transfer equation
Monte-Carlo techniques are widely used to solve transport problems. Applications
range from light propagation through atmospheres, and neutron scattering to global
illumination computations in computer graphics. In seismology there are two dier-
ent strategies to solve the transfer equation with Monte-Carlo methods. The rst
method that one could refer to as probability summation method was rst used
by Hoshiba (1991). The idea of this approach is to simulate the propagation of
particles through the medium and evaluate the probability that a particle is scat-
tered towards a receiver at every scattering event. This probability which depends
on the scattering coecient (section 2.4.4), the geometry of the incident ray, and
the direction to the receiver, is multiplied by a factor that accounts for attenuation
and geometrical spreading. The resulting quantity is the contribution to the energy
density at the site of the receiver at the potential arrival time of the particle. So
each scattering event contributes to the energy density estimate at the receiver. This
method allows to measure the energy density at point-like receivers which is useful
if there is weak symmetry in the model.
The second method for Monte-Carlo simulations in seismology was rst used
by Gusev and Abubakirov (1987) and could be called particle counting method.
Here the particles are also propagated through the medium but do only contribute to
the energy density estimate at the receiver if they pass through a nite size volume
placed around the receiver. This is very ecient if there is some symmetry in the
model that allows to use a for instance a spherical shell as receiver volume. For
weak symmetry that occurs if realistic shear sources are simulated, the eciency
decreases drastically because many particles will delay the simulation that never
pass through the small receiver volume.
In a rst approach I implemented the probability summation method. It turned
out to have a major disadvantage.
The principle source of the uctuations in the energy density estimates is the
randomness of the particles trajectories. In the probability summation method the
probability of the particle to be scattered towards the receiver and the geometrical
spreading between the scattering point and the receiver are additional sources of
uctuations. For strongly anisotropic scattering these uctuations increase dramat-
ically and appear to be non-Gaussian. The envelopes have a relatively smooth lower
level but irregular spikes which strongly exceed this surrounding level. Looking at
a small time window in the coda part of the envelope for increasingly larger num-
bers of particles one observes the following. Not only the standard deviation of the
OUTLINE OF THE RadTrans ALGORITHM 37
uctuations decreases which is expected for stronger averaging but also the mean
of the envelope increases. This behavior is caused by the unbounded variance of
the next-point estimator (Lux and Kolbinger, 1991, p. 386). Despite the fact that
the energy density estimate converges towards the correct expectation (Lux and
Kolbinger, 1991, p. 386) this bad convergence characteristic renders the probability
summation method inapplicable for strongly non-isotropic scattering.
2.4 Outline of the RadTrans algorithm
With the RadTrans algorithm I follow the approach of Gusev and Abubakirov (1996)
and perform a particle counting. In this case the radiance I(n, r) is modeled by the
number density of particles N(n, r) that are located at position r and move into
direction n. Let us dene N(n, r) as the change of particle density along the ray
in direction n, i.e. N(n, r) = N(n, r+nl) N(n, r). Noting that the dierential
operator on the left hand side of transfer equations 2.9, 2.10 and 2.11 is the total
derivative along the ray (Margerin, 2005):
d
dl

d
vdt
=

vt
+n (2.12)
I can reformulate these equations in terms of N(n, r). This claries the relation
between the transfer equations and the Monte-Carlo modeling. I demonstrate this
for the case of P-intensity I
P
. Substituting N
P
(n, r)/l for dI
P
(n.r)/dl (accord-
ing to equation 2.12) in equation 2.9 and N
P
for I
P
I obtain after multiplication
with l and division by N
P
(c.f. Gusev and Abubakirov, 1996)
N
P
(n, r)
N
P
(n, r)
= l
_
g
PP
0
+ g
PS
0
_
l

0
I
Q
P
(2.13)
+
l
N(n, r)
__
4
g
PP
()N
P
(n
, r)d
n
+
_
4
g
SP
(, )N
S
(n
, r)d
n
+
_
4
g
SP
(, )N
S
(n
, r)d
n
_
.
This is a probabilistic interpretation of equation 2.9. The left hand side of equa-
tion 2.13 is the fractional change of the number of particles (that move in direction
n) on a path element l along a ray with direction n. The right hand side has two
terms representing loss of particles. The rst describes the fraction of particles that
change the direction and leave the ray. It depends on the total scattering coe-
cients g
AB
0
. The probability of the new direction in which these particles continue
to propagate is determined by the scattering coecient of the accordant scattering
type:
AB
(, ) =
g
AB
(, )
4g
AB
0
. (2.14)
The fraction of particles that die o because of intrinsic attenuation is described by
the second term containing /(
0
I
Q
P
).
The last term of equation 2.13 represents the gain of particles. It depends on
all particles at position r independent of their directions n
and polarizations. This

gain is balanced by the scattering-loss of rays with direction n
. Thus, the rst and

last term of equation 2.13 are closely related and ensure the energy conservation of
the scattering process.
During the Monte-Carlo simulations a large number of particles has to be sim-
ulated to obtain a smooth estimate of N(n, r). But the particles are simulated
successively. For a single particle only the rst two terms of equation 2.13 are im-
portant. The third term will be automatically modeled during the simulation of
other particles. This leads to the core of the Monte-Carlo modeling that is detailed
in the next sections.
The coordinate system in which the simulations are performed is explained in
section 2.4.1. Section 2.4.2 describes how the particles are characterized in the sim-
ulation. After the particles are initialized i.e. emitted from a source (section 2.4.3)
they propagate through the medium in small time steps t in which they move a
path l depending on the velocity. With a certain probability depending on the total
scattering coecients the particles are scattered into new directions (section 2.4.4)
and with another probability they are eliminated or their weight is reduced because
of intrinsic attenuation (section 2.4.5). If the particles are neither scattered nor
eliminated they continue to propagate in their initial directions. The motion of the
particles on the small path elements l is governed by ray theory which includes
reection/conversion and transmission at interfaces and bending of paths in the
presence of velocity changes (section 2.4.6). The recording process is detailed in
section 2.4.7. An auxiliary section describes how random numbers are generated
from the given probability distributions for scattering angles and source radiation
directions (section 2.4.8).
2.4.1 The coordinate system
For the recording and the propagation of the particles it is convenient to describe
their position and velocity in Cartesian coordinates. The treatment of reection,
transmission and conversion at horizontal interfaces and the treatment of the scat-
tering processes requires knowledge of the polar and azimuthal angles of the prop-
agation direction. The orientation of the sources and the position of the seismic
station in turn requires a relation to geographical coordinates. In gure 2.2 the re-
lations between the Cartesian-, the polar- and the geographical coordinates as they
are used in the algorithm are illustrated. The Cartesian system is oriented with the
Z coordinate increasing downwards. X and Y point north- and eastwards respec-
tively. The azimuthal angle is measured eastwards from north and the polar angle
is measured from the vertical downwards.
Y (east)
X (north)
Z (depth)
Figure 2.2: Illustration of the relations between the geographical, the Cartesian and the
polar coordinate systems as they are used in the algorithm. Angles are identied by color.
2.4.2 Description of a particle
For a complete description of a particle the following parameters are needed:
Coordinates in space and time (x, y, z, t)
Velocity vector (v
x
, v
y
, v
z
)
Stokes vector (I
P
, I
S
, I
S
, U, V ) describing the polarization.

For convenience during the simulation the following parameters are stored addition-
ally:
Mode of the particle
Direction of velocity vector in polar coordinates (v
, v
).
Polarization angle
Knowledge of the propagation direction in polar coordinates and of the po-
larization angle, dened as the angle between the polarization axis of a linearly
polarized S-wave and the vertical plane that contains the ray path, is useful for the
treatment of interface reections/conversions/transmissions and the transformation
of scattering angles from the local into the global coordinate system.
2.4.3 Particle emission from a point shear dislocation
For the emission of particles, a description of the source in terms of probability
densities for radiation directions and particle type with polarization is needed.
A seismic source can be represented as a point shear dislocation if the source
dimensions are small compared to wavelength and distance. Mathematically this
can be described by a double couple of forces (Aki and Richards, 1980b, p. 113).
The far eld displacement vector of such a source is
u(x, t) = B
P
r
e
r
2
15
M(t r/)
4
3
r
. .
Pradiation
+
_
B
S
+ B
S
_
2
5
M(t r/)
4
3
r
. .
Sradiation
(2.15)
where x = (r, , ) is the position vector in spherical coordinates,

M is the time
derivative of the moment time function and e
r
, e
and e
are unit vectors in the

directions of the spherical coordinates. For a shear source with fault plane normal
to the Cartesian (1, 0, 0) direction and slip in the direction (0, 1, 0) the radiation
pattern in 2.15 are given by (Sato and Fehler, 1998):
B
P
r
=
15
2
sin
2
() sin(2)
B
S
=
1
2
_
5
2
sin(2) sin(2) (2.16)
B
S
=
_
5
2
sin() cos(2).
Here subscripts denote polarization direction and superscripts indicate wave type.
The probability distributions of the radiation directions are given by the squares of
the radiation pattern:
P
r
= sin
4
() sin
2
(2)
= sin
2
(2) sin
2
(2) (2.17)
= sin
2
() cos
2
(2)
The radiation pattern are normalized such that
_

B
P
r
2
d =
_
_
B
S
2
+
B
S
2
_
d = 4. (2.18)
By integrating the energy ux density v[ u[
2
with v being either P-wave velocity
or S-wave velocity over a spherical shell and time one can obtain the radiated P-
and S-energy respectively (c.f. Sato and Fehler, 1998, p. 149). The ratio of radiated
P- and S-energy is given by
W
S
W
P
=
3
2
5
. (2.19)
The ratio between the energies radiated in the two dierent S polarizations can
be obtained by integrating e.g.
B
S
2
over the whole solid angle:
_
2
0
_

0
B
S
2
sin()dd =
5
2
_
2
0
_

0
sin
3
() cos
2
(2)dd
=
5
2
__
1
3
sin
2
()
3
2
_
cos()
_
0
_
2
+
1
8
sin(4)
_
2
0
=
10
3
(2.20)
Using this together with the normalization condition eq. 2.18 I nd the desired ratio:
W
S
W
S
=
1
5
(2.21)
Equations 2.17, 2.19 and 2.21 allow to simulate the energy radiation of a shear
source with fault normal in (1,0,0) direction and slip direction (0,1,0). For an ar-
bitrarily oriented source a rotation matrix is calculated from the given strike, dip
and rake angles. The rotation is rst performed for the rake around the axis along
(1,0,0) then for dip around (0,1,0) and nally for strike around (0,0,1). Both the
velocity and polarization vectors are multiplied with this rotation matrix to account
for the specic source orientation.
2.4.4 Scattering
The most interesting and complicated part in this algorithm is the simulation of scat-
tering of elastic vector waves by distributed heterogeneities. I follow the derivation
by Sato and Fehler (1998).
Random medium
Lets assume a certain property v of the medium is not constant in space but depends
on position x. This property may be the wave velocity, the density or a Lame
coecient. The eld v(x) can be written as the sum of a constant mean eld v
0
and
a perturbation v:
v(x) = v
0
+ v(x) = v
0
[1 + (x)]. (2.22)
(x) is the fractional uctuation. v
0
is chosen such that the average, denoted by
. . .), of an ensemble of heterogeneous media is:
v
0
= v(x)) and (x)) = 0 (2.23)
The random function (x) is best described by its spectral properties. For this
I introduce the auto-correlation function (ACF) as
R(x) (y)(y +x)). (2.24)
In the following it is assumed that the random function is isotropic and homo-
geneous which means that R does only depend on the distance r between y and x
(r [y x[).
The strength of the uctuation is given by the mean square fractional uctua-
tion
2
R(0) = (x)
2
) (2.25)
and the spatial variation of the uctuations is characterized by the correlation length
a. The Fourier transform of the ACF R gives the power spectral density function
(PSD). For isotropic and homogeneous random media the PSD is a function of the
magnitude of the wavenumber vector m [m[. The most commonly used ACFs
and their corresponding PSDs are given below.
Gaussian ACF
R(r) =
2
e
r
2
/a
2
and PSD(m) =
2
3
a
3
e
m
2
a
2
/4
(2.26)
This ACF can be used for media that are poor in short wavelength components.
Exponential ACF
R(r) =
2
e
r/a
and PSD(m) =
8
2
a
3
(1 + a
2
m
2
)
2
(2.27)
The exponential ACF is much richer in short wavelength heterogeneities as it
decays for large wavenumbers as a power low with exponent 4.
von K arm an ACF
R(r) =

2
2
1
()
_
r
a
_
_
r
a
_
for = 0 0.5 (2.28)
PSD(m) =
8
3/2
2
a
3
( + 3/2)
()(1 + a
2
m
2
)
+
3
2
(2.29)
Here is the gamma function and K
is the modied Bessel function of second

kind and order . The von K arm an ACF with = 0.5 is equivalent to the
exponential ACF. For smaller the amount of short wavelength uctuations
increases even further.
Scattering coecients
Scattering of distributed heterogeneities in a random medium can be described by
the scattering coecients. The formal derivation starting from the wave equation
in a random medium can be found in Sato and Fehler (1998, p. 95-105). Beginning
with a wave of unit amplitude and angular frequency incident on an inhomogeneity
which is localized at the origin one can dene the scattering amplitude F as:
u
sc
(x, t) =
e
i(krt)
r
F. (2.30)
It relates the amplitude of a wave u
sc
(x, t) that is scattered in a certain direction
to the amplitude of the incident wave. There is one scattering amplitudes for each
type of scattering. Comparing the scattered energy ux J
sc
to the incident one (J
0
)
leads to the denition of the scattering cross section:
d
AB
d

