LEVEL 1 Natural Selection

Natural selection Gradual process by which biological traits become either more or less
common in a population by the effect of inherited traits
Directional selection
Stabilizing selection
Disruptive selection
Theory created by Darwin and Wallace
Survival of the fittest
Whoever leaves the most offspring

Evolution change in inherited characteristics of biological population over generations
Descent with modification
Charles Darwin theory of evolution by natural selection
Evidence of Evolution
Bio geography Fossils
Comparative Anatomy
Comparative Embryology
Molecular Biology

3 Facts about populations
More offspring are produced than the environment can sustain
Traits vary among individuals, leading to different traits of survival reproduction
Trait differences are heritable

Gene pool total # of genes in a population
Genetic diversity
Inbreeding mating of individuals closely related genetically
Population bottleneck sharp reduction in the size of a population due to natural
disasters or human activity

Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium Principle states that allele and genotype frequencies in a
population will remain constant from generation to generation in the absence of other
evolutional influences
p + q = 1
p = dominant allele
q = recessive allele
p
2
+ 2pq + q
2
= 1
p
2
= homozygous dominant
q
2
= homozygous recessive
2pq = heterozygous
Level 2 Examples of Natural Selection
Natural Selection
Directional selection - an extreme phenotype is favored over other phenotypes, causing
the allele frequency to shift over time in the direction of that phenotype
Stabilizing selection - genetic diversity decreases and the population mean stabilizes on
a particular trait value
Disruptive selection - extreme values for a trait are favored over intermediate values

Flowering - also known as Angiosperm. Angiosperms are seed-producing plants like
the gymnosperms and can be distinguished from the gymnosperms by a series of
derived characteristics

Climate Climate plays a huge role in natural selection, because organisms that cannot
survive in a specific cannot survive. Thus, the ones who can, reproduce and carry out their
genotypes and phenotypes into the next generations adapting to the environment.


Phenotype - This is the outward/physical parts of the organism. These are the physical parts
such as molecules, macromolecules, cells, structures, metabolism, energy utilization,
tissues, organs, reflexes and behaviors; anything that is part of the observable structure,
function or behavior of a living organism
Genotype - This is the "internally coded, inheritable information" carried by all living
organisms. The genetic code is copied at the time of cell division or reproduction and are
passed from one generation to the next
Genotypes code for Phenotypes
As these physical structures begin to act and interact with one another they can
influence things like metabolism, energy utilization, tissues, organs, reflexes and
behaviors; anything that is part of the observable structure, function or behavior of a
living organism.

Sickle-Cell Anemia
Disorder in which the body makes sickle-shaped red blood cells. Sickle-shaped means
that the red blood cells are shaped like a crescent
Sickle cell anemia is a disease passed down through families

Antibiotic resistance in bacteria
Antibiotic resistance evolves naturally via natural selection through random mutation in
their DNA

Level 3 Genetic Drift
Evolution change in inherited characteristics of biological population over generations
Descent with modification
Charles Darwin theory of evolution by natural selection
Evidence of Evolution
Bio geography Fossils
Comparative Anatomy
Comparative Embryology
Molecular Biology
Genetic Drift - the change in the frequency of a gene variant/allele in a population due to
random sampling
This happens all through chance
Some individuals by chance may leave behind a few more descendants than other
individuals. The genes of the next generation will be the genes of the "lucky" individuals,
not necessarily the healthier or "better" individuals.
Occurs when the population size is limited and therefore by chance, certain alleles
increase or decrease in frequency
This can result in a shift away from Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium
Bottleneck - Occurs when a populations size is reduced for at least one generation.
This ties in with genetic drift due to big losses of genetic variation for small populations.
undergoing a bottleneck can reduce a populations genetic variation
ex. North Elephant Seal
Northern elephant seals have reduced genetic variation probably because of a
population bottleneck humans inflicted on them in the 1890s
They have much less genetic variation than a population of southern elephant
seals that was not hunted.
Founders effect - a new colony is started by a few members of the original population
As a result of the loss of genetic variation, the new population may be different,
both genotypically and phenotypically, from the parent population from which it came
from
founder effect may lead to the speciation and subsequent evolution of new species
Gene Flow (Also called migration) any movement of genes from one population to
another
Gene flow includes lots of different kinds of events, such as pollen being blown to a new
destination or people moving to new cities or countries
If genes were not found in that specific region, it can be a very important source of
genetic variation
Microevolution - change in gene frequency within a population
Evolution at this scale can be observed over short periods of time
Level 4 Evidence of Evolution
Biogeography
branch of geography that studies the past and present distribution of the world's many
species
Continental drift has played a big role in evolution
Closely related species = geographically close
Animals found on islands are closely related to animals found of the mainland

Fossils
The fossil record provides snapshots of the past that clearly shows that life is old and
has changed over time
Leaves signs of evolutionary transition