J
sc
r
2
J
0
=
v
B
v
A
F
AB
2
(2.31)
Here A and B indicate the wave mode which may be either P or S. v
A
and v
B
are
the mean velocities of the respective modes. If the inhomogeneities are not localized
but distributed over a larger volume the scattering coecient may be dened as 4
times the ensemble average of the scattering cross section of a region of size L.
g
AB
4
1
L
3
_
d
AB
d
_
= 4
1
L
3
_
F
AB
2
_
(2.32)
Thus the scattering coecients relate the incident energy ux to the angular de-
pendent energy ux that is scattered from distributed heterogeneities in a region of
unit size around the origin.
The main assumptions that are used for the derivation of the scattering coe-
cients are the following:
The heterogeneities can be described by eq. 2.22 with [[ 1 indicating that
the uctuation must be small compared to the average value of the quantity.
In order to be able to use a rst order perturbation method to decompose
the wave eld into a scattered and a homogeneous unscattered component
it is assumed that the scattered eld is much smaller in amplitude than the
incident eld. This approximation means that the scattering must be weak
and is known as the Born approximation.
To solve the wave equation for the scattered component of the wave eld the
Green function in homogeneous space is used.
It is further assumed that observations are made in the far eld (r a)
and the Fraunhofer zone (r a
2
k/) of the scatterer. This means that the
distance between scatterer and receiver on one hand and the wavelength on
the other hand have to be large compared to the spatial length scale of the
uctuations.
The uctuations of the wave velocities are equal. They are correlated with the
mass density of rock as stated by Birchs law (Birch, 1961). These correlations
reduce the uctuations to one single fractional uctuation that is common to
the wave velocities and the mass density.
(x)
(x)
0
=
(x)
0
=
1
(x)
0
(2.33)
and are the velocities of P- and S-waves respectively and is the mass
density. The parameter ranges between 0.78 < < 0.8 in typical lithosphere
(Sato and Fehler, 1998, p. 101).
These are the formal assumptions and approximations used to derive the spe-
cic form of the scattering coecients that is used here. The range of applicability
of the radiometric concept is much wider. Przybilla et al. (2006) showed that even
with scattering coecients derived under these assumptions the correspondence be-
tween the radiative transfer equation and the full wave equation goes far beyond
what would be expected from the above conditions.
In spherical coordinates (, ) the scattering coecients are given by Sato and
Fehler (1998, p. 104):
g
PP
() =
l
4
4
X
PP
()
2
PSD
_
2l
0
sin
_
2
__
(2.34)
g
PS
() =
1
0
l
4
4
X
PS
()
2
PSD
_
1
0
_
1 +
2
0
2
0
cos()
_
(2.35)
g
SP
(, ) =
0
l
4
4
X
SP
(, )
2
PSD
_
1
0
_
1 +
2
0
2
0
cos()
_
(2.36)
g
SS
l
(, ) =
l
4
4
X
SS
l
(, )
2
PSD
_
2l sin
_
2
__
(2.37)
g
SS
r
(, ) =
l
4
4
X
SS
r
(, )
2
PSD
_
2l sin
_
2
__
(2.38)
measures the angle between the initial direction and the direction of the scat-
tered particle. This angle is usually called scattering angle. measures the angle
between the polarization direction of the incident particle and the scattering plane
spanned by the incident and scattered directions. Superscripts indicate the type
of scattering. SP for example stands for the scattering of a S-wave into a P-wave.
Subscripts r and l indicate the polarization of the scattered particle with respect to
the scattering plane. r and l stand for perpendicular (normal to scattering plane)
and parallel (in the scattering plane) respectively. This distinction is only neces-
sary for SS-scattering since the polarization in the other cases is non-ambiguous.
The polarization of P-waves is radial (in the direction of propagation) and S-waves
that were generated by scattering from P-waves have parallel polarization in the
scattering plane. The argument of the power spectral density function is the so
called exchange wavenumber expressed in terms of the scattering angle and the S-
wavenumber l. The terms denoted by X are the basic scattering patterns. They are
the same for all types of media. Modications of the angular patterns of the scatter-
ing coecients are solely introduced by the power spectrum of the heterogeneities.
The scattering patterns are given by Sato and Fehler (1998, p. 102):
X
PP
() =
1
0
_
_
1 + cos() +
2
2
0
sin
2
()
_
2 +
4
2
0
sin
2
()
_
(2.39)
X
PS
() = sin()
_
_
1
2
0
cos()
_
0
cos()
_
(2.40)
X
SP
(, ) =
1
2
0
sin() cos()
_
_
1
2
0
cos()
_
0
cos()
_
(2.41)
X
SS
l
(, ) = cos() [ (cos() cos(2)) 2 cos(2)] (2.42)
X
SS
r
(, ) = sin() [(cos() 1) + 2 cos()] (2.43)
The scattering coecients 2.34 to 2.38 dene the probability distributions for
the directions of the scattered particles in a local frame with respect to the initial
direction and polarization.
Transformation of angles
The new propagation and polarization directions of a scattered particle are selected
in a local coordinate system dened by the incident direction and the direction of
polarization. For further computations the new directions have to be transformed
into the global coordinate system described in sec. 2.4.1. The geometry of this
transformation is depicted in gure 2.3. Let the direction of the incident particle be
given by the polar coordinates (
i
,
i
). The polarization of the incident particle is
given by
i
which is the angle between the polarization axis and the vertical plane
that contains the incident ray. The two angles that describe the scattering process
are the scattering angle and , the angle between the scattering plane and the
initial polarization direction. To express the polar angle
s
and azimuth
s
of the
scattered particle in terms of the direction of the incoming particle (
i
,
i
) and the
scattering and polarization angles (, ,
i
) one can use spherical trigonometry. The
polar angle of the scattered particle
s
can be expressed as
cos(
s
) = cos(
i
) cos() + sin(
i
) sin() cos(
i
+ ). (2.44)
The azimuth
s
of the scattered particle is given by
cos(
i
s
) =
cos() cos(
i
) cos(
s
)
sin(
i
) sin(
s
)
. (2.45)
To nd the polarization angle of the scattered particle the angle
s
between the
scattering plane and the vertical plane that contains the scattered ray is calculated
using
sin(
s
) =
sin(
i
s
)
sin()
sin(
i
). (2.46)
The polarization direction of the scattered particle is either
s
+ as given by eq. 2.46
if the polarization is parallel to the scattering plane or
s
+ /2 if the polarization
is perpendicular.
X Z
Y
s
pol
Figure 2.3: Illustration of the scattering and the polarization angle and their relation to
the global polar coordinate system. Red and blue arrows indicates the directions of the
incoming and scattered particle respectively. The polarization direction of the incoming
S-particle is indicated by the bold black line.
Total scattering coecients
If a particle undergoes scattering, the probability distribution of the direction in
which the particle continues to propagate is given by the scattering coecients 2.34
to 2.38. The integral of the scattering coecients over the solid angle gives the total
scattering coecient g
AB
0
, which denes the probability that a certain scattering
event from mode A to B occurs while the particle moves one unit length (Sato and
Fehler, 1998, p. 43):
g
AB
0

1
4
_
g
AB
d =
1
l
AB
(2.47)
g
SS
0
is the sum of the total scattering coecients for the two dierent polarizations.
The inverse of g
AB
0
is the path l
AB
, i.e, the average length that a particle of type A
propagates until it is scattered into mode B. The length l
A
dened as
l
A
=
_
B
g
AB
0
_
1
(2.48)
is the mean free path of wave mode A. The length L
A
that a particle of mode A
propagates between two scattering events is determined by the exponential proba-
bility distribution
(L
A
) = (1/l
A
) exp(L
A
/l
A
) (2.49)
.
Random walk
In the previous sections I have outlined how the probability distributions for the
scattering events are related to the properties of the medium. Here I combine these
information and explain how it is used to simulate the random walk of the particles.
This is largely analogous to Margerin et al. (2000).
The random walk is performed in incremental time steps t. Depending of
their velocity the particles move paths of length l in this time. The probability
of an incident particle of mode M
i
to be scattered while moving l is according to
equation 2.49
(M
i
) = 1 exp
_
l
l
M
i
_
. (2.50)
A rst uniform random number
1
(0, 1) is used to decide whether a particle is
scattered by comparing it to (M
i
). If
1
< (M
i
) scattering occurs.
In this case the mode of the outgoing particle M
o
is selected according to the
conditional probability distribution
(M
i
[M
o
) =
g
M
i
Mo
0
Mo
g
M
i
Mo
0
. (2.51)
It is the probability that a particle is scattered into mode M
o
given that the incident
mode is M
i
. For the selection of the outgoing mode a second uniform random number
2
(0, 1) is used. Here the two S-polarizations are considered dierent modes,
which means that in the case of an incoming S-particle it is decided at this point
whether the outgoing particle is polarized parallel or perpendicular to the scattering
plane, i.e. whether the new direction is selected using g
SS
l
or g
SS
r
. This choice also
determines the polarization of the outgoing particle.
Due to the special form of the scattering coecients (equations 2.34 to 2.38)
that are used to select the new directions of the particle, and the assumption of
linear polarization, the probability distributions of the scattering angle and angle
are independent. The probability of the angle under the condition that the
incoming particle of mode M
i
is scattered into mode M
o
is
(M
i
, M
o
[) =
_
g
M
i
Mo
(, )d
4g
M
i
Mo
0
. (2.52)
The probability of the angle is
(M
i
, M
o
[) =
_
g
M
i
Mo
(, ) sin()d
4g
M
i
Mo
0
. (2.53)
For fast evaluation of the probability distributions (M
i
, M
o
[) and (M
i
, M
o
[)
during the simulation I generate tables with random numbers drawn from these
distributions prior to the simulation (section 2.4.8). This means that tables with
values of are generated for the ve types of scattering that can occur, namely
P P, P S, S P S S
l
, and S S
r
. For the angle only a single
table has to be generated with numbers distributed according to sin
2
(). Numbers
with a cos
2
() distribution are obtained by adding /2 to the sin
2
() distributed
numbers. In the cases of P P and P S scattering the values for the angle
are uniformly distributed in [0, 2). Two further uniformly distributed random
numbers
3
,
4
(0, 1) are used to select values for and from the appropriate
probability tables.
Since the radiative transfer equations in section 2.2 are written as a 3-mode
system, the I
S
and I
S
intensities could be modeled with dierent particles. But

I decided to allow combinations of I
S
and I
S
, i.e. linear polarization in arbitrary

directions to reduce the need of averaging. This implies that for an incoming S-
particle the angle in equation 2.53 is measured from the direction of its polarization
(
i
in gure 2.3).
The separate treatment of parallel and perpendicular S S scattering is done
for the probabilities of and to be independent. This greatly simplies the simu-
lation. Otherwise the probability distribution of would depend on the choice of .
The eect is that the outgoing particle has either parallel or perpendicular polariza-
tion. The correct polarization of the S S scattering is obtained after averaging
over a number of particles. The correct convergence of this process is assured by the
sin
2
() and cos
2
() terms appearing in the scattering coecients g
SS
l
and g
SS
r
which
are the same as in the rotation matrix for the Stokes vector (Ishimaru, 1978). This
means the Stokes vector that would result from simultaneously treated parallel and
perpendicular S S scattering is, except for a rotation of the coordinates, equal
to the average of a number of separately treated S S
l
and S S
r
scatterings in
the same direction (, ).
2.4.5 Intrinsic attenuation
The modeling of intrinsic attenuation seems straight forward, but is algorithmically
somewhat tricky. If the intrinsic attenuation is uniform in space and equal for all
modes it can be accounted for by the multiplication of the envelopes with an ex-
ponentially decaying function after the simulation. In the elastic case where two
dierent wave modes with dierent attenuation properties are modeled, the attenu-
ation has to be taken into account during the simulation. There are two possibilities
for this. The particles can either have constant energy but die o after a certain
time with a probability depending on the attenuation or the energy of the particles
is decreased continuously as they propagate.
The parameter that is usually used to describe the amount of intrinsic atten-
uation is the intrinsic quality factor
I
Q or its reciprocal quantity the attenuation
parameter
I
Q
1
. The attenuation parameter is proportional to the exponential de-
cay rate of seismic wave amplitude with distance. In a non-scattering medium the
energy density of a plane wave decays like
E
P
(r, f) e
2rf
0
I
Q
P
and E
S
(r, f) e
2rf
0
I
Q
S
. (2.54)
This decay is already contained in the transfer equations 2.9 through 2.11. In
equation 2.13 this decay is only described correctly for innitesimal l. For nite
size path length l the probability that a particle dies o can be calculated from 2.54
to be
(l) = 1 e
l
0
I
Q
P
and (l) = 1 e
l
0
I
Q
S
(2.55)
for P- and S-waves respectively. These are also the factors that the Stokes vector has
to be multiplied with if the particles keep propagating. This is the strategy chosen
in the present algorithm because it accelerates the convergence of the energy density
estimates in the later part of the envelopes. However, it requires some considerations
of the numerical accuracy.
Total attenuation parameters Q
1
=
I
Q
1
+
Sc
Q
1
, with
Sc
Q
1
being the scat-
tering attenuation parameter, of the earths crust were estimated between 0.0005
and 0.05 (Sato and Fehler, 1998, g. 5.1 and 5.2). Assuming that
I
Q
1
and
Sc
Q
1
are of equal size, one can roughly approximate the maximum decay that can occur
during a simulation. For a large simulation length of 1000 s and an intrinsic quality
factor of 100 the energy can decrease by factor of 10
41
at 3 Hz whereas it decreases
only by a factor of 10
4
in a medium with
I
Q = 1000. Obviously there is a large
dynamic range required for the simulation of intrinsic attenuation. In a simulation
that consists of a low
I
Q crustal layer and an underlying mantle with high
I
Q the
energy of two particles of which one propagated in the mantle and the other in
the crust can dier by a factor of 10
37
after 1000 s. When these two particles are
recorded in the same cell the numerical accuracy of the oating point representation
can lead to a phenomenon known as absorption in computer science. The value
of the larger number does not change if the smaller is added. Because of this the
algorithm works with 64-bit integer numbers that have the highest dynamical range
with constant precision.
2.4.6 Ray tracing
Once the mode and direction of a particle are xed, it propagates through the
medium according to ray theory (e.g. Aki and Richards, 1980b). This includes the
interaction with interfaces at which the particles can be reected or transmitted
just like seismic waves. They can also change their mode if conversion occurs. In a
medium with constant mean velocity the particles move on straight lines. If there
are gradual changes of the mean velocity in the medium the paths are bent. The
algorithm is capable of dealing with any depth dependent velocity structure.
Interfaces
If a particle hits an interface between two media characterized by dierent mass
densities and wave velocities it can be reected, transmitted or converted. The
probabilities for the particle to undergo either of these events are given by the
respective energy reection coecients. These will be expressed in the notation of
Aki and Richards (1980b). Assuming horizontal interfaces acute and grave accents
are used to indicate up-going and down-going particles respectively. The general
form of an energy reection coecient is
(

A

B) =

o
v
o
cos(
o
)
i
v
i
cos(
i
)
_

A

B
_
2
. (2.56)
Here (

A

B) is the energy reection coecient i.e. the probability that an
incoming particle of type A with direction continues in direction as type B.

A

B
is the reection coecient for displacement amplitudes. A and B stand for the wave
types P or S and and stand for the accents and ` indicating up- or down-going
directions. For an interface between two solids all 16 combinations of P, S, and` are
dened. and v indicate mass density and wave velocity respectively. is the angle
between the direction of the ray and the normal of the interface. Subscripts i and o
indicate the medium on the side of the incoming or outgoing particle respectively.
The velocity, however, does not only depend on the medium but also on the wave
type.
For horizontal interfaces the two dierent S-wave polarizations can be treated
separately. For horizontally polarized waves there is no conversion into other modes.
The reection coecients for displacement amplitudes for this case are given by Aki
and Richards (1980b) equation 5.33 p. 139. For vertically polarized S-waves and
P-waves which are coupled at the interface the amplitude reection coecients are
given by Aki and Richards (1980b) equations 5.40 p. 144-145. The interaction with
the free surface is a special case of these coecients for the case of zero velocity in
the upper layer. This causes total reection for horizontally polarized S-waves. The
displacement amplitude coecients for horizontally polarized S- and P-waves are
given in equations 5.27, 5.28 (p. 134), 5.31 and 5.32 (p. 136) by Aki and Richards
(1980b).
I treat supercritical reection i.e. S-energy reection for which the P-reection
angle would be greater than /2 as total reection similar to horizontally polar-
ized waves. Doing so I neglect phase shifts between the two S-polarizations upon
reection which could change the polarization type (e.g. from linear to elliptical).
Ray paths in a medium with vertical velocity variations
Ray theory predicts that in a laterally homogeneous medium the particles propagate
on curved rays in a vertical plane. In spherical coordinates the azimuthal angle
of the velocity vector remains constant and only the polar angle varies along the
path. The curvature of the ray is determined by the velocity gradient. In order to
use the usual notation of Snells law I introduce the incidence angle = for
as dened in gure 2.2. In this notation Snells law states that
sin()
v
= q = const. (2.57)
Here v is the wave velocity of either P- or S-waves and the constant q is called the
ray parameter. In order to keep q constant along a ray that passes through regions
with changing velocity the relative change of sin() must balance the relative change
of v. I thus have
d sin()
ds
sin()
=
dv
ds
v
(2.58)
where s parameterizes the length of the path. Considering the geometry of the ray
path in a medium with a vertical velocity gradient this leads to
d
ds
cos()
sin()
=
dv
dz
cos()
v
(2.59)
and nally to
d
ds
=
dv
dz
sin()
v
(2.60)
where the last factor can be recognized as the ray parameter (equation 2.57). Equa-
tion 2.60 determines the change of the incidence angle along the ray. For a constant
velocity gradient dv/dz the ray path is a circle.
With equation 2.60 I can approximately model the particle propagation in
any depth dependent velocity structure by simply changing the component of the
velocity vector after the propagation of a path element l an amount of
dv
dz
sin()
v
l.
2.4.7 Recording of particles
The principal result of a simulation is the number density of particles which gives an
estimate of the energy density (equation 2.13). Since seismograms do not contain
information about the direction of seismic waves I do not accumulate information
about the direction of particles in the simulation. The total number of particles
is counted in a 4-dimensional array. This array represents rectangular boxes in 3-
dimensional space with a 4-th dimension for time. Snapshots of the energy eld are
taken in time intervals t. Like in a histogram the position of a particle is recorded
by adding its energy to the cell of the array in which the particle resides. This
way I obtain a spatio-temporal estimate of the local energy density as dened by
equation 2.1 for directions integrated over the whole solid angle.
2.4.8 Evaluation of probability distributions
A key point in Monte-Carlo simulations is the evaluation of probability distributions.
In the present algorithm random numbers have to be generated with probability
distributions for the direction of radiation from the source (eq. 2.17) and for the
scattering angles (eq. 2.34-2.38). Since, during a simulation a large quantity of
random numbers is needed, it is useful for the computational eciency to generate
tables with random numbers prior to the simulation.
I use an iterative trial and reject method to generate random numbers with
arbitrary probability distributions. This method does a random sampling of a given
probability distribution P(x). A set X of N random numbers x
i
[x
min
, x
max
],
i = 1, . . . , N having the distribution P(x) is selected as a subset of a uniformly
distributed set Y of random numbers y
j
[y
min
, y
max
], j = 1, . . . , M. The random
number y
j
belongs to X if z
j
P(y
j
)/P
max
with z
j
[0, 1] being another random
number from a uniformly distributed set. P(x)/P
max
is the normalized probability
distribution where P
max
is the maximum of P(x). As an approximate estimate of
P
max
I use P
max
= max
j=1,...,M
(P(y
j
)). This method is similar to the Metropolis-
Hastings algorithm (Hastings, 1970) with uniform proposal density.
The probability distributions encountered here depend on two angular vari-
ables. But as can be seen in equations 2.17 and 2.34-2.38 the two variables are
independent and the joint two-dimensional probability distribution is the product
of the two one-dimensional distributions. However the trial and reject method as
explained above can be generalized to multi-dimensional probability distributions.
2.5 Conclusions
The algorithm is implemented in C programming language. The simple overall struc-
ture of the code allows to parallelize it by splitting the loop for the particles. Using
MPI it can be run in parallel on clusters of any size. The speed of the computation
strongly depends on the parameters of the random medium and it is impossible to
give general statements about the performance. The system requirements are de-
ned by the size of the 4-dimensional recording grid and the desired smoothness of
the energy density estimates in space and time. Models for regional wave propa-
gation over several hundred kilometers with a simulation length of several hundred
seconds require memory of a couple of GB. In combination with inversion procedures
that depend on the simulation of a large number of models, the application of this
algorithm certainly requires the use of large computer clusters.
The correctness of the implementation is veried in three dierent way. The
most simple property that is tested is energy conservation. For the Monte-Carlo
algorithm this means that the number of particles in the simulation remains con-
stant over time. In the case of zero intrinsic absorption this is conrmed also in the
presence of discontinuities. The second property that more deeply depends on the
physics of the radiative transfer is equipartition. It is veried that the energy ratio
between S- and P-energy converges to the ratio of 2
3
0
/
3
0
predicted by radiative
transfer theory (Ryzhik et al., 1996). The third test that is performed is a compar-
ison with nite dierence calculations. No signicant or systematic dierences are
observed between ensemble averaged energy density envelopes produced with nite
dierence calculations in full space and the envelopes produced with my algorithm.
Chapter 3
Elastic radiative transfer theory to
explain the Lg-blockage in the
Pyrenees
53
54 CHAPTER 3. LG-BLOCKAGE IN THE PYRENEES
Abstract
The RadTrans algorithm that is presented in chapter 2 is well suited to simulate
energy propagation in a model that contains both, deterministic structure and sta-
tistically described small scale heterogeneities. With this algorithm the propagation
of seismic waves through the Pyrenees is studied. Using a series of seismograms
the variations of the attenuation properties of the crust along the Pyrenean axis is
demonstrated. The western Pyrenees exhibit strong attenuation of crustal phases.
This phenomenon is known as Lg-blockage. Since the velocity structure of the west-
ern Pyrenees cannot account for the attenuation, the observation was unexplained.
Here I present a model that is able to explain the Lg-blockage. I propose that the
Lg-blockage is caused by a perturbed body in the crust that diers in the scattering
and attenuation properties from the surrounding crust. The velocities are identical.
The results show that it is possible to model the observed Lg-blockage with increased
scattering in the perturbed body. Stronger intrinsic attenuation than the surround-
ing crust improves the model further but intrinsic attenuation alone, cannot explain
the observations.
STRUCTURE AND EVOLUTION OF THE PYRENEES 55
3.1 Introduction
The Monte-Carlo algorithm that is introduced in chapter 2 allows to simulate full
seismogram envelopes of regional earthquakes in continental crust. It can be used
to improve existing methods for the estimation of medium or source/site parame-
ters like in chapter 1. Compared to such simple methods, the RadTrans algorithm
provides a much more realistic model, but needs more parameters to describe it. To
describe the elastic scattering in the way discussed in chapter 2, four parameters
are needed: the correlation length a, the strength of the uctuations , the quality
factor of intrinsic absorption Q, and to characterize the type of the auto-correlation
function in the case of a von K arm an medium, the parameter . This results in
eight unknown parameters to describe the energy propagation in crust and man-
tle. Due to this multitude of free parameters their precise estimation with sucient
condence appears very dicult.
Here a study is presented that has a dierent focus. The chapter starts with
an introduction to the geology and tectonics of the Pyrenees and describes the ob-
servation of anomalous attenuation of seismic waves in some parts of this mountain
range. The special capability of the RadTrans algorithm to simulate energy propa-
gation in a realistic crust-mantle structure is then used to test dierent models for
their ability to explain the observed attenuation.
3.2 Structure and evolution of the Pyrenees
The geological setting and tectonics of the Pyrenean range is characterized in the
review paper by Choukroune (1992) with the words: the Pyrenean belt cannot be
easily compared to other belts and is probably unique in its unusual structural style
and evolution. I therefore restrict to a simplied description which assumes an
east-west orientation of the tectonic units resulting from the collision between the
Iberian and European plates.
The central part of the Pyrenees is formed by the Paleozoic Axial Zone (PAZ).
This zone coincides with the main topographic expression of the Pyrenees. It is
composed of Hercynian rocks that were reactivated during the Alpine orogeny. This
zone is conned by the North Pyrenees Fault which marks the boundary to the
North Pyrenean Zone (NPZ) to the north. The NPZ is composed of Mezosoic ysch
deposits that are locally highly deformed and metamorphosed. Some large Paleozoic
outcrops form the North Pyrenean- and the Basque Massifs. Further north the NPZ
overrides the Aquitaine molasse basin along the North Pyrenean Frontal Thrust.
Almost symmetrically the South Pyrenean Zone (SPZ) connes the PAZ to the
south. The SPZ is composed of Mesozoic and Cenozoic sediments. At the South
Pyrenean Thrust the SPZ overrides the Ebro Basin.
Several seismic refraction and wide-angle reection proles revealed the Moho
structure beneath the Pyrenees. There is a jump in Moho depth between the 50 km
thick Iberian crust and the European crust which has a thickness between 29 km
and 35 km.
Irrespective of this general north south structure that is common to the whole
range there are variations along the axis of the Pyrenees. The compressional motion
during the last 65 Ma is related to subduction of the Iberian lower crust beneath
the Aquitaine basin in the eastern and central parts of the Pyrenees (Souriau and
Granet, 1995). This observation, made with seismic tomography was conrmed by
magnetotelluric measurements (Pous et al., 1995) and gravity modeling (Vacher and
Souriau, 2001). In the western part the shortening has been accommodated in the
crust.
The lower crust in the western part of the NPZ has a much higher P-wave
velocity than the PAZ. Daignières et al. (1981) speculate that this dierence is caused
by intrusion of mantle material into the lower crust. This dierence is not observed in
the eastern part of the range. The emplacement of lower crustal blocks into the upper
crust of the western Pyrenees has been detected by body wave tomography (Souriau
and Granet, 1995) and gravity modeling combined with petrological information
(Vacher and Souriau, 2001).
3.3 Data and observations
The geological variations in the Pyrenees along strike have an interesting manifesta-
tion in the attenuation properties of crustal waves. There is a pronounced dierence
between the western part and the eastern and central parts of the Pyrenees. The
western part strongly attenuates crustal waves (Chazalon et al., 1993). I illustrate
this observation using data from the seismic network run by the French Atomic
Energy Commission (CEA) and from the Spanish station PAB run by the Instituto
Geogr aco National, Spain. Figure 3.1 shows a map of the earthquakes and stations.
The bold red line with black dots along the Pyrenees marks the axis used to sort the
traces according to the place where the rays (blue lines) crossed the Pyrenees. The
dots indicate 50 km distance intervals. The corresponding waveforms are shown in
gure 3.2. They are band-passed between 2 and 4 Hz, scaled to group velocity, nor-
malized for their maximum and sorted for place of intersection with the axis of the
Pyrenees. The horizontal lines in gure 3.2 indicate the velocities of the dominant
regional seismic phases. These are the two crustal phases Pg (v
Pg
= 6.03km/s) and
Sg (v
Sg
= 3.56) and the two mantle phases Pn (v
Pn
= 8.16) and Sn (v
Sn
= 4.65).
The velocities are taken from the velocity model of the Laboratoire de Detection et
de Geophysique (LDG).
For wave paths that cross the eastern Pyrenees (east of the 250 km mark in
gure 3.2) seismograms are dominated by the crustal phases. The reverberations
in the crust form an extended Sg-arrival of high amplitude, the Lg-wave. The Sn-
arrival is barely visible and the Pn amplitude is small compared to the Pg phase.
In the western part of the Pyrenees the situation is dierent. The traces that cross
the Pyrenees west of the 200 km mark show almost no crustal phases. A strong
Pn-arrival is followed by Sn which usually has the highest amplitude. The Lg-wave
can hardly be recognized in the coda of the Sn-phase. This strong attenuation of
crustal phases, which is most obvious for the Lg-waves is referred to as Lg-blockage.
DATA AND OBSERVATIONS 57
6
o
W 4
o
W 2
o
W 0
o
2
o
E 4
o
E 6
o
E
39
o
N
42
o
N
45
o
N
48
o
N
51
o
N
Figure 3.1: Map of the study area with wave paths used in gure 3.2. Black triangles
indicate stations and red stars indicate earthquakes. Red line with black dots shows the
axis of the Pyrenees used to sort the traces in gure 3.2. The black dots indicate 50 km
intervals.
Another illustration of the Lg-blockage is presented in gure 3.3. Part A of
this gure shows records of six earthquakes that occurred north and south of the
Pyrenees made at the station SJPF inside the western Pyrenees. Part B shows
records of the same earthquakes made after the waves passed through the western
Pyrenees. A map with the events and the stations is shown in gure 3.4. The clear
Pg and Lg waves in gure 3.3A demonstrates that crustal phases are generated
by the sources and travel from both sides towards the station inside the Pyrenees.
Mantle phases are very weak. After passing through the Pyrenees the shape of the
seismograms is again completely dierent (gure 3.3B). Except for events 1 and
6 where a small amplitude increase is visible at the arrival time of the Lg phase,
there are no crustal phases. Using the interchangeability of source and receiver, this
exactly reects an observation made by the analysts at the LDG. Some earthquakes
in the western Pyrenees generate Lg-waves that can be recorded at both sides of the
range. But Lg-waves that where generated outside the Pyrenees do not propagate
through.
To generate traces that represent the main characteristics of the undisturbed
propagation through the easter Pyrenees and the propagation through the western
Pyrenees with blocked Lg-waves I use the following approach.
I split the collection of traces in gure 3.2 into groups according to the position
of intersection between the ray path and the axis of the Pyrenees. For the rst group
I select traces that cross the Pyrenean axis between the 100 km and 200 km marks.
I exclude wave paths west of the 100 km mark to not be biased by paths through
the Bay of Biscay. This group represents the propagation through the western
Pyrenees. The second group that represents the eastern part is made up of paths
east of the 300 km mark. The traces are band-passed between 2 and 4 Hz before the
envelopes are computed with a Hilbert transform. The envelopes are normalized for
their maximum, scaled to group velocity and stacked within each group. Figure 3.5
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400
8.16
6.03
4.65
3.56
3
2
g
r
o
u
p

v
e
l
o
c
i
t
y

[
k
m
/
s
]
position along axis of Pyrenees [km]
Figure 3.2: Collection of seismograms for wave paths through the Pyrenees. Traces are
sorted according to the position of the intersection between their paths and the axis of the
Pyrenees (red line in gure 3.1). The traces are band pass ltered between 2 and 4 Hz,
normalized for their maximum and scales to group velocity.
A
8.16 6.03 4.65 3.56 3 2
Event 6
Event 5
Event 4
Event 3
Event 2
Event 1
v [km/s]
B
8.16 6.03 4.65 3.56 3 2
v [km/s]
Figure 3.3: Seismograms of six earthquakes recorded within (A) the zone that blocks
Lg-waves and recorded after the waves passed through this zone (B). A map showing the
locations of the events and the stations is shown in gure 3.4.
shows the resulting envelopes. These clearly show the characteristics of Lg-blockage.
There are three mechanism known in the literature that could possibly explain
such an observation of variable amplitude ratio between crustal and mantle phases.
The mantle phases propagate in a high Q medium with little attenuation
whereas the crustal phases are stronger attenuated (Bormann, 2002). This
generally causes a distance dependence of the amplitude ratio. Indeed the
wave paths through the western Pyrenees are generally slightly longer than
the paths in the east but there are records with equal or reversed distance
relation. Also these traces with the same source and equal epicentral distance
DATA AND OBSERVATIONS 59
6
o
W 4
o
W 2
o
W 0
o
2
o
E 4
o
E 6
o
E
36
o
N
39
o
N
42
o
N
45
o
N
48
o
N
51
o
N
2
1
MFF
3
SJPF
4
5
6
PAB
Figure 3.4: Map of the study area with wave paths used in gure 3.3. Black triangles
indicate stations and red stars indicate earthquakes.
8.16 6.03 4.65 3.56 3 2
v [km/s]
w
e
s
t
e
r
n