Anatomy
Homology
Anatomical similarities among species
Homologous structures Structures that are similar between organism with
common ancestors
Same structures different function
Analogy
Analogous structures - Structures of different species having similar or
corresponding function but not from the same evolutionary origin
Same function different structure
Embryology
Comparative Embryology similar states of development reveals homology
Vestigial
Vestigial structures Historical remains that have little or no modern function
Ex. Appendix

Molecular Evidence
Similar DNA, Proteins
At the cellular and molecular level living things are similar to each other.
These similarities are explained by evolutionary theory: life shares a common ancestor

Evolutionary Tree (Phylogenetic Tree)
showing the inferred evolutionary relationships among various
biological species or phylogeny based upon similarities and differences in their physical
or genetic characteristics
the taxa joined together in the tree show that the specific organisms have descended
from a common ancestor
Level 5 Essential Characteristics are Conserved
Genetic code The set of rules by which information encoded within genetic material is
translated into proteins by living cells
Translated by the tRNA and read by the mRNA three nucleotides at a time
These combinations are used to specify the 20 different amino acids used by living
organisms

Metabolism = Anabolism + Catabolism
Total chemical reactions that occur within the cell
Anabolism buildup of material
Catabolism breakdown of material

Central Dogma
explanation of the flow of genetic information within a biological system
DNA > RNA > Proteins
Genes molecular unit of heredity of a living organism
DNA and RNA that code for a polypeptide
All living things depend of genes as they hold information and genetic traits
Genes code for everything about an organisms genotypes and phenotypes

Eukaryotic cells
Eukaryotic cells contain membrane-bound organelles, such as the nucleus
Cellular structure of eukaryotes include the presence of mitochondria and chloroplasts,
the cell wall, and the structure of chromosomal DNA.
Eukarya The domain comprised of eukaryotes or organisms whose cells contain a
true nucleus
Prokaryotic cells
Single celled organisms that are the earliest and most primitive forms of life on earth
Contain genetic material (DNA), not enclosed in a cellular compartment called the
nucleus
Organized in the Three Domain System, prokaryotes include bacteria and archaeans
Bacteria among the first life forms to appear on earth
Archaea possess genes and several metabolic pathways that are more closely
related to those of eukaryotes
Plasmid membranes with lipid compositions
Live in extreme environments



Level 6 Phylogeny

Convergent evolution process whereby organisms not closely related independently
evolve similar traits as a result of having to adapt to similar environments
Convergent evolution creates analogous structures
Ex. Flying insects, birds, and bats have all evolved to fly
Homology vs. Analogy
Homology
Anatomical similarities among species
Homologous structures Structures that are similar between organism with
common ancestors
Same structures different function
Analogy
Analogous structures - Structures of different species having similar or
corresponding function but not from the same evolutionary origin
Same function different structure
Systematics - the study of the diversification of living forms, both past and present, and
the relationships among living things through time.
Shown through cladograms or phylogenetic trees
Taxon
A group of one or more populations of organisms, which a taxonomist ranks the
organism into a unit
May be given a formal scientific name
Cladogram
A diagram that shows relations among organisms
It is NOT an evolutionary tree
The branching off points represent a hypothetical
ancestry
Based of morphological characters
rRNA vs. DNA
DNA contains sugar deoxyribose/ RNA contains sugar ribose
DNA is double stranded/RNA is single stranded
DNA stores and transfers genetic info/RNA codes for amino acids
DNA uses bases ATCG/RNA uses AUCG
Monophyletic
Monophyletic taxon is one that includes a group of organisms descent from a single
ancestor

Level 7 Speciation and Extinction

Speciation Process by which a new species originates
Two main models
Adaptive radiation - a process in which organisms diversify rapidly into a
multitude of new forms, particularly when a change in the environment makes
new resources available, creates new challenges

Extinction
Mass extinction Increased rate of extinction
Permian (volcano?) effected 96% of sea life
Cretaceous (meteor) dinosaurs
Alters communities
Pave the way for new species
Permian
The last period of the Paleozoic Era
Ancestral groups of mammals, turtles, lepidosaurs and archosaurs
The world was dominated by the supercontinent Pangaea
Ended with the largest mass extinction in Earths history killing over 90% or
marine species and 70% or terrestrial species
Cretaceous
Period with relatively warm climate
Dinosaurs dominated the land
New groups of mammals, birds, and flowering plants appeared
Ended with a large mass extinction
End of the Mesozoic Era







Level 8 Speciation

Speciation Process by which a new species originates
Two main models
Species
Biological species concept able to mate and produce fertile offspring
Morphological species concept Separate species based on structures
Phylogenetic species concept - the smallest set of organisms that share an ancestor and
can be distinguished from other such sets
Ecological species concept Define species on where they live and what they eat

Pre-Zygotic Barriers Impedes mating before fertilization
Habitat: living beings from different areas cannot mate as they cannot possibly meet
either.
Behavioral: during the selection of a possible mate, individuals from different species
may discard each other as they dont have the same mating rituals.
Temporal: individuals from different species may be in season at different times in the
year so they wont be interested in copulating at the same time.
Mechanical: different species may have different sex organs which arent compatible.
Gametic: for fertilization to occur, the sperm must reach the ovum. In this case gametes
wont recognize each other and fertilization wont take place.