P
y
r
e
n
e
e
s

e
a
s
t
e
r
n

P
y
r
e
n
e
e
s

Figure 3.5: Reference traces from the eastern and western Pyrenees Vertical lines indicate
arrival times of seismic phases. The upper black trace represents undisturbed propagation
through the eastern Pyrenees. It shows clear arrivals of crustal phases. The bottom
trace represents wave paths through the western Pyrenees. Here the crustal phases are
attenuated and only the mantle phases show clear arrivals.
show the Lg-blockage.
The radiation pattern of the source excites strong mantle phases and weak
crustal phases (Bormann, 2002). There are examples that conrm this situ-
ation but they seem rather rare. I use several earthquake sources to average
the observation over dierent sources in order to minimize this eect.
The velocity structure in the western Pyrenees causes the Lg-blockage.
The last point is worth a more detailed discussion.
The sensitivity of Lg-waves to crustal structure is known from the extinction of
this phase when passing through oceanic crust. Lg-blockage has also been been re-
ported from the Barents Sea (Baumgardt, 2001), eastern Mediterranean, the Caspian
Sea, the Black Sea, the Red Sea (McNamara and Walter, 2001; Rodgers et al., 1997)
and the Lingurian Sea (Shapiro et al., 1996) and the Alpine range (Campillo et al.,
1993).
In most of these cases the attenuation is caused by soft marine sediments. They
form a layer of very low shear velocity and high attenuation that traps the energy
which propagates in the crust. This phenomenon of Lg-blockage by sedimentary
basins was modeled by Shapiro et al. (1996). Apart from minor details the velocity
structure explains the Lg-blockage. The Lg-blockage in the Alps and the Pyrenees
is dierent. There are sedimentary basins north and south of the Pyrenees but they
are not comparable in depth, extent and velocity to the marine situations. For the
specic situation of the western Pyrenean crust Chazalon et al. (1993) modeled the
wave propagation with a realistic velocity model including the Moho jump and high
velocity obstacles in the upper crust. Chazalon et al. (1993) conclude from their
modeling that neither the Moho jump nor the detailed crustal velocity structure can
cause the observed attenuation. The inability of the Moho jump to cause the Lg-
blockage is supported by the observed Lg propagation through the eastern Pyrenees
where the Moho jump is also present.
It can be summarized that that the observations reported in gure 3.2 reect
intrinsic properties of the propagation medium and not of the sources or the velocity
structure. There is no satisfactory explanation for the Lg-blockage by the Pyrenees
or the Alps. It was speculated by Chazalon et al. (1993) that the increased scattering
by small scale heterogeneities in the western Pyrenean crust causes the attenuation
of crustal phases.
3.4 Modeling
To test this hypothesis, the energy propagation through the Pyrenees is modeled
with elastic radiative transfer theory (RTT). This theory in the acoustic approxi-
mation was applied in a number of studies focusing on the separation of intrinsic
and scattering attenuation in simple half space models (e.g Hoshiba, 1991; Fehler
et al., 1992; Gusev and Abubakirov, 1996). Lacombe et al. (2003) use a model that
consists of a layer overlaying an innite half space for this purpose. Here the elastic
version of RTT is used in a complex geometrical model that consists of a scattering
layer over a scattering half space with a vertical velocity gradient. Additionally
a cuboid body with dierent scattering and attenuation properties is included in
the crustal layer to model the local eect of the Pyrenean crust. Because of this
complex model the main focus is not on the estimation of precise parameters of the
model. Instead I try to present a conceptual model to explain the phenomenon of
Lg-blockage in the Pyrenees.
The velocity model that is used for the simulation is based on the model of the
LDG. The crust is a constant velocity layer with density
crust
= 3.0 g/cm
3
, P-wave
velocity
crust
= 6.03 km/s and S-wave velocity
crust
= 3.56 km/s. The mantle
is represented by a half space with constant vertical velocity gradient and constant
density
mantle
= 3.5 g/cm
3
. At the Moho the P-wave velocity is
mantle
= 8.16 km/s
INVERSION 61
and S-wave speed
mantle
= 4.65 km/s. The velocity gradient for P-waves is
1
300
km/s
km
which is a approximate average of the velocity prole in the uppermost 600 km man-
tle in the Preliminary Reference Earth Model (PREM) (Dziewonski and Anderson,
1981). The velocity ratio is constant throughout the mantle. Small scale hetero-
geneities are described by an exponential autocorrelation function (equation 2.27)
with the parameters uctuation strength and correlation length a. The scattering
properties in crust and mantle are dierent but constant, i.e. the scattering proper-
ties do not vary with depth in the mantle. Intrinsic attenuation is described by the
quality factor. I x the ratio between the quality factor of P- and S-waves to the theo-
retical value that assumes that attenuation is limited to shearing: Q = Q
P
= 9/4Q
S
(Shearer, 1999, p. 114).
In this model I include an additional cuboid body in the crust that has the
same velocities and density as the surrounding crust but diers in the scattering
and attenuation properties. The body extends from the surface down to the Moho
and has a width in propagation direction of 100 km. This width corresponds to
the topographic expression of the Pyrenees. In the following I try to show whether
or not the attenuation and scattering properties of this body can account for the
Lg-wave blockage.
Since the reference traces are the result of averaging over several dierent
sources I use sources with isotropic radiation pattern. According to equation 2.19
the ratio between radiated P and S-energy is xed at 96% S-energy and 4% P-energy.
3.5 Inversion
The goal of this non-linear inversion process is to nd scattering and attenuation
parameters for crust, mantle and Pyrenean body that result in energy density traces
which t the eastern and western reference traces. Though some of the parameters
may be estimated independently the whole model has 9 free parameters, the uctu-
ation strength the correlation length a and the quality factor Q in three dierent
bodies. Here the type of the medium is already xed as I decided to restrict the
inversion to the exponential auto-correlation function. Because of the high number
of free parameters I apply a genetic algorithm for the inversion. The principal el-
ements of the algorithm are recombination of the parameters of the ttest models
and mutation to maintain diversity. Fitness of the models is linked to the mist
between the model and the reference trace. The mist is the sample wise average
of the absolute value of the dierence between the logarithm of the model envelope
and the logarithm of the reference. This is the L1-norm of the dierence between
the logarithmic traces. It ensures that the low amplitude coda has similar weight for
the mist calculation as the high amplitude direct arrivals and is not too sensitive
to uctuations in the data and the simulated envelopes.
3.5.1 The undisturbed case
In a rst inversion I estimate the parameters of the background model. For this, the
crustal phases of the eastern reference trace are tted by adjusting the parameters
a, and Q of the crust in a model that has a transparent (no scattering) and
non-attenuating mantle and no additional body. The lapse time windows used to
calculate the mist in this inversion step are the Pg window between the Pg arrival
and the Sn arrival and the S-coda from the Sg arrival until a group velocity of
2 km/s. Similar to the generation of the reference traces I stack envelopes in a
certain distance range after scaling to equal group velocity. For comparison with
the eastern reference trace I stack records between 500 km and 800 km distance
from the source.
With this model of the crust I invert the western reference trace for scattering
and attenuation properties of the mantle. Because of the blockage of the crustal
phases the wave paths through the western Pyrenees oer the interesting possibility
to estimate mantle properties relatively independent of the crust. In this inversion
step I use time windows that contain the mantle phases, i.e. the Pn window be-
tween the Pn and the Pg arrivals and the Sn window between the Sn and the Sg
arrivals. Records between 600 km and 900 km are stacked in this case to account
for the slightly longer wave paths through the western Pyrenees. The results of this
inversion step are not well determined and a relatively wide range of values for the
parameters , a and Q can be used to t the reference trace. I therefore xed the pa-
rameter for the uctuation strength and correlation length of the mantle to = 0.02
and a = 2 km. This resulted in the quality factors Q
P
= 1070 and Q
S
= 475.
With these new parameters for the mantle I re-inverted the eastern refer-
ence trace for the crustal properties because the increased scattering in the mantle
changed the amount of energy that returns from the mantle into the crust. This
process raised the level of the coda and required changes of the parameters in the
crust. The nal parameters of the crustal material are = 0.021, a = 0.77 km,
Q
P
= 1400 and Q
S
= 623.
Figure 3.6 shows the result of this inversion. The general t of the model is
fairly good. Especially the decay of the S-coda is well tted. The kink in the S-coda
envelope shortly after 3 km/s originates from the reverberations in the crust. It
marks the end of the Lg-wave train which is well modeled by the algorithm. The
t is less good for the P-coda and the Pn-phase. The deviation from the shape of
the Pn-arrival is due to the fact that I estimated the mantle properties from the
western reference trace. I can better t the Pn-phase with stronger scattering in the
mantle but then the impulsive shape of the mantle phases in the western reference
trace cannot be reproduced. In fact this is an indication for slightly dierent mantle
properties under the eastern and western Pyrenees.
3.5.2 The disturbed case
To model the Lg-blockage I use the background model described in the previous
section and include an extra body with dierent scattering and attenuation prop-
INVERSION 63
8.16 6.03 4.65 3.56 3 2
v [km/s]
Figure 3.6: Simulation Results for the undisturbed propagation in through the eastern
Pyrenees. Bold red and black traces represent data and model respectively. Thin traces
indicate types of energy. Cyan trace shows radiated P-energy that arrives at the receiver
as P-energy. The dierence between the cyan and blue traces shows radiated P-energy
that arrives as S-energy. The dierence between blue and green traces shows radiated S-
energy that arrives as P. Radiated S-energy that arrives as S is indicated by the dierence
between the green and the black trace. Vertical lines indicate arrival times of seismic
phases
erties. To speed up the Monte-Carlo simulations I slightly modify this model to
enforce cylindrical symmetry which allows better averaging. In the modied model
the cuboid attenuating body is replaced by a cylinder ring centered at the source.
The radius of the inner boundary is 300 km and the width is 100 km. I veried that
the eect of this modication on the inversion is very weak.
Three dierent variants of the model are used for the inversion. In the rst
variant the uctuation strength of the small scale heterogeneities is adjusted to t
the western reference trace. The intrinsic attenuation and the correlation length
in the inclusion are equal to the surrounding crust. With = 11% the best t is
obtained (gure 3.7A). The general shape of the data is reasonably well tted. The
strong scattering in the inclusion eciently attenuates the crustal phases. There is
no Pg-arrival and the Sg-phase is only visible as a small bump in the Sn-coda. This
shows that scattering is a good candidate to cause the Lg-blockage in the Pyrenees.
But there is some mismatch between this model and the data in the S-coda which
has too much energy in this part of the envelope.
In a second variant of the model I assume that the Lg-blockage is caused by
intrinsic attenuation. The inclusion has the same scattering properties as the normal
crust but variable Q values. Again the ration between Q
P
and Q
S
is xed at 9/4.
The best t is obtained for Q
P
= 86 and Q
S
= 38. These values are extremely low.
Figure 3.7B shows the results of the model. The t is worse compared to the t
achieved by changing the scattering strength. The S-coda of the model is much too
low but there is still Pg-energy that traverses the inclusion. It is impossible to both
attenuate the Pg-phase strong enough but simultaneously increase the energy in the
A
8.16 6.03 4.65 3.56 3 2
v [km/s]
B
8.16 6.03 4.65 3.56 3 2
v [km/s]
Figure 3.7: Simulation results for propagation through the western Pyrenees with
stronger scattering (A) and increased attenuation (B). For explanations see gure 3.6.
8.16 6.03 4.65 3.56 3 2
v [km/s]
Figure 3.8: Simulation results for propagation through the western Pyrenees with both
stronger scattering increased attenuation. For explanations see gure 3.6.
S-coda. Leaving the Q
P
/Q
S
-ratio free would allow to obtain a much better t. But
this would require much stronger P- than S-attenuation which is unrealistic. This
shows the attenuation alone does not suce to explain the Lg-blockage.
In the third model I allow for variable scattering and attenuation in the in-
clusion. With this model the best t is obtained (gure 3.8). The parameters are
Q
P
= 402, Q
S
= 179 and = 7.7%. With these parameters the crustal phases
can both be appropriately attenuated. The Pg-phase is weak enough not to the
stick out of the Pn-coda and simultaneously the small signature of the Lg-wave is
reproduced. Also the amplitude ratio between the Pn and Sn phases is reasonable.
For this model the parameters are listed in table 3.1.
I conclude that strong attenuation alone cannot explain the observation of Lg-
blockage in the Pyrenees. Increased scattering seems an essential ingredient of this
phenomenon but is not able to explain all details of the observation. In contrast the
observation can be well explained with increased scattering and stronger attenuation
DISCUSSION 65
Table 3.1: Parameters of the nal model used to explain the phenomenon of Lg-blockage
by the Pyrenees. The columns show values for the quality factor of P-waves (Q
P
) and
S-waves (Q
S
), the uctuation strength () and the correlation length (a) of the small scale
velocity uctuations and the transport mean free path l
S
(Turner, 1998). The values of
and a in the mantle are xed by hand. The correlation length a of the Pyrenean body
is assumed to equal the correlation length of the surrounding crustal material. Values in
brackets show representative numbers of the PREM (Dziewonski and Anderson, 1981).
The 750 km transport mean free path can be compared to the mean free path of 690 km
obtained in chapter 1.5 with the isotropic scattering model for the German crust.
Q
P
Q
S
a l
S
Crust 1400 (1350) 623 (600) 2.1% 0.77 km 750 km
Mantle 1070 (321) 475 (143) 2.0% 2.0 km 1530 km
Pyrenean body 402 179 7.2% 0.77 km 63 km
together.
3.6 Discussion
Compared to the waveform modeling by Chazalon et al. (1993), I use a simple struc-
tural model that consists of a at layer over an innite half space. It does neither
contain any deterministic velocity structure inside the crust nor the Moho topogra-
phy. Despite these limitations the shape of the seismogram envelopes in the eastern
Pyrenees can be reproduced. Including an extra body with stronger scattering and
attenuation the energy propagation can be inuenced to reproduce the seismogram
envelopes that are observed in the western Pyrenees. For the nal parameters I
illustrate the energy eld with two snapshots of the simulations in gures 3.9A and
B. These gures show the shadowing eect of the inclusion (marked by the black
box) in the western Pyrenees for crustal waves. The epicenter is indicated by the
star. The linear color-scale represents the square root of seismogram envelopes, i.e.
the fourth root of energy. Figure 3.9A displays the energy distribution at a lapse
time of 105 s. At this time the P-phases already passed the Pyrenees. The Pn
mantle phase which propagated north to about 47
is unaected by the Pyrenees.

Its energy is low compared to the other phases and the speckle reect the individual
particles of the Monte-Carlo simulations. P-energy that propagated in the crust
forms the Pg-phase bounded towards north at about 45
. This phase experienced

strong attenuation in the western Pyrenean crust. The Sn wave front just leaves the
box and the Lg-wave enters it. Figure 3.9B shows the situation at 180 s lapse time.
The P wave fronts already left the map and the Sn and Lg wave front extend north
to about 47
and 45
respectively. Again the mantle phase is continuous behind the

Pyrenees whereas the crustal Lg shows a gap. The almost homogeneous color be-
hind the Lg-wave illustrates the spatial equalization of energy density in the seismic
coda.
The simulations show a consistent picture of the phenomenon of Lg-blockage.
A
-6
-6
-5
-5
-4
-4
-3
-3
-2
-2
-1
-1
0
0
1
1
2
2
3
3
4
4
5
5
6
6
37 37
38 38
39 39
40 40
41 41
42 42
43 43
44 44
45 45
46 46
47 47
48 48
49 49
200 km
low heigh
amplitude
B
-6
-6
-5
-5
-4
-4
-3
-3
-2
-2
-1
-1
0
0
1
1
2
2
3
3
4
4
5
5
6
6
37 37
38 38
39 39
40 40
41 41
42 42
43 43
44 44
45 45
46 46
47 47
48 48
49 49
200 km
low heigh
amplitude
Figure 3.9: Snapshots of the energy density eld at 105 s (A) and 180 s (B) lapse
time for an earthquake in Spain. Green star and black box indicate the epicenter and
the disturbed body beneath the western Pyrenees. respectively. The linear color-scale
indicates the square root of seismogram envelopes, i.e. fourth root of energy density.
Relief is indicated by brightness. The shadowing eect of the medium in the box can be
seen for the Pg-wave in part A and for the Lg-wave in part B.
They are obtained with model parameters (see table 3.1) that appear to be reason-
able. The parameters for the crust match existing estimates quite well. The quality
factor of intrinsic S-wave attenuation (623) is close to the value of 600 given in the
PREM (Dziewonski and Anderson, 1981). It is also comparable to the estimate
obtained with the isotropic half space model in chapter 1 of 770. The scattering
properties are best described by the S-wave transport mean free path of 750 km.
Again this is close to the 690 km found in chapter 1. The parameters for the mantle
are not well constrained. In fact the scattering parameters are xed manually but
certainly the transport mean free path has to be larger than in the crust to t the
impulsive Pn-arrival of the western reference trace. The medium that causes the is
described by a transport mean free path of 63 km which is in the range of parame-
ters estimated in other regions of the world. The attenuation with a S-wave quality
factor of 179 is rather strong for crustal material (c.f. table 1.2). But this is in
correspondence with implication of the seismicity distribution. The intrusive bodies
of lower crustal material of which two were identied in the seismically active upper
crust of the wester Pyrenees are seismically quiet (Souriau et al., 2001). Souriau
et al. (2001) proposed that this is due to the more ductile lower crust material which
most likely shows stronger attenuation.
However, no condence intervals are given for the model parameters and I do
CONCLUSIONS 67
not put any emphasis on these values because their exact determination is not the
scope of this study. Also the geometrical parameters of the model like the extend
of the perturbed zone, the depth of the Moho or the velocity gradient in the mantle
should not be regarded precise estimates. It is assumed that the mantle phases Pn
and Sn are made up of energy that left the crust through the Moho and returned
after traveling through the mantle according to ray-theory. Energy that travels as
interface wave along the discontinuity is neglected just like surface waves. It might
thus be possible to nd models with dierent parameters which similarly t the
data. However, these eects are small compared to the Lg-blockage and will thus
not inuence the general results and conclusions of this study. I present a conceptual
model with realistic parameters that explains the so far unexplained phenomenon
of Lg-blockage in the western Pyrenees.
3.7 Conclusions
With the elastic Monte-Carlo simulations in a model with deterministic velocity
structure and statistically described small scale heterogeneities it is possible to cal-
culate seismogram envelopes of crustal earthquakes including mantle phases and
coda. Including an additional body with dierent scattering and attenuation prop-
erties this model provides a possible explanation for the Lg-blockage by the Pyrenees.
To coincide with the geographical observation this body should be located under the
western Pyrenees. This region is characterized by strong deformation. The crust
was squeezed during the compressional phase that led to the formation of the Pyre-
nees. There is geological and geophysical evidence for material exchange between
the dierent depths. Mantle material is lifted to lower crustal depths and lower
crust material can be found in the upper crust. These observations appear to be
consistent with increased heterogeneity as suggested by my model. In the eastern
and central Pyrenees the shortening led the the subduction of the Iberian lower crust
beneath the European plate. This process reduced the deformation in the crust.
I speculate that the strong deformation in the western Pyrenees caused some
kind of mixing of mantle and crustal material that increased the heterogeneity and
the attenuation in the western Pyrenean crust. These material changes cause the
attenuation of crustal phases known as Lg-blockage. The model might also be
applicable to the situation in the western Alps (Campillo et al., 1993).
Part II
Phase Correlations
69
Chapter 4
Passive image interferometry and
seasonal variations of seismic
velocities at Merapi volcano,
Indonesia
71
72 CHAPTER 4. PASSIVE IMAGE INTERFEROMETRY AT MT. MERAPI
Abstract
Passive image interferometry is proposed as a novel technique for seismology that
allows to continuously monitor small temporal changes of seismic velocities in the
subsurface. The technique is independent of sources in the classical sense and re-
quires just one or two permanent seismic stations. This is possible because the
signals that are used for interferometry are retrieved from ambient seismic noise.
Applying passive image interferometry to data from Merapi volcano, it is shown
that velocity variations can be measured with an accuracy of 0.1% with a temporal
resolution of a single day. At Mt. Merapi the velocity variations show a strong sea-
sonal inuence and a depth dependent hydrological model is presented that describes
the observations solely based on precipitation.
4.1. INTRODUCTION 73
4.1 Introduction
Imaging techniques with elastic waves like seismic tomography, reection seismic
or ultrasonic imaging proved their great abilities for the determination of spatial
structure. Numerous applications range from medicine to hydrocarbon exploration.
Temporal changes are often thought to be of little importance and repeated mea-
surements designed for structural investigations are used to detect such changes.
However, in some elds of geophysics and nondestructive testing, monitoring tem-
poral changes is of greater interest than details of the spatial structure. Especially
for monitoring of volcanoes, fault zones, dams, and hydro-carbon or geothermal
reservoirs it is valuable to observe changes of elastic properties like seismic velocity,
even if the precise spatial structure is unknown. A technique named coda wave
interferometry (CWI) has been proposed (Snieder et al., 2002; Snieder, 2006) for
measuring weak changes of seismic velocities using multiple scattered waves. The
same approach was previously used by Poupinet et al. (1984) and Ratdomopurbo
and Poupinet (1995). The basic concept of CWI is that despite their complexity
the waveform of the seismic coda is constant for constant source receiver congu-
rations. On the other hand the delay time, i.e. the travel time variation due to
a velocity variations in the medium increases with travel time. So the changes in
the medium are inferred by comparison of the coda obtained from the same source
receiver conguration at dierent times. This way CWI strongly depends on the
phase information of the seismic coda which is neglected in the radiative transfer
theory applied in part I.
CWI has been applied to measure velocity changes associated with heat, pres-
sure, and water saturation in a rock sample (Gret et al., 2006), with temperature
changes in a building (Larose et al., 2006) and with earthquakes (Nishimura et al.,
2000; Peng and Ben-Zion, 2006). Velocity changes were also reported to precede
eruptions of Merapi volcano (Ratdomopurbo and Poupinet, 1995; Wegler et al.,
2006b). The major handicap of CWI, which hinders continuous monitoring in the
eld, is the requirement of repeatable sources. This results in temporally irregular
measurements when repeating earthquakes (multiplets) are used (Ratdomopurbo
and Poupinet, 1995; Peng and Ben-Zion, 2006) or necessitates repeatable active
sources that are expensive on shore (Wegler et al., 2006b; Nishimura et al., 2000).
Here I suggest to use a technique called passive imaging to obtain the signals
for CWI. This technique requires only one or two permanent stations and works
without active sources. The basic principle of passive imaging is that the Greens
function (GF, or impulse response) between two points A and B can be retrieved
by cross-correlation of a random isotropic wave eld sensed at A and B (Derode
et al., 2003; S anchez-Sesma and Campillo, 2006; Wapenaar, 2004; Snieder, 2004).
In real applications the cross-correlation of a random wave eld will only yield an
approximation of the real GF. Consequently a term like eld correlation function
appears more appropriate. However, to stress the relation to the impulse response,
that the eld correlations functions converge to for adequate wave elds or sucient
averaging, the term Greens function is used here.
Applications of passive imaging were reported from helioseismology (Duvall
110.4 110.45 110.5
7.6
7.55
7.5
3 km
110.4 110.45 110.5
7.6
7.55
7.5
3 km
BEB
BAT
KEN
GRW
1
0
0
0
1
5
0
0
2
0
0
0
0.1 km
GRW
0
1
2
3
Figure 4.1: Location of seismic stations on Mt. Merapi. Triangles denote seismometers
and stars indicate sources of active CWI measurements (Wegler et al., 2006b).
et al., 1993; Rickett and Clearbout, 1999) and from acoustics (Lobkis and Weaver,
2001; Weaver and Lobkis, 2001). In seismology GFs were retrieved from seismic
noise and from coda waves of earthquakes (Campillo and Paul, 2003; Shapiro and
Campillo, 2004; Paul et al., 2005; Larose et al., 2005; Roux et al., 2005; Shapiro
et al., 2005). So far the recovery of the GF with passive imaging has only been
demonstrated for ballistic surface waves and P-waves (Roux et al., 2005). Evidence
for the emergence of scattered waves from the GFs in seismology has been missing
so far. In this study it is shown that scattered waves can be retrieved by correlation
of seismic noise.
GFs are studied at Mt. Merapi (gure 4.1) which is one of the most active
strato volcanoes on earth. Its activity is characterized by dome growth and partial
dome collapse threatening the surroundings with pyroclastic ows. Most recent
activity started in middle of April 2006 and caused evacuations of several thousand
inhabitants in May and June. Monitoring the state of Mt. Merapi is of great
socio-economic importance. Since 1997 three seismic arrays have been operated on
Mt. Merapi (Wassermann and Ohrnberger, 2001). I focus on data from stations
GRW0 and GRW1 (gure 4.1) because these sensors were connected to a common
digitizer which provides precise relative timing. Data are almost continuous between
August 1997 and June 1999. This study is published in Sens-Sch onfelder and Wegler
(2006a).
4.2 Greens function retrieval
Greens functions are retrieved by cross-correlating two one-day seismic records that
are high passed at 0.5 Hz. To down-weight the contribution of coherent phases such
as teleseismic body waves in the correlation, the records are clipped at one standard
deviation of the recorded seismic noise. Additionally, the causal and acausal parts of
the GFs which represent waves that travel from A to B and vice versa, are averaged.
Since I use three-component receivers I can reconstruct the full Greens tensor (GT,
4.3. SCATTERED WAVES IN THE GREENS FUNCTION 75
Paul et al. (2005)) consisting of nine GFs, by correlating all combinations of the
components.
4.3 Scattered Waves in the Greens Function
In order to apply CWI on the GFs retrieved with passive imaging I rst establish
that multiply scattered or reected waves are contained in the GF. I present two
arguments. Firstly, GFs retrieved from noise at dierent days show coherent phases
at late lapse times denoted (gure 4.2A). Given a distance of about 170 m between
stations GRW0 and GRW1 the late arrivals (e.g. the one marked by the arrow in
gure 4.2A) clearly correspond to indirect wave paths, i.e. reected or scattered
waves. Coherent phases can also be observed in the auto-correlation function that is
an approximation of the zero oset GF (gure 4.3). Secondly, I study the envelopes
of the GT in rotated coordinates where L is oriented along the connecting line of
the stations, Q is perpendicular to the free surface and T is perpendicular to L
and Q. Figure 4.4 shows envelopes of the Greens tensor components in which the
o-diagonal components are averaged and the traces have been normalized in the
time window between 10 s 12 s. Two dierent segments can be observed. The
early part ( < 2 s) contains surface waves that travel in a low velocity layer at a
group velocity of about 200 m/s. After two seconds lapse time all GT components
exhibit a common decay. This shape is reminiscent of the typical decay of coda
wave envelopes from active sources. The decay can be tted with a diusion model
(Dainty and Toks oz, 1981) expressed by: W()
3/2
exp[b]. Here W is the
seismogram envelope, denotes lapse time. b is the absorption parameter. The
estimates of parameter b using GFs reconstructed from seismic noise agree well
with measurements on Mt. Merapi performed with active sources (Wegler and
L uhr, 2001). This supports the hypothesis that the late part of the GFs consists of
scattered coda waves.
4.4 Passive image interferometry
I have presented evidence for the fact that the GFs obtained from cross-correlations
of seismic noise do not only contain the ballistic wave part of the GF as previ-
ously assumed in the seismological literature (Campillo and Paul, 2003; Shapiro and
Campillo, 2004; Shapiro et al., 2005; Paul et al., 2005; Roux et al., 2005) but also
reected and scattered waves. This opens the possibility to apply interferometric
methods to the late part of the passively retrieved Greens functions (images). I
call this technique passive image interferometry. It allows to precisely infer changes
in the medium by comparing the GFs retrieved from the noise records at dierent
time periods.
Standard CWI (Snieder et al., 2002) measures the delay times (
i
) in various
time windows i centered around lapse times
i
as the time shifts that result in
the best correlation of the segments in these windows. Alternatively the delay times
(
i
) can be estimated from the derivative of the of dierence of the phase spectra in
0 2 4 6 8 10
05/27/99
05/25/99
05/23/99
05/21/99
05/19/99
05/17/99
05/15/99
05/13/99
05/11/99
05/09/99
05/07/99
05/05/99
[s]
7.1 7.15 7.2 7.25 7.3
[s] A B
Figure 4.2: Coherent phases in the Greens function coda obtained from cross-correlation.
A: cross-correlation between Z-components from stations GRW0 and GRW1 for several
days. Note the coherent phase marked by the arrow. B: Closeup around the phase marked
by the arrow in A. This phase which is seen in all GFs arrives earlier in late May 1999
than in early May. This change in the delay time corresponds exactly to the apparent
velocity change of 0.015% per day as seen in gure 4.6A.
0 2 4 6 8 10
05/28/99
05/26/99
05/24/99
05/22/99
05/20/99
05/18/99
05/16/99
05/14/99
05/12/99
05/10/99
05/08/99
05/06/99
t [s]
3.85 3.9 3.95
t [s] A B
Figure 4.3: Coherent phases in the Greens function coda obtained from auto-correlation.
Similar to gure 4.2. A: auto-correlation of the Z-component of station GRW1. Note the
coherent phase marked by the arrow. B: Closeup around the phase marked by the arrow
in A.
these time windows with respect to frequency. This approach is used by the Moving
Window Cross Spectral Analysis (MWCSA) that was applied by Ratdomopurbo
and Poupinet (1995). The relative delay time (/) is then the mean of all
i
/
i
values.
In contrast to CWI and MWCSA the relative delay time is determined here as
the factor by which the time axis of one trace has to be stretched or compressed
to obtain the best correlation with the other trace. This technique is illustrated
in gure 4.5 where the relative delay time is to be measured between the blue and
the red trace shown in the upper part. The red trace is successively stretched by
increments of 1%. The correlation coecient between the blue and the stretched red
trace is depicted in the lower part of gure 4.5 for each increment of the stretching,
which is directly related to the relative delay time /. The maximum correlation
4.4. PASSIVE IMAGE INTERFEROMETRY 77
0 5 10 15
10
0
10
2
[s]
Figure 4.4: Envelopes of the GT components between stations GRW0 and GRW1 in
rotated coordinates (see text for orientation of coordinates). Non-diagonal components of
the GT are averaged with their counterparts. Dashed lines show LL, QQ, TT and LQ
components of the GT which can be excited by ballistic waves. Thin lines show the LT
and QT components which can not be excited by ballistic waves. The best tting diusion
model is shown by a bold line.
0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08
0.5
0
0.5
1
c
o
r
r
e
l
a
t
i
o
n
/
Figure 4.5: Illustration of the technique that is used to estimate the relative delay time
between two traces. Upper graph: the two traces that are to be compared in red and
blue. Black trace is a copy of the red trace stretched by 8%. Lower graph: correlation
coecient between the blue and the stretched red trace for various amounts of stretching.
is assumed for a stretching of 5%, corresponding to a relative delay time of 0.05.
The advantage of this approach becomes evident by comparison with standard
CWI. Both techniques measure the similarly between two traces by means of the
correlation coecient. But standard CWI estimates the correlation in a number of
small time windows. The size of these windows has to be chosen such that they
are long enough to calculate a meaningful correlation coecient but they have to
be short enough to ensure that the distortion caused by the medium change is
small within these windows. Also the number of these time windows has to be large
enough for a reliable least squares t of the
i
i
curve. In the approach presented
here there is no need to adjust such algorithmic parameters. Since the distortion
along the trace is accounted for by the stretching or compression, the similarity
between the two traces can be evaluated along the whole trace. This means that
the correlation coecient can be calculated in a single time window ranging from
the beginning of the trace until the signal reaches the noise level. This makes our
approach more robust and sensitive.
If the time delay is caused by a spatially homogeneous relative velocity change
v/v, the relative delay time, is independent of the lapse time at which it is measured
and v/v = /. In this case error estimates are obtained by choosing consecutive
non-overlapping time windows in which the correlations are calculated separately.
This gives independent estimates of the relative delay time and mean value and
standard deviation can be calculated.
4.5 Application to Merapi volcano
Passive image interferometry is applied to almost two years of nearly continuous
seismic records from Merapi volcano, Indonesia. Velocity changes are estimated for
each one-day GF (between stations GRW0 and GRW1) with respect to a reference
trace, assuming that v/v is spatially homogeneous. As reference trace a stack of all
one-day GF in January 1998 is used. Figure 4.6A shows the daily relative velocity
variation obtained from the LL component of the GT between 2 and 8 s lapse time.
I do not use lapse times smaller than 2 s because the surface waves contained in
the GFs prior to 2 s have a dierent spatial sensitivity to velocity variations. Gray
shading in gure 4.6A marks the standard deviation of independent measurements
in three consecutive 2 s time windows starting at 2, 4, and 6 seconds lapse time.
Seismic velocity shows temporal variations of a few percent with a clear seasonal
trend. Except for a constant oset, the curve only marginally depends on the period
used to generate the reference trace. However stacking the GFs from a longer period
of time may result in a poorer correlation of the reference trace with the daily
correlations because the velocity variations that occurred in the longer period would
degrade the reference trace. January 1998 is chosen because the velocity appeared
to be stable during this period.
Evidence for the fact that the inferred velocity variations are related to phys-
ical properties of the subsurface and not artefacts introduced by the sensors or the
recording system is provided by the analysis of records from dierent components
and stations. In gure 4.7A the velocity changes measured from the transverse com-
ponents are shown. The results are virtually identical to the ones obtained from the
LL-component. An interesting property of our new method for practical applica-
tions in geophysics is that it can be applied to records from a single station using
the auto-correlation function. Figure 4.7B shows the velocity variations measured
on the auto-correlation of the vertical component of station GRW0. Again the curve
is very similar to the one in gure 4.6A.
The blue curve in gure 4.6A shows the results of CWI measurements (Wegler
et al., 2006b) made at the same stations (GRW) but with an active source (BAT
in gure 4.1). Results from the southern ank of Merapi volcano (station KEN,
source BEB) are shown by the green curve. Considering the daily variability of the
4.6. HYDROLOGICAL MODELING 79
measurements and the source receiver distance of more than 3 km used for the active
measurement, I conclude that the present measurements are in agreement with the
results of the active experiment. The advantage of my new method is that changes
can be monitored continuously without an expensive active source.
Actually the velocity changes can directly be seen in the GFs. Figure 4.2B and
4.3B show close-ups around the phases marked by the arrows in gures 4.2A and
4.3A respectively. The coherent phases tend to arrive earlier in late May than in
early May 1999. This corresponds to the almost linear velocity increase of about
0.015% per day in May 1999 that can be observed in gure 4.6A.
4.6 Depth dependence of the velocity changes and
hydrological modeling
The periodicity of the velocity uctuations of approximately one year in this tropical
environment suggests a climatic inuence, most likely by precipitation. Another
observation also supports a connection with precipitation: The amplitude of the
velocity variations depends on the lapse time at which it is measured. This has
never been reported for CWI measurements before and indicates that the velocity
perturbations are spatially inhomogeneous. I can explain this observation together
with details of the temporal variations with a hydrological model of the ground
water level (GWL).
An illustration of the hydrological model and its inuence on the seismic veloc-
ity structure is shown in gure 4.8. I assume that drainage of ground water occurs
through a stationary aquifer that can approximately be described by Darcys law.
Then the drainage is proportional to the height of the ground water table which
results in an exponential decrease of the water level after rain events. A convolution
of the precipitation rates with this exponential function thus gives the ground water
level GWL (below surface) at time t
i
:
GWL(t
i
) = GWL
0
n=0
p(t
n
)
e
a(t
i
tn)
. (4.1)
Here is porosity, a is the parameter describing the decay, GWL
0
is the asymptotic
water level, and p(t
i
) denotes the daily precipitation. Good agreement of such a
model was found with water level measurements in a well (Akasaka and Nakanishi,
2000). Daily precipitation data were provided by the NASA/Goddard Space Flight
Centers Laboratory for Atmospheres (Human et al., 2001).
To relate the ground water level with delay times, I dene the depth (z) and
time (t) dependent relative slowness perturbation S(t
i
, z) and a reference water level
GWL
ref
that is chosen equal to the mean level of January 1998. Then S(t
i
, z) = s
for GWL(t
i
) < z < GWL
ref
, S(t
i
, z) = s for GWL
ref
< z < GWL(t
i
) and
S(t
i
, z) = 0 elsewhere. s is the relative slowness dierence between the states
saturated and dry. The delay time at time t
i
measured at lapse time is then
(t
i
, ) =
0
_
z=
S(t
i
, z)K(z, )dz (4.2)
where K(z, ) is the sensitivity kernel (Pacheco and Snieder, 2005). I use the kernel
in the approximation of coincident source and receiver with a diusivity constant of
seismic energy of D = 0.05 km/s
2
as estimated at Mt. Merapi (Wegler and L uhr,
2001). The kernel decays with distance r from the station as r
1
exp(r
2
/D).
For the one dimensional structure of the velocity perturbation resulting from our
hydrological model, gure 4.9 shows the exact depth dependent sensitivity kernels
for lapse times = 3s and = 7s.
With a genetic algorithm I found the best model with the following parameters:
GWL
0
= 51 m, = 0.03, a = 0.008 d
1
, and s = 0.17. Figure 4.6B shows the daily
rainfall, the inferred GWL and the modeled apparent homogeneous velocity varia-
tion for the 24 s and 68 s lapse time windows together with the measured values.
Considering that the precipitation data are averages over an area of approximately
100 by 100 km and the simplicity of our hydrological model the velocity variations
can be explained in remarkable detail. The model also explains the dierence be-
tween the blue and the red curves in gure 4.6B that represent the measurements at
dierent lapse times. I am thus condent that the observed velocity variations are
related to precipitation via changes in the ground water level. The successful expla-
nation of the lapse time dependence of the relative delay times by depth dependent
velocity perturbations indicates that the coda in the frequency range above 0.5 Hz
is made up of scattered body waves rather than surface waves. In contrast to body
waves the depth prole of the sensitivity kernel of surface waves does not change
with lapse time.
For spatially inhomogeneous velocity perturbations, the accuracy of the method
can be characterized by the scatter of measurements around a common trend. In
rain-free periods like the rst three month in the study period I obtain a standard
deviation of 0.1%.
Assuming that the annual rainfall is similar each year the observation can
be compared with measurements from 1991 (Ratdomopurbo and Poupinet, 1995).
Indeed a velocity increase of a little more than 1% was observed during the period
from April until September 1991. During April to October 1998 and April to June
1999 we observe a similar increase. According to my interpretation these periods
of increasing velocities are caused by a falling ground water level in the dry season.
I conclude that the eect of stress changes inside the volcano on velocity changes
(Ratdomopurbo and Poupinet, 1995; Wegler et al., 2006b) is secondary.
4.7 Conclusions
The present study shows that the hydrological conditions can change the seismic
velocities by more than 10% in a depth range of several tens of meters. This eect
4.7. CONCLUSIONS 81
should be taken into account in studies of the local velocity structure. With the
hydrological model an independent check for PII is provided. It proves that de-
terministic information about the propagation medium is contained in the GFs at
large lapse times, i.e. one can retrieve scattered and reected waves by correlation of
seismic noise. This provides the basis for passive seismic imaging with non-ballistic
waves. I anticipate this observation to stimulate a variety of studies in reection
seismology using correlations of seismic noise.
The temporal velocity variations detected at Mt. Merapi in this study are
dominated by shallow perturbations and demonstrate the potential of PII. If the
scattering is weaker or the changes close to the stations are smaller, the sensitivity
kernel allows the detection of more distant changes. In a lower frequency range the
GF are dominated by surface waves. The depth sensitivity of surface waves is very
dierent from body waves and opens new possibilities for passive image interfer-
ometry. The is a variety of possible applications for PII (Snieder and Page, 2007).
Monitoring of the exploitation process of geothermal or hydrocarbon reservoirs with
PII seems possible as well as the monitoring of nuclear waste disposal sites. I think
that PII can be used for routine monitoring in various engineering, geotechnical,
and geophysical applications.
In a separate study a drop of seismic velocity associated with the Mid-Niigata
earthquake in Japan is reported that was detected with PII (Wegler and Sens-
Sch onfelder, 2007). Crucial for the results presented here is the precise relative
timing of the two sensors. But it is shown that similar results can be obtained from
just a single station and in chapter 5.2 introduces a technique to measure clock
errors of seismic stations. This means that PII can be applied to data from any
existing permanent seismograph station and we expect other interesting discoveries
from the application of PII in dierent environments.
0.04
0.03
0.02
0.01
0
0.01
0.02
0.03
0.04
d
v
/
v
Jun Jul Aug
0.01
0.005
0
Sep Nov 1998 Mar May Jul Sep Nov 1999 Mar May Jul
40
30
20
10
0
0.02
0.01
0
0.01
0.02
G
W
L