Post-Zygotic Barriers impedes mating after fertilization
Prevents viable, fertile offspring
Reduced hybrid viability embryo is unfertilized and will abort at some stage of
development
Hybrid breakdown first generation is fertile but second is not
Reduced hybrid fertility offspring is not fertile

Allopatric speciation
Other Country
Physical barrier
Interferes with gene flow

Sympatric speciation
Same country
Same geographical area
Gene flow continues

Level 9 Populations Continue to Evolve

Natural Selection
Directional selection - an extreme phenotype is favored over other phenotypes,
causing the allele frequency to shift over time in the direction of that phenotype
Stabilizing selection - genetic diversity decreases and the population mean
stabilizes on a particular trait value
Disruptive selection - extreme values for a trait are favored over intermediate
values

Sexual Selection
An organism's ability to obtain or successfully copulate with a mate
Intersexual selection
selection between the two sexes
selection based on one sex of the species preferring some characteristic in
the other sex of the species
Ex. Peacocks
Intrasexual selection
Selection within the same sex
Male animals compete against one another, physically, for access to females

Hybrid Zones - An area where two closely-related species continue to interact and
reproduce, forming hybrids
Over time, the hybrid zone may change depending on the fitness strength and
the reproductive barriers of the hybrids
Over time, the hybrids themselves can become a separate species

Galapagos Finches Darwins Finches
There about 14 different species of finches that make up Darwins finches
Led to his theories about natural selection




Level 10 Abiogenesis

Stromatolite - layered bio-chemical accretionary structures formed in shallow water by the
trapping, binding and cementation of sedimentary grains
Stromatolites provide the most ancient records of life on Earth by fossil remains which
date from more than 3.5 billion years ago

Miller-Urey Experiment
an experiment that simulated the conditions thought at the
time to be present on the early Earth, and tested for the
occurrence of chemical origins of life
experiment tested Alexander Oparins and J.B.S. Haldanes
hypothesis that conditions on primitive Earth favored chemical
reactions that synthesized more complex organic compounds
this experiment concerned abiogenesis
abiogenesis - the natural process by which life arose from
non-living matter such as simple organic compounds

LUCA (Last Universal Common Ancestor) - the most recent organism from which all
organisms now living on Earth descend
The LUA is estimated to have lived some 3.5 to 3.8 billion years ago
LUA was probably a small, single-cell organism

Monomers Protocell
A protocell is self-organized, endogenously ordered, spherical collection
of lipids proposed as a stepping-stone to the origin of life
Protobionts - systems that are considered to have possibly been the precursors to
prokaryotic cells
Protobionts exhibit some of the properties associated with life

Ribozymes (ribonucleic acid enzyme) an RNA molecule that is capable of catalyzing
specific biochemical reactions
Function within the ribosome to link amino acids during protein synthesis





Level 11 The Origin of Life
LUCA (Last Universal Common Ancestor) - the most recent organism from which all organisms now
living on Earth descend
The LUA is estimated to have lived some 3.5 to 3.8 billion years ago
LUA was probably a small, single-cell organism

Prokaryotic cells
Single celled organisms that are the earliest and most primitive forms of life on earth
Contain genetic material (DNA), not enclosed in a cellular compartment called the nucleus
Organized in the Three Domain System, prokaryotes include bacteria and archaeans
Bacteria among the first life forms to appear on earth
Archaea possess genes and several metabolic pathways that are more closely related to
those of eukaryotes
Plasmid membranes with lipid compositions
Live in extreme environments

Eukaryotic cells
Eukaryotic cells contain membrane-bound organelles, such as the nucleus
Cellular structure of eukaryotes include the presence of mitochondria and chloroplasts, the cell
wall, and the structure of chromosomal DNA.
Eukarya The domain comprised of eukaryotes or organisms whose cells contain a true
nucleus
Horizontal Gene Transfer - transfer of genes between organisms in a manner other than
traditional reproduction
Shown to be an important factor in the evolution of many organisms
Horizontal gene transfer is the primary reason for bacterial antibiotic resistance
horizontal gene transfer often involves temperate bacteriophages and plasmids4
Transformation - the uptake of naked DNA is a common mode of horizontal gene transfer
that can mediate the exchange of any part of a chromosome
Conjugation - the transfer of DNA mediated by conjugal plasmids. requires cell to cell
contact but can occur between distantly related bacteria or even bacteria and eukaryotic
cells;
Transduction - the transfer of DNA by phage requires that the donor and recipient share cell
surface receptors for phage binding.
DNA
DNA contains sugar deoxyribose
DNA is double stranded
DNA stores and transfers genetic info
DNA uses bases ATCG