[
m
]

v
/
v
0
30
60
p
r
e
c
i
p
i
t
a
t
i
o
n

[
m
m
/
d
]

A
B
Figure 4.6: Measured and modeled velocity variations at Merapi volcano. A: Red dots
mark the measurements in the 28 s time window. Individual measurements in the 24 s,
46 s, and 68 s seconds lapse time windows and their standard deviation are indicated
by light gray dots and gray shading respectively. Results of the active CWI experiment
(Wegler et al., 2006b) are indicated by green and blue lines. Inset shows a close up around
these active measurements. The blue line corresponds to the measurements at the GRW
station (used here). Green line shows measurements from station KEN on the southern
ank of Mt. Merapi. B: Bottom part: daily precipitation rate (blue) and modeled ground
water level (black). Top part: measured (light red dots) and modeled (dark red line)
velocity variations in the 24 s lapse time window. Same for the 68 s lapse time window
in blue.
4.7. CONCLUSIONS 83
0.03
0.02
0.01
0
0.01
0.02
0.03
d
v
/
v
0.03
0.02
0.01
0
0.01
0.02
0.03
d
v
/
v
A
B
Figure 4.7: A: Velocity variations measured from the TT-component of the GT between
the stations GRW0 and GRW1 in the 2-8 s lapse time window. B: Velocity variation
measured on the auto-correlation of the Z-component from station GRW1.
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
1
precipitation p(t)
drainage d(t)
v
s
d
e
p
t
h
0
G
W
L
v
Figure 4.8: Illustration of the hydrological model that is used to explain the observed
velocity variations. On the left the velocity structure is sketched that shows a discontinuity
at the depth of the ground water level. The hight of the ground water level on the right
hand side is determined by the interplay between precipitation and drainage though a
Darcy-like aquifer.
0 2 4
x 10
4
0
0.5
1
K(z)
d
e
p
t
h

[
k
m
]
= 3s
= 7s
Figure 4.9: Amplitudes of the depth dependent sensitivity kernels for = 3 s and = 7 s
lapse times.
Chapter 5
Daily velocity variations and
instrumental errors at Merapi
volcano
85
Abstract
Two case studies are presented that demonstrate the use of passive imaging for dif-
ferent seismological purposes. In the rst example the temporal resolution of Passive
Image Interferometry is improved to obtain measurements of temporal changes on
a sub one day scale. Periodic changes of the Greens functions are found that can
be related to temperature induced changes of the seismic velocities. In the sec-
ond example Greens functions on paths across Merapi volcano are retrieved. It is
shown how these Greens functions can be used to identify and correct instrumental
errors in a network of four stations. A polarity reversal of the vertical component
at station GRW0 between the 25th September and the 25th October is identied.
Measurements of the clock dierences between station pairs are performed and used
to obtain detailed information about the timing errors of individual stations. These
show short osets of about 1 s as well as periods of constant clock drifts. Relative
timing with this method can exceed the precision of an internal digitizer clock al-
ready after the clock drift of a single day. The results are extendable to networks of
arbitrary size.
IMPROVING PASSIVE IMAGE INTERFEROMETRY 87
5.1 Improving the temporal resolution of passive
image interferometry
The accuracy of techniques that infer information from passive imaging depends on
the convergence rate of the eld correlations toward a stable approximation of the
Greens function (GF). This rate is determined by the characteristics of the wave
eld that is used. The ideal eld would be equipartitioned in phase space meaning
that all modes and directions are equally present (e.g. S anchez-Sesma and Campillo,
2006). This is seldom fullled. Especially the low frequency ambient seismic noise,
that is often used for passive imaging in seismology, is excited predominantly in the
oceans (Sabra et al., 2005; Stehly et al., 2006). Thus the sources have preferred
locations and frequencies. To compensate for this shortcoming the correlations are
usually averaged over a long period of time. For structural investigations this does
not pose a problem because it is assumed that the medium does not change with
time. In monitoring applications, however, the time needed for the noise correlations
to converge denes the temporal resolution of the method. It is thus desirable to
decrease the necessary averaging time in order to increase the temporal resolution
of the monitoring.
5.1.1 Hourly Greens functions
In chapter 4 I have shown that a temporal resolution of one day can be achieved with
Passive Image Interferometry. The GFs obtained from 24 hours of continuous noise
records at stations GRW0 and GRW1 (gure 4.1), as they were used in chapter 4, are
shown in detail in gure 5.1. In contrast to the processing in chapter 4 I apply a one-
bit normalization (Larose et al., 2004) before the correlation. The noise records are
correlated in segments of one hour length. After correlation the 24 traces obtained
for each day are stacked. The section in gure 5.1 consists of more than 600 traces
(one for each day) with amplitudes mapped on a color scale. Several observations
can be made in this gure.
The shape of the traces is very similar during the whole period of time. Promi-
nent phases such as the ones at 3 s and 7 s lapse time can easily be traced
over the 2 years. This indicates that the medium remains stationary, i.e. the
scatterers that generate the coda do not move.
The velocity change reported in gure 4.6 can be observed in detail in the
GFs. The Phase at 7 s lapse time for instance, exactly resembles the shape of
the velocity variations shown in gure 4.6A.
The delays for positive and negative delay times are symmetric. This indicates
that the delays are indeed caused by medium changes and not by instrumental
errors.
The amplitudes of some phases in the GFs changes in July 1998. This change
probably reects variations in the characteristic of the seismic noise, that was
88 CHAPTER 5. DAILY VELOCITY VARIATIONS / INSTRUMENT ERRORS
l
a
p
s
e

t
i
m
e

[
s
]
Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun
8
6
4
2
0
2
4
6
8
Figure 5.1: Time section of 24-hour Greens functions between stations GRW0 and
GRW1. There is one Greens function for every day from beginning of August 1997 until
mid June 1999.
inuenced by rock falls and accelerated seismic activity during a volcanic crisis.
This change gradually disappears until beginning of January.
Figure 5.2 shows GFs obtained from correlations of one hour seismic noise.
This is similar to gure 5.1 except that no averaging of the 1-hour GFs is made.
There are more than 16000 GFs plotted in gure 5.2, one for each hour in which data
is available. The similarity between gure 5.2 and gure 5.1 is remarkable. This
indicates that even with averaging over only one hour of seismic noise, the correlation
function appears to be a reasonable approximation of the GF. I therefore perform
the same measurements as presented in chapter 4 on the one-hour GFs.
l
a
p
s
e

t
i
m
e

[
s
]
Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun
8
6
4
2
0
2
4
6
8
Figure 5.2: Time section of 1-hour Greens functions between stations GRW0 and GRW1.
There is one Greens function for every hour from beginning of August 1997 until mid June
1999.
5.1.2 Hourly velocity variations
In gure 5.3 the velocity variations are shown for each one-hour GF together with
the velocity variations obtained from GF that are averaged over one day. The blue
curve is similar to gure 4.6A, except that the measurements are performed for the
Z-component. The oset between end September and mid October 1997 is due to
a polarity reversal at station GRW0 (cf. chapter 5.2). Compared to these daily
measurements the red dots that represent the hourly measurements appear to show
stronger uctuations. A closer look at these uctuations reveals some periodicity.
Figure 5.4A shows an enlarged segment of the curve in gure 5.3. For comparison
the GF for this period are shown in gure 5.4B. The similarity between the the
measured velocity variations and the shape of the Greens functions in gure 5.4 is
not as striking as for the annual changes. This is due to the less averaging of the
Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul
0.02
0.015
0.01
0.005
0
0.005
0.01
0.015
0.02

v
/
v
Figure 5.3: Hourly velocity variations measured between stations GRW0 and GRW1
from August 1997 until mid June 1999. Red dots are measured from 1-hour GFs and blue
line indicates the measurements obtained from GFs averaged over 24 hours.
A
03/15 03/16 03/17 03/18 03/19 03/20 03/21 03/22
15
10
5
0
5
x 10
3

v
/
v
B
l
a
p
s
e

t
i
m
e

[
s
]
03/15 03/16 03/17 03/18 03/19 03/20 03/21
8
6
4
2
0
2
4
6
8
Figure 5.4: A: Enlarged period (15-22 March 1998) of the hourly velocity variations
measured between stations GRW0 and GRW1. Red line is measured from 1-hour GFs
and blue line indicates the measurements obtained from GFs averaged over 24 hours. B:
1-hour Greens functions for this period.
0 2 4 6 8 10 12
velocity variations
0 2 4 6 8 10 12
air pressure variations
0 2 4 6 8 10 12
air temperature variations
0 2 4 6 8 10 12
precipitation rate
frequency [1/day]
Figure 5.5: Power spectra of hourly velocity variations and environmental processes that
might inuence the Greens functions. The vertical scale is logarithmic.
one-hour GFs. In fact also the amplitude of the GRs seems to uctuate periodically.
This indicates that the noise sources are not constant.
To identify the cause of these uctuations a spectral analysis of the velocity
variations is performed. For this analysis, velocity measurements are only used when
the correlation of the GF with the reference trace exceeds 0.4. Values with lower
correlation are substituted by linear interpolation of adjacent vales. In gure 5.5 the
power spectrum of the velocity variations is compared with dierent environmental
processes that might cause the changes in the GFs. These are rain, air temperature,
and air pressure for which data form Merapi was provided by Malte Westerhaus.
The spectrum of the velocity variations shows a dominant peak at one cycle per
day and 4 higher harmonics. There is a signicant dierence between the amplitude
of the 24 h period peak and the 12 h peak. The spectrum of the air pressure
uctuations has peaks at 24 h period and higher harmonics. In contrast to the
velocity variations the amplitudes of the 24 h and 12 h peaks are similar. It is a well
known characteristic of air pressure variations that the semi-diurnal oscillation has
equal or higher amplitude then the diurnal. Air temperature variations again show
dominant uctuations with 24 h period and higher harmonics. The 12 h period
peak is of considerably lower amplitude than the 24 h peak. This is similar to the
spectrum of the velocity variations. The precipitation rate does only show one peak
at 24 h period. Higher harmonics are missing. Since the 24 h periodicity seems
to be the fundamental oscillation in all these time series I stack each of the series
0 5 10 15 20
t [h]

velocity variation
air temperature
air pressure
rain
Figure 5.6: Stack of the diurnal velocity variations, air-pressure, air temperature and
precipitation rate. Y-axis shows scaled amplitudes. Time axis is Coordinated Universal
Time (UTC) which is 7 h behind local time at Merapi.
with a 24 h periodicity to compare the phases. Therefor each time series is cut into
consecutive segments of 24 h length. The stacks of these segments are shown in
gure 5.6. Taking into account the 7 h dierence between UTC used in the gure
and local time at Merapi, on can recognize the expected shape of the air-temperature
and -pressure variations. The temperature reaches its maximum at about noon and
its minimum before sunrise. The frequency doubling of the pressure variations is
also evident. The precipitation assumes its maximum in the afternoon. The velocity
variations have a shape similar to the temperature variations and the oscillations
are approximately in phase. The exact phase dierence between the air-temperature
variations and the velocity variations is 1 h with the temperature variations being
in advance.
5.1.3 Conclusions
With the increased temporal resolution of PII I identied periodic variations in the
GFs. These variations concern the amplitude and the shape of the GFs. Applying
coda wave interferometry to these GFs reveals periodic uctuations of the seismic
velocity. The frequency spectra of the velocity variations and precipitation are
clearly dierent. The 12 h oscillation and the higher harmonics are missing in the
precipitation data. I conclude that the diurnal velocity variations are not caused by
or related to precipitation.
The spectra of air-pressure and -temperature variations are more similar to
the velocity variations. In particular the amplitude ratio between the 24 h and 12 h
peaks argues for a relation between the velocity variations and air-temperature. This
is conrmed by the shape of the diurnal stack of the data which shows similarity
between temperature and velocity data.
A possible mechanism that could cause variations of the seismic velocity as
response to temperature variations is thermal stressing. The associated temperature
changes in the subsurface are certainly limited to a very shallow layer but the stress
changes aect a larger volume. A combination of dierent causes like air pressure
and temperature can not be excluded with the present analysis. A detailed modeling
like in chapter 4 for the annual changes is necessary to clearly identify the cause of
the diurnal changes.
5.2 Detecting instrumental errors with passive
imaging
One of the most dicult tasks of operating a seismic network is the verication of
data quality. Especially the data that is taken home from temporal network does
not always have the expected characteristics. An interesting example is presented by
Miller et al. (1998) who deployed a temporal network for the estimation of moment
tensors and tomography. They had to detonate an explosion to check the polarities
of the sensors of which 25% were wrong. Leaving these 25% uncorrected would be
disastrous for moment tensor estimation. Though tomography and event location
experiments require high timing precision, the timing problems especially of tempo-
ral stations are well known. Here a method is presented that uses passive imaging
to verify the timing and polarity of a seismic station directly from the data.
5.2.1 Cross-volcano Greens functions
To estimate GFs between between distant stations a lower frequency band is to be
used. The strong attenuation of high frequency waves destroys the correlation of
the waveeld on a larger distance. For the distance of 5 km between the Merapi
arrays GRW and KEN, the frequency band between 0.1 Hz and 10 Hz proved to be
useful for the short period stations and between 0.01 Hz 10 Hz for the broadband
stations. Since this frequency band contains the microseismic peaks there is some
variability in the power spectrum that is smoothed by spectral whitening (Bensen
et al., 2007) before the correlation. Figure 5.7 shows the color coded GF between
the stations GRW0 and KEN1 for the vertical components.
The following observations can be made.
1. The GFs show a good coherence over the whole period of time.
2. The GFs are not symmetric about zero.
3. Between end the 25th of September and the 15th of October 1997 the polarity
of one of the instruments is reversed.
4. Between March 1998 and October 1999 the individual phases show a saw-tooth
pattern.
Item one shows that there is a good reproducibility of the GFs. Their shape
does only marginally depend on the time of the year. This in agreement with Stehly
et al. (2006) who found stable noise sources in the frequency band 0.1 - 0.2 Hz.
GFs obtained from noise with this characteristics are well suited for the study of
temporal changes. The asymmetry of the GFs mentioned in item two above indicates
that either noise sources are unequally distributed or that the scatters which act as
secondary sources have preferred locations (Paul et al., 2005; Stehly et al., 2006).
The sign reversal mentioned in item three was already observed in chapter 5.1.2 for
correlations between stations GRW0 and GRW1. This means that the reversal most
DETECTING INSTRUMENTAL ERRORS WITH PASSIVE IMAGING 95
l
a
p
s
e

t
i
m
e

[
s
]
Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May
40
30
20
10
0
10
20
30
40
Figure 5.7: Time section of the GF between stations GRW0 and KEN1 for the period
August 1997 until May 1999. The amplitudes are linearly amplied from zero lapse time
towards the ends.
probably occurred at GRW0. In contrast to the symmetric changes observed in
section 5.1.1 the changes in gure 5.7 have the same sense for positive and negative
lapse times. They are thus of dierent origin.
All these observations can be made even at late lapse times such as 100 s.
Figure 5.8 shows a time section of a late phase in the GFs. This phase is found in
all GFs between a GRW-station and a KEN-station.
5.2.2 Instrumental errors
Temporal changes that aect positive and negative times in the same way are due to
errors in one of the stations clock (Stehly et al., 2007). To estimate the clock errors
of the individual stations I try to optimally use the conguration of the network. The
network consists of two arrays: GRW and KEN (gure 4.1). Each array consists of
four three-component stations (see gure 4.1 for the GRW array), that are pairwise
connected to a 6-channel digitizer. Thus there are four digitizers with independent
clocks and GPS timing system. Digitizers are named A with sensors KEN0 and
KEN1, B with sensors KEN2 and KEN3, C with sensors GRW0 and GRW1 and
D with sensors GRW2 and GRW3. To estimate to clock dierence between two
digitizers, e.g. A and C, I use the GFs between the four sensor pairs that are
connected to the two digitizers, i.e. A1-C1, A1-C2, A2-C1, A2-C2, where A1 and
A2 symbolize the two sensors connected with digitizer A.
I estimate the clock dierences in a multi step procedure.
1. Calculation of a reference trace by stacking all GF for each sensor pair
l
a
p
s
e

t
i
m
e

[
s
]
Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May
120
115
110
105
100
95
90
85
80
Figure 5.8: Time section of the GF between stations GRW0 and KEN1 for the period
August 1997 until May 1999.
2. Measurement of the clock dierence as the position of the maximum of the
cross-correlation function between the individual GFs and the reference traces
for each sensor pair
3. Combination of the clock dierence measurements from the four sensor pairs
4. Calculation of a new reference trace for each sensor pair like in 1 but shifted
to account for the clock dierence
5. Measurement of the clock dierence for each sensor pair like in 2 but with the
new reference trace.
6. Combination of the new clock dierence measurements from the four sensor
pairs
Steps four up to six are necessary because the reference trace generated in step 1 is
altered by the clock errors. These steps can be repeated several times to improve the
reference trace, but after one iteration the improvements are marginal. For the cross-
correlation in items 2 and 4 I use the complete GFs between -100 and 100 s lapse time
including direct and scattered waves. Because of the larger amplitudes the cross-
correlation functions are dominated by the direct waves. For the combination of
the clock dierence measurements from the dierent sensor pairs a simple average is
calculated between measurements that fulll the following criterion: The correlation
between the reference trace and the GF, that was shifted to account for the measured
clock dierence exceeds 0.4. The number of traces that are used in this averaging
can be increased by using more components of the Greens tensors between the
station pairs. In fact in the present case one could use 36 component pairs for this
averaging. Figure 5.9 shows the clock dierence measurements for all digitizer pairs.
Similar measurements were obtained for stations in Southern California by
Stehly et al. (2007). This information is useful for analysis of the station pairs, like
ambient noise tomography (Shapiro et al., 2005). But it does not help to improve
event localization that is strongly dependent on precise timing information of in-
dividual stations. To provide this information the following approach is used here.
The relation between the clock dierences shown in gure 5.9 and the clock errors
of individual stations can be written in matrix form:
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
1 1 0 0
1 0 1 0
1 0 0 1
0 1 1 0
0 1 0 1
0 0 1 1
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
D
_
_
_
_
=
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
AB
AC
AD
BC
BD
CD
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
(5.1)
This equation is valid for each point in time where the clock dierences are known.
Here
X
represents the clock error of digitizer X and
XY
represents the clock dier-
ence between digitizers X and Y. Equation 5.1 is a classical least squares inversion
problem of the form Gm = d with m being the unknown model vector and d be-
ing the known data. The system is solved in the least squares sense to obtain the
unknown clock osets. These are shown in gure 5.10. Since it is still possible to
add an equal oset to all clocks, the curves are tied to the timing of digitizer C. Its
clock error is set to zero. Actually gure 5.9 shows no signature of a clock correction
that is common to all clock dierence measurements that contain digitizer C. This
indicates that digitizer C either had a perfect clock or was, which is more likely,
continuously locked to the GPS signal.
The curves in gure 5.10 show the characteristics of the individual clocks. Dig-
itizer C probably has continuous GPS reception. Digitizer D also has a good GPS
but the worst clock. The GPS only lost the connection to the satellites in August
1998 but the clock has a drift of 6.71e-7 or of 1.74 s/month. Digitizers A and B
have clock drifts of 1.5e-7 and 9.33e-8 respectively. They lost their GPS connection
between March and October 1998. Between December 1997 and March 1998, the
digitizers A and B of the array KEN show frequent spikes of about 1 s amplitude
that can be attributed to instrumental errors. The two spikes of digitizer A are
common with digitizer B. This indicates that these errors do not occur randomly
but are externally triggered. Probably the meteorological conditions caused poor
GPS reception which led to misinterpretation of thepulseper second GPS signal
at both digitizers at KEN. The accuracy of the method depends on the distance
between the receivers, because of the damping of high frequency components over
longer distances. For stations pairs within one of the small arrays, i.e. with dis-
tances of about 200 m, the standard deviation of the clock dierence is about 10 ms.
For longer distances of about 5 km across the volcano the standard deviation of the
clock dierence measurements is of the order of 50 ms.
Sep Nov 1998 Mar May Jul Sep Nov 1999 Mar May
1
0.5
0
0.5
1
c
l
o
c
k

d
i
f
f
e
r
e
n
c
e

[
s
]

C1A1
C1A2
C2A1
C2A2
average
1
0.5
0
0.5
1
c
l
o
c
k

d
i
f
f
e
r
e
n
c
e

[
s
]

C1B1
C1B2
C2B1
C2B2
average
1
0.5
0
0.5
1
c
l
o
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k

d
i
f
f
e
r
e
n
c
e

[
s
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C1D1
C1D2
C2D1
C2D2
average
1
0.5
0
0.5
1
c
l
o
c
k

d
i
f
f
e
r
e
n
c
e

[
s
]

D1A1
D1A2
D2A1
D2A2
average
1
0.5
0
0.5
1
c
l
o
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k

d
i
f
f
e
r
e
n
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e

[
s
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D1B1
D1B2
D2B1
D2B2
average
1
0.5
0
0.5
1
c
l
o
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k

d
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[
s
]

A1B1
A1B2
A2B1
A2B2
average
Figure 5.9: Clock dierences between the digitizers of the GRW and KEN stations. Dots
indicate the measurements between the dierent sensor pairs of a given digitizer pair. Red
line shows the combination of the measurements from the corresponding sensor pairs.
0.5
0
0.5
0.5
0
0.5
0.5
0
0.5
0.5
0
0.5
Digitizer D
Digitizer C
Digitizer B
Digitizer A
c
l
o
c
k

o
f
f
s
e
t

[
s
]
Figure 5.10: Clock errors of the four digitizer clocks
5.2.3 Conclusions
The method presented here provides information about the polarity of the seismic
records and about the clock osets. This information is very valuable for the veri-
cation and analysis of seismic data but it can also be obtained in a more traditional
way. The polarity can for example be checked by comparison of rst motions of
teleseismic arrivals or by explosions as done by Miller et al. (1998). In principle also
the curves that show the clock oset in gure 5.10 can be reproduced by analysis of
GPS-logles that usually record GPS reception and clock corrections. Nevertheless I
think it is very useful to be able to get all these information directly from the data,
without the need for external information from logles or seismological analysis.
Especially for the operation of temporal networks with dicult GPS conditions like
in high latitudes, mountainous areas or on the seaoor the possibility to correct the
timing may prove very valuable. In OBS networks one can obtain precise relative
timing and average the clock drifts of the whole network which will increase the
accuracy of the absolute timing. Onshore one can relate the need for GPS reception
at all stations since a single station without GPS can easily be synchronized to the
GPS-locked clocks of other stations. The accuracy of 10 ms for small receiver dis-
tances (200 m) and 50 ms for distances of 5 km can already outstrip the accuracy
of internal digitizer clocks after a single day.
100CHAPTER 5. DAILY VELOCITY VARIATIONS / INSTRUMENT ERRORS
Summary
This work contains a number of studies that extract information from scattered seis-
mic waves. In part I the amplitude of the seismic coda is analyzed with radiative
transfer theory. The rst study introduces an approach to simultaneously invert
the seismic coda for intrinsic attenuation, scattering strength, source spectrum, and
site amplication factors. This analysis is based on radiative transfer in the acous-
tic approximation with isotropic scattering. It is shown that the estimated seismic
moments are in good agreement with results from waveform modeling, that site am-
plications correspond to geology, that the transport mean free path in the German
is 690 km and that the quality factor of intrinsic attenuation is of the order of 500.
A Monte-Carlo algorithm is presented that was developed to solve the radiative
transfer equation for elastic waves. It accounts for non-isotropic scattering and
conversion between P- and S-modes. The large scale velocity structure of the crust
is taken into account in terms of dierent velocities in crust and mantle, and the
discontinuity in-between, that leads to conversion, reection, and transmission of
seismic energy. Reection and conversion at the free surface is also treated. A
vertical velocity gradient in the mantle can be used to generate mantle phases like
Pn and Sn.
The study on Lg-blockage applies this algorithm to explain the reason of the
strong attenuation of crustal phases in the western Pyrenees. In simulations of the
radiative transfer process in a 3-dimensional structure it is shown that increased
heterogeneity in a localized region below the western Pyrenees is able to explain the
Lg-blockage. The t of the model can be improved by additionally increasing the
intrinsic attenuation in the western Pyrenean body. Intrinsic attenuation alone can
not account for the observed attenuation.
The second part of this work uses the phase information of the seismic coda.
Additionally the seismic coda is not simply measured in a classical sourcereceiver
conguration, but retrieved from the ambient seismic noise by cross-correlation of
the signals from two receivers. This process of Greens function retrieval is based
on the phase information of the seismic noise.
In the rst study of data from Merapi Volcano it is shown that the passively
retrieved Greens functions can be retrieved from noise records of 24 h length. This
allows to obtain a seismic record independent of active sources once a day. Based
on this nding a monitoring technique named passive image interferometry is intro-
duced. It allows to precisely monitor velocity changes in the subsurface. Application
to noise records from Merapi volcano shows velocity variations of a few percent on
a time scale of weeks. A strong seasonal trend is observed. In a sophisticated in-
101
102 SUMMARY
version process, the parameters of a hydrological model are estimated that relates
the measured velocity variations with precipitation induced changes of the ground
water level. With the nal parameters the hydrological model can explain the shape
of the velocity variations and their lapse time dependent amplitudes solely based on
precipitation data.
The temporal resolution of passive image interferometry is increased in another
study from one day to one hour. Based on spectral comparison with various mete-
orological parameters, this study reports evidence for a relation of the fast velocity
variations with atmospheric temperature.
The last study introduces a method to assess the accuracy of instrument timing
and setup directly from records of seismic noise. The signature of timing errors on
the passively retrieved Greens functions is dierent from the signature of velocity
variations, that were analyzed in the studies above. The method above is applied
to data from four digitizers from the Merapi network. It is shown how the clock
dierence of each instrument pair can be estimated from the noise records. With a
least squares inversion the clock oset of each digitizer is obtained.
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nonlinear behavior in seismic velocity. Science, 295:22532255.
Snieder, R. and Page, J. (2007). Multiple scattering in evolving media. Phys. Today,
60(4):4955.
110 BIBLIOGRAPHY
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Stehly, L., Campillo, M., and Shapiro, N. M. (2006). A study of the seismic
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Stehly, L., Campillo, M., and Shapiro, N. M. (2007). Travel time measurements
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Turner, J. A. (1998). Scattering and diusion of seismic waves. Bull. Seismol. Soc.
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Wassermann, J. and Ohrnberger, M. (2001). Automatic hypocenter determination
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Appl. Geophys., 163:503531.
Wegler, U. and L uhr, B. G. (2001). Scattering behaviour at Merapi volcano (Java)
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doi:10.1046/j.1365-246x.2001.01390.x.
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Wegler, U., L uhr, B. G., Snieder, R., and Ratdomopurbo, A. (2006b). Increase
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246X.2006.03284.x.
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619.
112 BIBLIOGRAPHY
Deutsche Zusammenfassung
113
DEUTSCHE ZUSAMMENFASSUNG 115
Gestreute Wellenfelder werden in der Seismologie im Allgemeinen als Storsignale an-
gesehen. Aufgrund der Komplexitat dieser Wellenfelder sind Strahl- und Wellentheo-
rie, die Werkzeuge der klassischen Seismologie, f ur deren Beschreibung ungeeignet
(Aki and Richards, 1980). Damit ist der uberwiegende Teil der seismologischen Da-
ten, namlich sowohl die Coda von Erdbeben als auch das seismische Umgebungsrau-
schen, auf traditionallem Wege nicht zur Informationsgewinnung nutzbar. Die vor-
liegende Arbeit beschaftigt sich mit zwei alternativen Ansatzen, die es ermoglichen,
diesen enormen Datenbestand f ur geophysikalische Zwecke zu nutzen.
Energietransfertheorie
Im ersten Teil der Arbeit werden Erdbebenaufzeichnungen auf Grundlage der Ener-
gietransfertheorie (Ryzhik et al., 1996) ausgewertet. Diese Theorie betrachtet nicht
die Ausbreitung von elastischen Wellen, sondern vernachlassigt deren Phasenbe-
ziehungen in der Annahme, dass diese unkorreliert sind. Damit kann die Energie-
transfertheorie nur Aussagen zur Ausbreitung der Energie des Wellenfeldes treen.
Diesem Nachteil steht der Vorteil gegen uber, dass durch die Vernachlassigung der
Phasenbeziehungen auf eine deterministische Beschreibung des Ausbreitungsmedi-
ums verzichtet werden kann. Damit konnen die kleinskaligen Heterogenitaten, die
f ur die Ausbildung der seismischen Coda verantwortlich sind, statistisch beschrieben
und die Form der Seismogrammeinh ullenden (Envelope) einschlielich Coda model-
liert werden.
Akustische Naherung der Energietransfertheorie
Hier wird die Energietransfertheorie in der akustischen Naherung benutzt. Die Aus-
breitung der Scherwellenenergie lasst sich in diesem Fall durch eine skalare Energie-
transfergleichung beschreiben. Die Energie der Longitudinalwelle wird vernachlassigt.
Es wird eine Methode entwickelt, die es ermoglicht, aus den Aufzeichnungen der
Scherwellen und deren Coda von mehreren Erdbeben an mehreren Stationen das
seismische Moment der Erdbeben, die Verstarkungsfaktoren des Untergrundes der
einzelnen Stationen sowie die Dampfungsparameter der Erdkruste zu bestimmen.
Insbesondere lassen sich die Eekte von intrinsischer Dampfung und Streudampfung
trennen.
In einer Anwendung auf Breitbanddaten des Deutschen Regionalnetzes wird die Me-
thodik demonstriert und es werden Informationen uber die Dampfungseigenschaf-
ten der Kruste sowie die Verstarkungsfaktoren des Untergrundes der Regionalnetz-
Stationen gewonnen. F ur die mittlere freie Weglange, die die Starke der Streuung
beschreibt, wurde ein Wert von 690 km bestimmt. Der Qualitatsfaktor der intrin-
sischen Dampfung liegt im Frequenzbereich um 3 Hz bei 500. Die Verstarkungs-
faktoren zeigen einen eindeutigen Bezug zur Geologie. Durch einen Vergleich der
gemessenen seismischen Momente mit unabhangigen Messungen durch Wellenform-
inversion werden die Inversionsergebnisse veriziert.
Wesentliche Bestandteile dieser Untersuchung wurden in Sens-Schonfelder and Weg-
ler (2006b) veroentlicht.
116 SUMMARY
Monte-Carlo Simulationen f ur die Ausbreitung elastischer Energie
Um die Einschrankungen zu uberwinden, die sich aus der Anwendung der akusti-
schen Naherung ergeben, wird in diesem Kapitel ein Algorithmus entwickelt, der die
Energietransfergleichung im elastischen Fall lost. Das Energietransferproblem wird
daf ur zunachst in Form von drei gekoppelten skalaren Gleichungen formuliert, die
sich f ur die Implementierung eines Monte-Carlo-Algorithmus eignen. Die einzelnen
Komponenten des Algorithmus werden im Anschluss diskutiert. Der Algorithmus
ermoglicht die Berechnung von vollstandigen Seismogrammeinh ullenden in einem
Modell, das durch statistische Eigenschaften der kleinskaligen Heterogenitaten so-
wie durch deterministische Struktur beschrieben wird. Die Berechnung erfolgt unter
Beachtung von Konversion zwischen Longitudinal- und Transversalwellen und von
Reexion/Transmission und Konversion an der freien Oberache und einer Diskon-
tinuitat in der Tiefe.
Elastische Energietransfertheorie und die Ausloschung von Lg-Wellen in
den Pyrenaen
Der im vorangegangenen Kapitel beschriebene Algorithmus kann Seismogramm-
einh ullende in einem Modell berechnen, das neben den kleinskaligen Heterogenitaten
auch deterministische groskalige Struktur enthalt. Diese Fahigkeit erlaubt eine sehr
realistische Beschreibung von Aufzeichnungen regionaler Erdbeben und wird hier
ausgenutzt, um auergewohnliche Dampfungseigenschaften der Erdkruste unterhalb
der westlichen Pyrenaen zu untersuchen. In dem Bereich werden durch die Kruste
laufende Wellen ungewohnlich stark gedampft. Dieses, nach einer krustalen Phase
Lg-Ausloschung genannte, Phanomen ist von marinen Sedimentbecken bekannt, in
denen es durch das Einfangen von Energie in den Sedimenten mit sehr geringen
Geschwindigkeiten und hoher Dampfung verursacht wird. Auf die Situation in den
Pyrenaen ist diese Erklarung allerdings nicht anwendbar und es wurde gezeigt, dass
die lokale makroskopische Geschwindigkeitsstruktur nur einen sehr geringen Ein-
uss auf die Amplituden der krustalen Phasen hat. Damit war der Mechanismus der
Lg-Ausloschung in den Pyrenaen bislang ungeklart.
Hier wird ein Modell vorgestellt, das zusatzlich zur normalen KrusteMantelStruktur
einen Storkorper in der Kruste unterhalb der westlichen Pyrenaen enthalt. Dieser
Korper gleicht in seinen makroskopischen Eigenschaften wie Dichte und mittlerer
Geschwindigkeit der seismischen Wellen der umgebenen Kruste. Unterschiede be-
stehen in der intrinsischen Dampfung und der Starke der Streuung. In einer ersten
Inversionsphase werden die Parameter der ungestorten Kruste aus Aufzeichnungen
von Wellenwegen durch die ostlichen Pyrenaen bestimmt. Auf diesen Parametern
aufbauend, werden die Aufzeichnungen von Wellenwegen durch die westlichen Py-
renaen nach den Parametern des Storkorpers invertiert.
Dabei werden drei Modelle getestet: 1. Die Lg-Ausloschung wird durch intrinsische
Dampfung verursacht. 2. Die Ausloschung wird durch Streuung verursacht. Und 3.
sowohl Streuung als auch intrinsische Dampfung tragen zur Ausloschung der krus-
talen Phasen bei. Alle drei Modelle sind in der Lage, die durch die Kruste laufende
Energie ezient zu dampfen, aber es gibt deutliche Unterschiede in der Form der
A
-6
-6
-5
-5
-4
-4
-3
-3
-2
-2
-1
-1
0
0
1
1
2
2
3
3
4
4
5
5
6
6
37 37
38 38
39 39
40 40
41 41
42 42
43 43
44 44
45 45
46 46
47 47
48 48
49 49
200 km
low high
amplitude
B
-6
-6
-5
-5
-4
-4
-3
-3
-2
-2
-1
-1
0
0
1
1
2
2
3
3
4
4
5
5
6
6
37 37
38 38
39 39
40 40
41 41
42 42
43 43
44 44
45 45
46 46
47 47
48 48
49 49
200 km
low high
amplitude
Abbildung 1: Momentaufnahmen der Energieverteilung 105 s (A) und 180 s (B) nach
einem Erdbeben in Spanien. Stern: Epizentrum. Rechteck: Storkorper.
resultierenden Seismogrammeinh ullenden. Es wird gezeigt, dass Modell 1 eine deutli-
che Diskrepanz zu den Beobachtungen hinterlasst, woraus geschlussfolgert wird, dass
intrinsische Dampfung nicht die alleinige Ursache der Lg-Ausloschung ist. Modell 2
dagegen ist in der Lage, die Beobachtungen vern unftig zu reproduzieren. Die Kom-
bination aus verstarkter Streuung und erhohter intrinsischer Dampfung in Modell 3
kann die Beobachtungen am besten erklaren.
F ur die Parameter des besten Modells zeigen Abbildungen 1A und B Momentauf-
nahmen der Energieverteilung 105 s und 180 s nach einem Erdbeben in Spanien. Die
Bilder verdeutlichen die Dampfung der durch die Kruste laufenden Wellen, die sich
in einer L ucke in der Wellenfront im Schatten des Storkorpers bemerkbar macht.
Die durch den Mantel laufende Energie breitet sich dagegen ungestort aus.
Die vorliegende Untersuchung bietet damit eine Erklarung f ur das Phanomen der Lg-
Ausloschung in den Pyrenaen als Folge lokal verstarkter Heterogenitat und erhohter
Dampfung. Dieses Modell lasst sich unter Umstanden auch f ur die Erklarung ahnlicher
Beobachtungen in den Alpen heranziehen. In den Pyrenaen ist die betreende Region
durch besonders starke Deformation und durch Materialaustausch zwischen verschie-
denen Tiefenbereichen aus Kruste und Mantel im Zuge der Aualtung der Pyrenaen
gekennzeichnet. Sehr wahrscheinlich stehen diese Prozesse mit den veranderten Streu-
und Dampfungseigenschaften in Zusammenhang.
118 SUMMARY
PhasenKorrelationen
Im Gegensatz zur im ersten Teil verwendeten Energietransfertheorie, die die Phasen-
beziehungen der gestreuten Wellenfelder vernachlassigt, stellen diese Phasenbezie-
hungen die Informationsquelle der in Teil zwei verwendeten Methoden dar. Grundla-
ge dieser Methoden ist die passive Gewinnung von Greenschen Funktionen zwischen
zwei Punkten durch Korrelation der Aufzeichnungen eines diusen Wellenfeldes an
diesen Punkten. In der Seismologie hat dieses Konzept mit einer Veroentlichung
von Campillo and Paul (2003) Einzug gehalten. Es gr undet auf der Tatsache, dass
Phasenbeziehungen von Wellen, die gleiche Wege zur uckgelegt haben, erhalten blei-
ben, auch wenn sie von einer Vielzahl von Wellen uberlagert werden, die andere
Wege zur uckgelegt haben. Als diuses Wellenfeld dient hier das seismische Umge-
bungsrauschen.
Interferometrie rauschgenerierter Seismogramme am Merapi (Indonesi-
en)
Hier wird eine Untersuchung beschrieben, die in Sens-Schonfelder and Wegler (2006a)
veroentlicht wurde. Sie enthalt einige wesentliche methodische Entwicklungen so-
wie grundlegende Erkenntnisse. Die Untersuchung beginnt mit dem Nachweis, dass
die durch Korrelation von seismischem Rauschen gewonnenen Greenschen Funktio-
nen nicht nur, wie bis dahin angenommen, die ballistischen Phasen enthalten, son-
dern dar uber hinaus auch die Codawellen, also indirekte, reektierte und gestreute
Wellen. Diese Erkenntnis eronet die Moglichkeit, die passiv gewonnenen Green-
schen Funktionen in der Reexionsseismik zu benutzen. Eine andere Moglichkeit,
der hier nachgegangen wird, ist deren Verwendung f ur hochgenaue interferometrische
Messungen von Veranderungen im Ausbreitungsmedium. Es wird gezeigt, dass sich
aus eintagigen Registrierungen des seismischen Rauschens Greensche Funktionen re-
konstruieren lassen, die sich mit dem an anderen Tagen aufgezeichneten Rauschen
reproduzieren lassen. Darauf aufbauend wird die Interferometrie rauschgenerierter
Seismogramme (Passive Image Interferometry) vorgestellt, die eine kontinuierliche
Uberwachung der seismischen Geschwindigkeit im Untergrund ermoglicht. Sie nutzt

eine verbesserte Variante der als Codawellen-Interferometrie bekannten Technik zur
Messung von Geschwindigkeitsanderungen.
Es werden Daten vom Vulkan Merapi im Zeitraum von August 1997 bis Juli 1999
analysiert. Diese zeigen deutliche Schwankungen der seismischen Geschwindigkeit im
Bereich von wenigen Prozent. Die Variationen zeigen einen jahreszeitlichen Verlauf
und hangen in ihrer Amplitude von der Laufzeit der seismischen Wellen ab. Bild 2A
zeigt die gemessenen Geschwindigkeitsanderungen f ur Laufzeiten zwischen 2-8 s.
Der Vorteil gegen uber bestehenden Methoden zur

Uberwachung der seismischen Ge-
schwindigkeit wird in dieser Abbildung deutlich. Die sechs Messpunkte der blauen
und gr unen Linien, die vergroert dargestellt sind, stammen von aufwendigen ak-
tiven Messungen mit wiederholbaren Quellen, die mit Codawellen-Interferometrie
ausgewertet wurden. Die kontinuierlichen Messungen mit der hier vorgestellten Me-
thode wurden ohne zusatzlichen Feldeinsatz aus bestehenden Daten gewonnen.
0.04
0.03
0.02
0.01
0
0.01
0.02
0.03
0.04
d
v
/
vJun Jul Aug
0.01
0.005
0
40
30
20
10
0
0.02
0.01
0
0.01
0.02
G
W
L

[
m
]

v
/
v
0
30
60
p
r
e
c
i
p
i
t
a
t
i
o
n

[
m
m
/
d
]

A
B
Abbildung 2:

Anderungen der seismischen Geschwindigkeit am Vulkan Merapi (A) und
deren hydrologische Modellierung (B)
In einer nichtlinearen Inversion werden die Parameter eines hier entwickelten hy-
drologischen Modells angepasst, das in der Lage ist, die gemessenen Geschwin-
digkeitsanderungen durch Schwankungen im Grundwasserspiegel zu erklaren. Die
Vorwartsrechung dieser Inversion nutzt ortsabhangige Sensitivitatsfunktionen und
beschreibt neben dem Verlauf auch die Laufzeitabhangigen Amplituden der Ge-
schwindigkeitsvariationen. Die Anpassung des hydrologischen Modells an die Ge-
schwindigkeitsvariationen wird in Abbildung 2B verdeutlicht. Im unteren Teil der
Abbildung ist die tagliche Niederschlagsmenge in Blau und der daraus bestimm-
te Grundwasserspiegel in Schwarz dargestellt. Im oberen Teil sind die gemessenen
(Punkte) und vom Modell vorhergesagten (durchgezogene Linien) Geschwindigkeits-
variationen f ur zwei Laufzeitfenster dargestellt. Rot entspricht Laufzeiten zwischen
2-4 s und Blau zwischen 6-8 s. Die gute

Ubereinstimmung dieser Kurven belegt,
dass das hydrologische Modell den korrekten physikalischen Zusammenhang zwi-
schen Niederschlag und

Anderungen der seismischen Geschwindigkeit beschreibt.
Dies wiederum zeigt, dass die hier vorgestellte Methode tatsachlich in der Lage ist,
geringf ugige

Anderungen der seismischen Geschwindigkeit zu uberwachen. Die Me-
thode ist einfach, auf existierende Daten anwendbar und hat ein groes Potential
f ur Anwendungen in anderen Bereichen (Snieder and Page, 2007).
120 SUMMARY
Tagliche Variationen und Instrumentenfehler
Hier werden zwei weitere Anwendungen der Methode zur Gewinnung von Green-
schen Funktionen aus seismischem Umgebungsrauschen f ur Veranderungsmessung-
en vorgestellt. Die erste Untersuchung dieses Kapitels stellt eine Verbesserung der
zeitlichen Auosung der Interferometrie rauschgenerierter Signale vor. Sie beschreibt
anhand der Daten vom Vulkan Merapi tageszeitliche

Anderungen der seismischen
Geschwindigkeit und deren spektrale Zusammensetzung. Der Vergleich mit den Am-
plitudenspektren verschiedener meteorologischer Groen und deren Phasen deutet
darauf hin, dass die tageszeitlichen Schwankungen mit

Anderungen der Lufttempe-
ratur zusammenhangen.
Eine andere Art von Veranderungen wird in der zweiten Studie mittels rauschge-
nerierter Seismogramme untersucht. Hier wird der Eekt von Zeitfehlern in den
Seismometern betrachtet. Es werden die Zeitdierenzen zwischen den paarweise un-
tersuchten Seismometern bestimmt. Eine Matrixinversion f uhrt anschlieend zu den
Zeitfehlern der einzelnen Seismometer. Diese Methode bietet die Moglichkeit, die
Genauigkeit der Zeithaltung unabhangig von Zusatzinformationen direkt anhand
der Daten zu uberwachen. Sie ist damit ideal geeignet, um die Zeithaltung einzelner
Seismometer auch im Nachhinein zu korrigieren.
Ausblick
Mit der Energietransfertheorie und der Nutzung von Phasenkorrelationen im seismi-
schen Rauschen werden zwei Methoden verwendet, die in der Seismologie ein groes
Potential f ur weitere Anwendungen und neue Entwicklungen haben.
Die Simulation der Energieausbreitung in einem kombinierten Modell aus statistisch
beschriebenen kleinskaligen Heterogenitaten und deterministisch beschriebener ma-
kroskopischer Struktur erlaubt weitergehende Untersuchungen von Problemen, in
denen Diskontinuitaten eine Rolle spielen. Unter anderem liee sich die Ausbreitung
teleseismisch einfallender Energie in der Erdkruste studieren, die sehr empndlich
f ur die Eigenschaften des Wellenleiters ist. Der nachste Schritt bei der Entwick-
lung von Algorithmen zur Simulation der Energieausbreitung in der Erde sollte die
Behandlung von Oberachenwellen und deren Kopplung mit Raumwellen sein.
Die Interferometrie rauschgenerierter Seismogramme kann in verschiedensten, weit
uber die Seismologie hinausgehenden, Bereichen angewendet werden, bei denen keine
aktiven Quellen eingesetzt werden konnen. Die Kombination dieser Methode mit
Lokalisierungstechniken f ur die Quelle der Geschwindigkeitsvariationen scheint hier
eine sinnvolle Entwicklung zu sein.
Literaturverzeichnis
Aki, K. and Richards, P. G. (1980). Quantitative Seismology, Theory and Methods,
volume I. W. H. Freeman and Company, San Francisco.
Campillo, M. and Paul, A. (2003). Long-range correlations in the diuse seismic
coda. Science, 299:547 549. doi:10.1126/science.1078551.
Ryzhik, L., Papanicolaou, G., and Keller, J. B. (1996). Transport equations for
elastic and other waves in random media. Wave Motion, 24:327370.
Sens-Schonfelder, C. and Wegler, U. (2006a). Passive image interferomety and sea-
sonal variations of seismic velocities at Merapi volcano, Indonesia. Geophys. Res.
Lett., 33:L21302. doi: 10.1029/2006GL027797.
Sens-Schonfelder, C. and Wegler, U. (2006b). Radiative transfer theory for estimati-
on of the seismic moment. Geophys. J. Int., 167(3):13631372. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-
246X.2006.03139.x.
Snieder, R. and Page, J. (2007). Multiple scattering in evolving media. Phys. Today,
60(4):4955.
121
Scientic developement
Christoph Sens-Sch onfelder
10/1997 09/2003 Studies in geophysics at the Universit at Leipzig, (Leipzig,
Germany)
05/2000 09/2003 Fellow of the German National Merit Foundation (Studien-
stiftung des deutschen Volkes)
08/2000 06/2001 Studies in geophysics at the H ask oli

Islands (Reykjavk,
Iceland)
09/2003 Diploma
01/2004 07/2004 Scientic co-worker at the Universit at Kiel (Kiel,
Germany)
since 08/2004 Scientic co-worker at the Universit
1
2
Leipzig (Leipzig,
Germany)
11/2006 07/2007 Research visit at the Laboratoire de Geophysique Interne
et Tectonophysique (Grenoble, France) with support of the
German Academic Exchange Service (DAAD)
03/2007 Granting of the Gnter Bock award by the Deutsche Geo-
physikalische Gesellschaft (German Geophysical Society)
for an outstanding publication

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Exploring Scattered Waves in Seismology

Exploring Scattered Waves in Seismology

(x, t)) (2.2)

are the components of the S-wave amplitude and c is

correspond to the intensities of SV- and SH-waves

. This approximation allows to write the

and n respectively. The bluish lines with the I

and measured from the direction of polarization. This results

for the two polarizations which of course

. Figure 2.1 illustrates this situation.

and polarizations. This

. Thus, the rst and

, U, V ) describing the polarization.

are unit vectors in the

is the modied Bessel function of second

intensities could be modeled with dierent particles. But

, i.e. linear polarization in arbitrary

is unaected by the Pyrenees.

. This phase experienced

respectively. Again the mantle phase is continuous behind the

A c _goures, N., Shapiro, N. M., Margerin, L., Campillo, M., van

Uberwachung der seismischen Geschwindigkeit im Untergrund ermoglicht. Sie nutzt

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